6f 

7/ 




/■/ ukty/if/rrj'^ . 














THE HORSE AND OTHER LIVE STOCK. 



THE DISEASES TO WHICH THEY ARE RESPECTIVELY SUBJECT 
AND THE APPROPRIATE REMEDIES FOR EACH, 



TOGETHER WITH 



THEIR HISTORY. AND VARIETIES : THEIR CROSSING AND 

BREEDING, AND THE BEST METHODS FOR THEIR 

FEEDING AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT. 



THE WHOLE INTENDED A3 



A COMPLETE GUIDE TO FARMERS AND OTHERS, 

FOR BRINGING THEIR STOCK TO THE HIGHEST STATE OF PERFECTION 
AND OP PROFIT. 



BY KOBERT JENNINGS, V. S. 

PROFESSOR OF PATHOLOGY AND OPERATIVE SCRQERT IN THE VETERINART COLLEGB 

OF PHILADELPHIA ; LATE PROFESSOR OP VETERINARV MEDICINE IN THB 

AGRICULTURAL COLLEOE OF OHIO: SECRETARY OF THE AMERICAN 

VeIeRINARY association OF PHILADELPHIA, ETC., AUTHOB 

OP "HORSE TAMING MADE EASY," ETC., ETC. 



tith moxi than Wm fuinliial JUustnitions, 



PHILADELPHIA: 

JOHN E. POTTER & CO., 617 SANSOM STREET. 

BARTLESON <fc CO., Oil CHESTNUT STREET. 



liU 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by 

JOHN E. POTTER AND COMPANY, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, in and for the Eastern 
District of Pennsylvania. 



<3^ 






in 




PREFACE, 



This volume is offered to the consideration of the public, not 
without a knowledge on the part of the author that many excel- 
lent works upon the horse have already appeared. It has occurred 
to him, however, that each of these various works is devoted rather 
to the consideration of some particular topic of interest in connec- 
tion with this generous animal, than to a general treatment of the 
various subjects which appropriately claim notice in a work in- 
tended for the ordinary reader. 

There are comparatively few in our country who are not, at some 
period or other, brought into contact with the horse, either as 
owners, hirers, or in some other capacity. The great majority 
cannot avail themselves of the numerous treatises already extant, 
which touch ui^on this animal, without gathering about themselves 
a library so large as seriously to trench upon their pecuniary com- 
fort. Besides, so far as the ailments of the horse are concerned, 
much progress has been made in their treatment within the last 
few years. Old theories have been exploded, and, as the author 
believes, an era of a more humane and judicious medical treatment 
is dawning upon us. A marked improvement is discernible in the 
class of practitioners who essay the veterinary art ; a greater amount 
of intelligence characterizes their action, and, as a consequence, 
the occupation of the veterinary surgeon is fast rising in popular 
estimation. 

To these cheering indications of a better day for the horse and 
his owner, the author claims not to be indifferent. If an experi% 
ence of fifteen years, diligently devoted to an investigation of the 

(5) 



6 PREFACE. 

habits, peculiarities, wants, and weaknesses of the horse, has not 
been utterly fruitless in results, he flatters himself that he can at 
least contribute his mite in furtherance of a better understanding 
of an animal, which can never be too well undef stood by any one 
who would gain the greatest possible advantage from such a ser 
vant> 

With such views the author has prepared the present work. Its 
pages are believed to contain a complete, candid, and truthful ex- 
position of all the points which it is incumbent upon the horse- 
owner to comprehend. Standard authorities upon the subject have 
been freely consulted, and the suggestions therein contained have 
been adopted, when corroborated by the author's own experience 
or observation. Reference has been made to the following among 
others : — Percival, Blain, Morton, Clark, Finley Dunn, Youatt. 
Coleman, and Spooner, on the Horse ; Herbert's Horse of America, 
and Hints to Horsekeepers ; Stewart's Stable Economy; The Far- 
mer's Encyclopedia ; and the Morgan Horse by Linsley. 

The remedies recommended have all stood the test of actual trial, 
and are known to have proved efficacious in previous cases. As the 
author has no special hobby to ride, he has in this department of 
the subject given such modes of treatment only as he personally 
has superintended in actual practice, no matter from what source 
they may have been suggested. The very many illustrations 
throughout the volume it is believed will materially enhance its 
interest and value. 

With the hope that the work may meet the approval of the large 
class for whom it was specially prepared, and with the consciousness 
that no effort to that end has been omitted by the author, he con- 
fidently leaves it in their hands, to be dealt with as to them shall 
seem most meet and proper. 



CONTENTS. 



PAna 

aiSTOKT OP THE HORSE, 17 

Horses of 'Asia and Africa, 2t 

The Arabian 2* 

The Persian, 23 

The Tartarian ;. oj 

The Turkoman, 25 

The Turkish Horse, 25 

Horses of Hindostan, 26 

The Barb and others 2ff 

EcROPEAy Horses, 27 

The Racer 27 

The Hunter 27 

The Hackney, 27 

The Cart Horse, 28 

German, French, and Spanish Horses 29 

The American Horse, 30 

The American Blood Horse, 39 

The Vermont Draught Horse 57 

The Conestoga Horse, CO 

The Canadian Horse, 62 

The Indian Pony, 64 

The Narragansett Pacer, 6.5 

The Morgan Horse, 69 

Natural History of the Horse, 73 

BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT 102 

Breeding, , 1q2 

Breakinq 110 

Castration, II3. 

OOCKINO r 129 



0) 



8 CONTENTS. 

BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT— Coxtixued. Paqb 

KicKixii, 121 

The Stable, 125 

Am, 127 

Litter 130 

LiUHT 131 

Groomino, 133 

Exercise, • 135 

Food, 133 

Water, 153 

Pasturing, l^*' 

Service, 168 

Shoeing, 1"* 

Administerinq Medicine, '. 193 

VICES OF THE HORSE, ....'. 198 

Restivkness, 199 

BADi.Kisa OR Jibbing, ••' 199 

Biting : - 203 

Kicking, 204 

Rearing, 206 

Running Aw at, 207 

Vicious to Clean, 207 

Vicious to Shoe, 208 

Crib-biting 210 

WlND-SnCKING, 212 

Overreaching 212 

Not Lying Down 213 

Shying 214 

Pawing, 216 

Rolling, 217 

Slipping the Collar or Halter, ,217 

Stumbling, 21 S 

Unsteadiness while being Mounted, 5ily 

DISEASES, AND THEIR REMEDIES ...„....'.. 220 

Diseases of the Mouth 221 

Lampas, 221 

Inflamed Gnms, 222 

Bags or "Washes, * 222 

Ulcers ia the Mouth, 222 

Sore Mouth, 223 

Cut Tongue, ^ 224 



COM TENTS. 9 

DISEASES, AND THEIR REMEDIES— Continued. page 

Uoeveu Teeth, 224 

Qaidding 22.> 

Wolf Teeth, 226 

Caries of the Teeth 227 

Extracting Teeth 230 

Diseases of the Respiratory Oroans, 231 

Inflammation, 231 

Sore Throat, 232 

Strangies 231 

Chronic Cough 23.i 

Catarrh, 235 

Distemper, 237 

Influenza, 237 

Bronchitis, 240 

Nasal Gleet 241 

Pneumonia, , 243 

Pleurisy, 245 

Hydrothorax, , 217 

Thick Wind, 248 

Roaring and Whistling * 249 

Broken Wind, 219 

Diseases of the Stomach and Intestines 251 

Inflammation of the Stomach, , 2.Jl 

Inflammation of the Bowels, 252 

Diarrhoea 2.55 

Inordinate Appetite, 256 

Palsy of the Stomach, 257 

Rupture of the Stomach, 253 

Calculus, or Stony Concretions, 259 

Hair Ball, 260 

Strangulation of the Intestines, , 260 

Spasmodic Colic, 261 

Flatulent Colic, 262 

Worms, 263 

Bots„ 265 

Diseases of the Liver 26S 

Inflammation of the Liver 269 

Jaundice, ^ 270 

Hepatirrhoca, 271 

Decayed Structure of the Liver, 273 

Diseases of the Urinary Organs, 273 

Inflammation of the Bladder, 27a 



1 CONTENTS. 

DISEASES, AND THEIR REMEDIES— Continded. PAOB 

Retention of Urine 274 

Profuse Staling 273 

Bloody Urine 276 

Stones in the Kidneys 277 

Stones in the Bladder 27S 

Diseases of the Feet and Legs, 279 

Contraction of the Hoof, 279 

Corns 2S0 

Quitter, 2S2 

Thrush 282 

Canker 283 

Scratches, 284 

Grease Heels 284 

Water Farcy,. 286 

Weed, 287 

Cracked Hoof, 287 

Sole Bruise and Gravel, 288 

Pricking ■ 288 

False Quarter, •■ .' 289 

Founder, ,i,t, 290 

Pumiced Foot ■ .../... 291 

Corinitis 291 

Navicularthritis 292 

Ossification of the Lateral Cartilages, 293 

Wind Galls 294 

Sprung or Broken Knees, 294 

Breaking Down, 295 

Strains of the Knees, 295 

Strain of the Hip Joint, 296 

Shoulder Strain, 296 

Open Joints 297 

Sweenie 297 

Ostitis, 298 

Capulet and Capped Hock 299 

Caries of the Bones 299 

Bone Spavin, 300 

Ring Bone, 303 

Splint, 303 

Curb, 304 

String Halt, 305 

Blood Spavin, Bog Spavin, and Thoroughpin, 305 

Fractures,. «. SOe 



CONTENTS. 1 1 

DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES— Comtinued. I-aoe 

Diseases of the Heakt 307 

Pericarditis, 303 

Carditis, 310 

Endrocarditis, 310 

Diseases of the Head, 311 

Osteo-Sarcoma, 311 

Inflammatioa of the Brain 312 

Megrims, 313 

Vertigo, 314 

Epilepsy, 314 

Stomacli Staggers, 313 

Diseases of the Eye, 317 

Amaurosis, 317 

Inflammatiou of the Membraoa Mctitans, 318 

Simple Ophthalmia 319 

Specific Ophthalmia, 320 

Cataract, 321 

Wall Eye, 322 

MlSCELI.ASEODS DISEASES, 322 

Poll Evil, .Jl^a^i^^ 322 

Fistula of the Withers,! •'gan V 324 

Melanotic Tumors, v. 324 

Glanders, 325 

Farcy 327 

Scarlet Fever, 328 

Mange 329 

Surfeit, 331 

Hide Bound, 332 

Strains of the Loins, 332 

Palsy 333 

Locked Jaw, 333 

Rheumatism, 335 

Cramp, 336 

Hydrocele, 336 

Warts, 337 

Sit-Fasts, 327 

Warbles, 338 

Saddle or Harness Galls, ^ 338 

Mallanders and Sellenders, < 338 

Ulceration of the Udder 339 

Inflamed Veins, 339 

Sdkqicai, Cases 839 



12 CONTENTS. 

DISEASES AND THEIE REMEDIES— Continued. PAob 

Bleeding, 311 

Neui'otomy or Nerving, 342 

Lithotomy, ; 343 

Trephining, 345 

Tenotomy, 346 

Couching 346 

Tapping the Chest, 346 

Periosteotomy 347 

Amputation of the Penis 347 

(Esophagotomy, 348 

Hernia, 349 

Koweling, 350 

Firing, 351 

Tracheotomy, , 353 

EAREY'S METHOD OF TAMING HORSES, 353 

How TO Call a Colt from Pastuke, 356 

How TO Stable a Colt without Trouble, 357 

Approachinq a Colt, 362 

How to Halter AND Lead a CaT ., 364 

How to Tie cp a Colt ..../••. 367 

How TO Tame a Horse, 363 

How TO Make a Horse Lie Down, 369 

To Accustom a Horse to strange Sounds and Sights 370 

To Accustom a Horse to a Drum, 371 

To Teach a Horse to bear an Umbrella, 372 

To Fire off a Horse's Back,. 372 

How TO Accustom a Horse to a Bit, 372 

The proper Way to Bit a Colt 373 

How TO Saddle a Colt, 374 

How to Mount the Colt 376 

How TO Ride a Colt, 378 

How TO Break A Horse to Harness, 379 

WARRANTT , 382 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



*m* 

PAOH 

The Arab and his Steed, 17 

The Shetland Pony. — An English Sporting Scene, 21 

The Stallion „ 28 

American Farm Scene, 30 

The Canadian, 35 

Black Hawk, — An American Racer, 43 

American Plantation Scene, 47 

The Vermont Draught-Horse, 58 

A Conestoga. — The Great Pennsylvania Draught-Horse, 60 

Ethan Allen, — A Fast-trotting Morgan Horse, „. 69 

Skeleton of the Horse, as covered by the Muscles, 73 

Names applied to the various External Parts of the Horse, 80 

Eight Days' Teeth, 88 

Three or Four Months' Teeth, 88 

Teeth at Twelve Months, 90 

A Grinder sawed across, 90 

Two Years' Teeth, 91 

Three Years' Teeth, 92 

Four Years' Teeth, ; 94 

Five Years' Teeth, 95 

Six Years' Teeth 96 

Seven Years' Teeth, 97 

Eight or Nine Years' Teeth, 98 

Mare and Foal, 102 

The Arab Stallion, Jupiter, 105 

Breaking, 110 

The Agriculturist's Method, 117 

(13) 



14 ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PAOB 



The Usual Method, ;. , 123 

The French Method, 124 

Customary Forms of Stalls, 126 

Grooming, 133 

Exercise, * 136 

Out to Grass, 143 

The American Racer, Black Maria, 147 

Pasturing, 157 

Service 169 

Ground Surface of the Hoof, 175 

The Hoof of the Horse, 176 

A Section of the Foot, 177 

The Position of the Shoe, 187 

The Proper Form of a Shoe, 192 

Running Away, 198 

Particularly Dangerous, 204 

Muzzle for a Crib-Biter, 210 

Disagreeable and Dangerous 214 

The Sick Horse 220 

The Blooded Mare Fashion, and Foal 227 

The Saddle-Horse, 232 

Quiet Enjoyment, 237 

The Trotting-Horse, Lexington, 244 

The Attack and Defense, 251} 

Omar Pasha, the Turkish Chieftain - 256 

Sir Archy, the Godolphin of America, 262 

Common Gad-Fly or Bot, 265 

Eggs on a Hair, 266 

Eggs Magnified, 266 

Caterpillar, full size, 267 

Caterpillar or Larvae, adhering to the Lining of the Stomach,... 267 

The Red Gad-Fly, 268 

Caterpillar of the Red Gad-Fly, 268 

Virginia Mill-Boys on a Race, ••••• 273 

The Fast-Trotting tJtallion, Geo. M. Patclien, 279 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 15 

PAQE 

The Children's Pet, 285 

The Famous Trotting-Mare, Flora Temple, 292 

The Equestrienne, 298 

The High-Bred Pacing Mare, Pocahontas, 302 

The end of Pericarditis, 309 

Haying Scene, 316 

The Trotting Stallion, American Eclipse, 323 

The Three Friends 330 

Byron's Mazeppa, 335 

Lady Suffolk 341 

Good for Heavy Drafts, 349 

The Horse Tamed 353 

Bridle with a wooden Gag-bit for conquering vicious Horses,... 358 

Strap for the Right Fore-leg, 360 

Strap for the Off Fore-leg, 362 

Taming the Horse, 366 

Teaching the Horse to lie down, 370 

Striiggles of the Vicious Horse against lying down, 373 

Submission of the Horse, 377 

Breaking the Horse to Harness, ,„„ 380 




man, whether as a civilized being 
or aa a barbarian, no animal is more 
nsefnl than the horse. The beauty, 
giace, and dignity of this noble creature, when in a properly 
developed state, are as marked as his utility. As an intelligent 
animal, he ranks next in the scale to the dog, that other com- 
panion and friend of man. Taking into consideration, then, 
his usefulness, his attractive appearance, and his intelligence, 
what is known of his history cnnnot prove unacceptable. 
2 (IT) 



18 HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 

In order to ascertain the special land which can claim the 
proud honor of being the parent country, the birth-place of this 
noble animal, recourse must be had primarily to the pages of 
Scripture, as being the most ancient and best authenticated of 
all existing histories. By reference to those pages, we find 
that, although the ass was in early use among the children of 
Israel, the horse was unknown to them until after the com- 
mencement of their dwelling in Egypt ; and strong evidence 
exists for the belief that he was not brought into subjection, 
even in that country, until after their arrival. Clear it is, at 
all events, that Arabia, which many have supposed to be t^ie 
native home of the horse, did not possess him until within a 
comparatively recent period ; while his introduction into Greece, 
and thence into those countries of Europe and Asia in which 
he is now found, either wild or domesticated, may be traced 
with much certainty to an Egyptian source. 

Although in the history of Abraham frequent mention is 
made of the ass, of the camel, of flocks and herds, sheep and 
oxen, there is no allusion to the horse ; nor, indeed, do we 
find any such until we reach the time of Joseph. In the 
reign of that Pharaoh in whose service Joseph was, wagons 
were sent by the king's command into Canaan, to bring thence 
into Egypt Jacob and his sons, their wives and their little ones, 
during the prevalence of the famine against which Joseph had 
provided. It is not recorded that those wagons were drawn by 
horses ; but the inference that such was the fact is by no means 
irrational, when we remember that it was during the continu- 
ance of this famine that horses are first mentioned, having 
been taken by Joseph in exchange for bread from the Egyp- 
tian cultivators and cattle-breeders; that on the death of 



HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 19 

Jacob, his funeral was attended by "both chariots and horse- 
men ;" and lastly, that we know from the writings of Homer, 
and from the ancient sculptures of Persepolis and Nineveh, 
that the horse was used for purposes of draught for some time 
previous to his being ridden. 

From this time, the horse appears to have been speedily 
adopted for use in battle. At the Exodus, some fifteen hun- 
dred years before the Christian era, the pursuing army con- 
tained "six hundred chosen chariots, and all the chariots of 
Egypt," together with all the horsemen. And when the 
Israelites returned into Canaan, we find that the horse had 
already been naturalized iri that country, since the Canaanites 
" went out to fight against Israel with horses and chariots very 
many." 

From these considerations, and from the fact that, so late as 
six hundred years after this date, Arabia had still no horses, it 
is by no means an improbable conclusion that the shepherd 
kings of Egypt, whose origin is unknown, introduced the horse 
into Lower Egypt; and that, after this period, that country 
became the principal herding district of this animal, whence 
he was gradually introduced into Arabia and the adjoining 
Asiatic countries. From the same stock is doubtless derived 
the entire race in all the southeastern parts of Europe. As 
Egypt is not, in any respect, a favorable country for horse- 
breeding, still less for his original existence in a state of na- 
ture, the source whence he was first introduced into that coun- 
try is in some degree enveloped inr uncertainty ; though the 
better opinion, based upon much indirect testimony, is that he 
was an original native of the soil of Africa, which alone was 



20 HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 

the parent country of the Zebra and the Quagga — in some 
sort his kia. 

It is questionable whether the horse is still to be found in a 
state of nature in Arabia ; although it is asserted that they 
exist thinly scattered in the deserts, and that they are hunted 
by the Bedouins for their flesh, and also for the purpose of 
improving their inferior breeds by a different kind of blood. 
In central Africa, however, whence the horse is supposed to 
have been first introduced into Egypt, and thence into Arabia, 
Europe, and the East, wild horses still roam untamed far to 
the southward of the great desert of Sahara, where they were 
seen by Mungo Park in large droves. 

At the period of the first Roman invasion, the horse was 
domesticated in Britain, and in such numbers, that a large 
portion of the forces which resisted the invaders were chariot- 
eers and cavalry. 

In Europe, however, with but few exceptions, the horse, 
for purposes of warfare, was slowly, and not till the lapse of 
ages, brought into use : even the Spartans, the Athenians, 
and the Thebans, when at the height of their military renown, 
having but inferior and scanty cavalry services. 

In the oldest sculptures probably in existence, — those re- 
moved by Layard from the ruins of Nineveh, and illustrative 
of almost every phase of regal and military life, — the horse^ is 
uniformly represented as a remarkably high-crested, large- 
headed, heavy-shouldered animal : rather long-bodied ; power- 
fully limbed ; his neck clothed with volumes of shaggy mane, 
often plaited into regular and fanciful braids ; and his tail 
coarse and abundant, frequently ornamented similarly to his 
own mane and to the beard and hair of his driver — an ani- 



iriSTOKY OF THE HOUSE. 



21 



mal, indeed, as unlike as possible to the lovv-statured, delicate- 
limbed, small-headed Arabs and barbs of modern days, with 
their basin-faces, large fnll eyes, and long, thin manes, from 
which the blood-horse of our times has derived his peculiar 
excellence. The same remarks may, in the main, be made as 
to the Greek and Roman horse, from 
the representations which have come 
down to us. The English blood-horse, 
beingconfessedlji 
the most perfect 
animal of hia 
race in the whole 
world, both for 
speed and endur- 
ance, and the 
American blood- 




THE SHETLAND PONT. — AN ENGLISH SPORTINS ICENB. 

horse directly tracing without mixture to English, and through 
the English to Oriental parentage, some account of the former 
variety may be of interest to the reader. 

It has already been remarked that large numbers of horses 
were found in Britain at the first Roman invasion. It is to be 
added, that Caesar thought them so valuable that he carried 



22 HISTOBY OF THE HORSE. 

many of them to Rome : and the British horses werC; for a 
considerable period afterward, in great demand in various 
parts of the Roman Empire. After the evacuation of En- 
gland by the Romans and its conquest by the Saxons, consider- 
able attention Avas puid to the English breed of horses ; find 
after the reign of Alfred, running horses were imported from 
Germany, this being the first intimation given us in history of 
running horses in England. English horses, after this, were 
so highly prized upon the Continent, that, in order to preserve 
the monopoly of the breed, in a.d. 930 a law v?as passed, pro- 
hibiting the exportation of the animal. In Athelstan's reign 
many Spanish horses were imported ; and William the Con- 
queror introduced many fine animals from Normandy, Flan- 
ders, and Spain, — circumstances which show the strong desire, 
even at that early period, to improve the English breed. In 
the reign of Henry I. is the first account of the importation 
of the Arab horse into the country, at which time it is evident 
that the English had become sensible of the value and breed 
of their horse : and in the twelfth century a race-course had 
been established in London, — namely, Smithfield, — at once 
horse-market and race-course. 

King John imported Flemish horses for the improvement of 
the breed for agricultural purposes ; and in his reign is found 
the origin of the draught-horse now in general use in that 
country. Edward II. and Edward III. imported horses for the 
improvement of the stock, the latter introducing fifty Spanish 
horses. In the reign of Henry VII., the exportation of stal- 
lions was prohibited ; but that of mares was allowed, when 
more than two years old, and under the value of six shillings 
and eight pence. In the reign of Henry VIII., many very 



HISTORY OF THE HOKSE. 23 

arbitrary statutes were passed for the improvement of the 
horse ; and it was during the same period that an annual race 
was run at Chester. In the reign of Elizabeth, the number 
and breed appear to have degenerated ; for it is stated that 
she could collect but three thousand horse throughout her 
realm to resist the invasion of Don Philip. 

With the accession of James I. to the throne, a great im- 
provement was systematically wrought in the English breed ; 
and from this period a constant and progressive attention was 
paid to the matter of breeding. This monarch purchased an 
Arabian horse at the then extraordinary price of five hun- 
dred pounds ; feut he proving deficient in speed, Arabians 
for a time fell into disrepute. Race meetings were then held 
at various places (Newmarket, among others) throughout the 
kingdom, the races being mostly matches against time, or trials 
of speed or bottom for absurdly long and cruel distances. 

Although Cromwell, during his Protectorate, was obliged 
to forbid racing, yet he was an ardent lover of the horse, an 
earnest patron of all pertaining to horsemanship, and to his 
strenuous exertions the present superior condition of the En- 
glish blood-horse is in no small degree owing. 

Before proceeding to the history of the American horse — 
which is our main concern in the present branch of this 
work — a concise summary of the difTerent varieties of this use- 
ful quadruped cannot fail to interest. We comraeace with the 
horse of Asia. 



24 HISTORY OF THE UOKSE. 



HORSES OF ASIA AND AFRICA. 



THE ARABIAM". 

In this country tlie horse, even iu its wild state, (in which 
condition, as before remarked, it is rarely found,) is possessed 
of a beautiful symmetry of form, and a disposition of the 
greatest gentleness and generosity. His size is small, averag- 
ing iu height generally between thirteen and fourteen hands, 
(the hand being reckoned at about four inches of our measure) ; 
color a dappled grey, though sometimes a dark brown ; mane 
and tail short and black. The only mode of*capturing him is 
by snares carefully concealed in the sand, as his exceeding 
swiftness prevents all possibility of taking him by the chase. 
The fondness of the Arab for his steed is well known, having 
long since passed into a proverb. The horse of the poorest 
wanderer of the desert shares with his master and his family 
every attention and caress which the strongest attachment can 
prompt. Mares are always preferred by the Arab to horses, 
as they endure fatigue and the hardships incident to a desert 
life much more patiently, and they can be kept together iu 
greater numbers without the risk of quarrels and mutual in- 
juries. Great attention is paid to the coat of the animal. He 
ii carefully washed each morning and evening, or after a long 
ride ; is fed only during the night, receiving throughout the 
day nothing but one or two drinks of water. 

The head of the pure Arab is light, well made, wide be- 
tween the nostrils, forehead broad, muzzle short and fine, nos- 
trils expanded and transparent, eyes prominent and sparkling, 
ears small ; neck somewhat short ; shoulders high and well 



HORSES OP ASIA AND AFRICA. ' 25 

throwa back ; withers high and arched ; legs fine, flat, aud 
small-boaed, aud the body soqaewhat light. 



THE PERSIAN. 

• This horse is slightly taller than the Arab : is full of bone, 
and very fast. The Persian feeds his horse as does the Arab, 
the food given being coarse and scant. Hay is utterly un- 
known for the purpose, barley and chopped straw being gener- 
ally substituted. Although this variety is in most respects less 
esteemed than the Arab, it is in some points its superior. 



THE TAETAKIAN. 

Like the Persian, this variety is swift ; but the horses are 
heavy-headed, low-shouldered, and altogether very awkwardly 
put together. The Tartars eat the flesh of their horses aud 
use the milk of their mares, from which they also make excel- 
lent cheese. 



THE TURKOMAN-, 

. This is a variety of the Tartar, but superior to it ; bringing, 
even in Persia, frequently from five hundred to a thousand dol- 
lars. Its average height is some fifteen hands, and in general 
appearance it bears a strong resemblance to a well-bred En- 
glish carriage-horse. Though possessed of considerable speed, 
it is not enduring. This variety is often foisted upon the 
ignorant as the pure Arabian. 



THE TURKISH HORSE. 

This horse is a cross between the Persian and the Arabian, 
and is of slender build, carrying his head high, lively and 
fiery, and possessing a gentle and affectionate disposition. 
The tail of the horse is regarded in Turkey aud Persia as a 



26 HORSES OP ASIA AND AFRICA. 

badge of dignity, princes measuring their rank by the number 
of tails they carry ; those of th& highest rank being allowed 
three. 

HORSES OF HINDOSTAN. 

In India, tl^e horse, owing to the peculiar climate of the 
country, is invariably found to degenerate, unless great atten- 
tion be paid to breeding. The principal breeds are the Tazee, 
the Takan, the Folaree, the Cutch, and the Dattywarr. 

Passing from the Asiatic horses to the African, it is to be 
remarked that Egypt has long since lost its character as a 
breeding country, its horses being justly deemed much inferior 
to those of Persia, Barbary, or Arabia. 



THE BABB, AND OTHEKS. 

This variety — the principal of the African race — is taller 
than the Arabian, and is remarkable for the height and fullness 
of its shoulders, drooping of the haunches, and roundness of 
the barrel. 

The Bornou race, in the central parts of Africa, is described 
as possessing the qualities of the Arabian with the beauty of 
the Barb ; as being fine in shoulder and of general elegance 
of form. The Nubian horses are stated by travelers to be 
even superior to the Arabian. Dongola has a noticeable 
breed, of large size, their chief peculiarities being extreme 
shortness of body, length of neck, height of crest, and a 
beautiful forehand. 



HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 27 



EUROPEAN HORSES. 



THE RACER. 

As the varieties of the horse in Great Britain are the most 
noticeable of any in Europe, we append a brief description of 
the principal breeds at present in use. 

The Racer, which excels, in beauty, speed, and endurance, 
that of all other nations, was gradually formed by the intro- 
duction of the best blood of Spain, Barbary, Turkey, and 
Arabia, and bears a strong family likeness to each. The cha- 
racteristics of this breed are a high and lofty head, bright and 
fearless eye, small ear, expanded nostril ; arched neck, curved 
on the upper surface, with no curve underneath ; the neck 
gracefully set on ; the shoulder lengthened, oblique, and lying 
well back ; the quarters ample and muscular ; the fore-legs 
straight and fine, but with sufficient bone ; the hinder legs 
well bent, and the pasterns long and springy. 



THE HUNTER. 

The best horses of this breed stand fifteen or sixteen hands 
high : head small ; neck thin, especially beneath the crest, firm 
and arched ; and jaws wide ; lofty forehead ; shoulders as ex- 
tensive and oblique as that of the racer, and somewhat thicker; 
broad chest ; muscular arm ; leg shorter than that of the 
racer; body also more short andNCorapact; loins broad ; quar- 
ters long; thighs muscular; hocks well bent, and under the 
horse. 

THE HACKNEY. 

This horse is still more compact than the hunter, with more 



28 



EUROPEAN HORSES. 



substance in proportion to his height ;' forehead light and 
high ; head small, and placed taperiugly upon the neck ; 
shoulders deep and spacious, lying well back ; back straight, 
loins strong ; fillets wide, and withers well raised. Too high 
breeding is considered objectionable in this species, as being 
ill adapted for ordinary riding upon the road. 



THE CART HORSE. 

The principal varieties of this class, are the Cleveland, the 
Clydesdale, the Northamptonshire, the Suffolk Punch, and the 

heavy black or dray 
horse. The Clydesdale 
breed obtains its name 
from being bred chiefly 
._. ._ in the valley of 
the Clyde. They 
are strong and 
hardy, have a 
small head, are 
longer necked 
than the Suffolk, 
with deeper legs 
and lighter bodies. 
The Suffolk Punch 
originated by crossing the Suffolk cart mare with the Norman 
stallion. Its color is yellowish or sorrel ; large head, wide 
between the ears, muzzle rather coarse, back long and straight, 
sides flat, fore-end low, shoulders thrown much forward, high 
at the hips, round legs, short pasterns, deep-bellied, and full 
barrel. The modern-bred cart horse of England, originated 




THE STALLION. 



EUROPEAN HORSES. 



29 



from a cross with the Yorkshire half-bred stallion, and is of 
much lighter form, and stands much higher. This horse is 
hardy and usefnl, kindly, and a good feeder. The heavy 
black horse is chiefly bred in Lincolnshire and the Midland 
!oanties. 



GEHMAN, FRENCH, AND SPANISH HOES 33. 

The horses of Germany, with the exception of the Hungar- 
ian, are generally large, heavy, and slow. The Prussian, 
German, and the -greater part of the French cavalry, are pro- 
cured from Holstein. They are of a dark glossy bay color, 
with small heads, large nostrils, and full dark eyes, being 
beautiful, active, and strong. 

The horses of Sweden and Finland are small, but beautiful, 
and remarkable for their speed and spirit ; those of Finland 
being not more than twelve hands high, yet trotting along 
with ease at the rate of twelve miles an hour. 

The Iceland horse is either of Norwegian or Scottish 
descent. They are very small, strong, and swift. Thousands 
of them live upon the mountains of that barren country, never 
enteri»g a stable, but taught by instinct or habit to scrape 
away the snow, or break the ice, in quest of their meagre food. 

The Flemish and Dutch horses are large, and strongly and 
beautifully formed. The best blood of draught /lorses is 
owing, in a great degree, to crosses with these. 

The best French horses are bred in Limousin and Xor- 
•jnandy ; the provinces of Auvergne and Poltou producing 
ponys and galloways, which are excellent saddle-horses and 
1) oncers. 

T^e Spanish horse of other dnys, as the Andalusian charger 



30 



THE AMERICAN HORSE. 



and the Spanish jennets, exists but in history or romance. 
The modern Spanish horse resembles the Yorkshire half-bred, 
with flatter legs and better feet, but a far inferior figure. 

The Italian horses, particularly the Neapolitan, were once 
in high repute ; but, owing mainly to intermixtures of Euro- 
pean, rather than Eastern blood, they have sadly degenerated. 



THE AMERICAN HORSE. 

At a very remote period in the history of America, the horse 
began to be imported from Europe by the earliest settlers ; it 
_^^^p- ,^_ being conceded that, although 

the horse had, at some former 
^ time, existed on this continent, 
as is proved by his fossil remains, 
which have been found in abund- 
ance in various parts of the 
country, he had become extinct 
previous to its colonization by 
the white nations. 

It is generally believed that 
the horses which are found in 
a wild state on the pampas or 
})lains of South America, and the prairies of North America, 
as far east as to the Mississippi River, are the descendants of 
the parents set loose by the Spaniards at the abandonment 
of Buenos Ayres. This opinion, however, is combated by 
some, on the ground that this date is too recent to account 




AHERICAN FARV SCENE. 



THE AMERICAN HORSE. 31 

for the vast nnracrical increase, and the great hordes of these 
animals now existing in a state of nature ; and they are in- 
clined to ascribe their origin to animals escaped, or voluntarily 
set at liberty, in the earlier expeditions and wars of the Span- 
ish invaders, the cavalry of that nation consisting entirely of 
perfect horses or mares. 

An opportunity for such an origin must undoubtedly have 
been furnished in the bloody wars of Mexico and Peru ; since 
upon the issue of many battles, which were disastrous to the 
Spaniards, the wqj-horses, their riders being slain, could have 
recovered their freedom and prapagated their species rapidly 
in the wide, luxuriant, and well-watered plains, where the 
abundance of food, the genial climate, and the absence of 
beasts of prey capable of successfully contending with so 
powerful an animal as the horse, would favor their rapid in- 
crease. 

We know, moreover, that De Soto had a large force of cav- 
alry in that expedition in which he discovered the Mississippi, 
and found a grave in its bosom ,• and when his warriors re- 
lumed home in barques which they built on the banks of the 
'• Father of waters," there can be little doubt that their 
chargers must have been abandoned, since their slender vessels, 
liuilt by inexperienced hands fur the sole purpose of saving 
their own lives, must have been incapable of containing their 
steeds. 

The first horses imported to America for the purpose of 
creating a stock, were brought by Columbus, in 1493, in his 
second voyage to the islands. The first landed iu the United 
States, were introduced into Florida in 1527, by Cabeca de 
Vaca, forty-two in number; but these all perished cv wen 



32 THE AMERICAN HORSE. 

killed. The next importation was that of De Soto, before 
mentioned, to which is doubtless to be attributed the origin of 
the. wild horses of Texas and the prairies, a race strongly 
marked to this day by the characteristics o| Spanish blood. 

In 1604, L'Escarbot, a French lawyer, brought horses and 
other domestic animals into Acadia; and in 1608, the French, 
then engaged in colonizing Canada, introduced horses into 
that country, where the present race, though somewhat de- 
generated in size, owing probably to the inclemency of the 
climate, still "shows the blood, sufficiently distinct, of the 
Norman and Breton breeds. 

In 1609, the English ships landing at Jamestown, in Yir- 
ginia, brought, besides swine, sheep, and cattle, six mares and 
a horse; and in 1657, the importance of increasing the stock 
of this valuable animal was so fully recognized, that an act 
was passed, prohibiting its exportation from the province. 

In 1629, horses and mares were brought into the plantations 
of Massachusetts Bay, by one Francis Higginson, formerly of 
Leicestershire, England, from which county many of tie 
animals were imported. New York first received its horses in 
1625, imported from Holland by the Dutch West India Com- 
pany, probably of the Flanders breed, though few traces of 
that breed yet exist, unless they are to be found in the Cones- 
toga horse of Pennsylvania, which shows some affinity to it, 
either directly or through the English dray-horse, which latter 
is believed to be originally of Flemish origin. 

In 1750, the French of Illinois procured considerable num- 
bers of French horses; and since that time, as the science of 
agriculture has improved and advanced, pure animals of many 
distinct breeds have been constantly imported into this country, 



THE AMERICAN HORSE. 33 

which have created in different sections and districts distinct 
families, easily recognized, — as the horses of Massachusetts 
and Vermont, admirable for their qualities as draft-horses, 
powerful, active, and capable of quick as well as heavy work ; 
the Conestogas, excellent for ponderous, slow efforts, in team- 
ing and the like ; and the active, wiry horses of the West, well!' 
adapted for riding, and being in most general use for American 
cavalry purposes. 

It is evident, then, that the original stock of the unimproved 
American horse" is the result of a mixture of breeds ; the 
French, the Spanish, the Flemish, and the English horses 
having all sent their representatives to some one portion at 
least, of the United States and British Provinces, and proba- 
bly still prevailing to a considerable degree in some locations, 
though nowhere wholly unmixed — while, in others, they have 
become so thoroughly mixed and amalgamated, that their 
identity can no longer be discovered. 

In New York, for example, the early importations of tho- 
rough blood, and the constant support of horse-racing, appear 
to have so changed the original Dutch or Flemish stock, that 
the characteristic of her horses is that of the English race, 
with .a decided admixture of good blood. In Massachusetts, 
Vermont, and the Eastern States generally, the Cleveland bay, 
and a cross between that and the English dray-horse blood, 
with some small admixture of thorough blood, predominate, 
lu Pennsylvania, the most distinct breed appears to be of 
Flemish and English dray-horse origin. In Maryland. Vir- 
ginia, and South Carolina, English thorough blood prevails to 
a great extent ; so much so as to render the inferior class of 
working horses undersized. In Louisiana, and many of the 

3 • 



34 THE AMERICAN HORSE. 

Western States, French and Spanish blood partly prevail, 
though with a mixture of English blood. It may, in short, be 
generally assumed that, with the exception of the thorough- 
breds, there is scarcely any breed in any part of America 
wholly pure and unmixed ; and that there are very few animals 
anywhere, which have not some mixture, greater or less, of 
the hot blood of the East, transmitted through the English 
race-horse. 

Indeed, with the exception of the Conestoga horse, there is, 
in Ihe United States, no purely-bred draft or cart-horse, nor 
any breed whiclx is kept entirely for labor in the field or on 
the road, without a view to being used at times for quicker 
work, and for purposes of pleasure or travel. Every horse, 
for the most part, bred in America, is intended to be, in some 
sense, used upon the road ; and it is but asserting a well-known 
fact, when we say, that for docility, temper, soundness of con- 
stitution, endurance of fatigue, hardiness, sure-footedness. and 
speed, the American roadster is not to be excelled, if equaled, 
by any horse in the entire world not purely thorough-bred. 

Of roadsters, two or three families have obtained, in different 
localities, decided reputations for different peculiar qualities : 
such as the Nari^agansett pacers, the families known as the 
Morgan and Black Hawk, the Canadian, and generally what 
may be called trotters. No one of these, however, with the 
single exception of the Narragan setts, appears to have any 
real claim to be deemed a distinctive family, or to be regarded 
as capable of transmitting its qualities in line of hereditary 
descent, by breeding within itself, without further crosses with 
higher and hotter blood. 

Of the Narragansetts, but little can be said with certainty ; 



THE AMERICAN HORSE. 



35 



for there is reason to believe that, as a distinct variety, with 
natural powers of pacing, they are extinct ; and their origin 
is, in some degree, uncertain. The other families clearly owe 
their merits to a remote infusion of thorough-blood, perhaps 
amounting to one-fourth, or one-third part, some three or foui' 
generations back. 

The original Canadians were, doubtless, of pure Norman 
and Breton descent ; but, since the Canadas 
have been under British rule, they also 




THE CANADIAW. 



have been largely mixed with, and much improved by, the intro- 
duction of a pure blood ; so that the animals which in late 
years 'pass here under the name of Canadians, such as Moscow, 
Lady Moscow, and many others of that name, are Canadians 
only in name, differing from other American roadsters simply 
in the fact that they have, for the most part, only two crosses 



36 THE AMERICAN HORSE. 

of the Norman and pure Euglish blood, while the ordinary 
road-horse of the United States is perhaps a combination of 
several distinct English families, with French, Spanish, and 
Flemish crosses, besides an infusion of thorough-blood. 

Of trotters, there is certainly no distinctive breed or family, 
or mode of breeding. The power, the style, the action, the 
mode of going, are the points regarded ; and it is most pro^ 
bable, that the speed and the endurance, both of weight and 
distance, depend, more or less, on the greater or inferior 
degree of blood in the animal. 

Indeed, the wonderful superiority of the American roadster 
is attributable to the great popularity of trotting in this 
country, to the great excellence of the trotting-trainers, drivers, 
and riders, arising from that popularity, and to the employ- 
ment of all the very best half and three-quarter-part bred 
horses in the land for trotting purposes, none being turned 
from that use for the hunting-field or park-riding. 

The general American horse, as compared witii the English 
horse, is inferior in height of the forehand, in the loftiness and 
thinness of the withers, and in the settiqg-on and carriage of 
the neck and crest; while he is superior in the general develop- 
ment of his quarters, in the let-down of his hams, and in his 
height behind ; and further remarkable for his formation, ap- 
proaching what is often seen in the Irish horse, and known as 
the goose-rump. Even the American racer stands very much 
higher behind and lower before than his English fellow. 

Another point in which the American horse of all conditions 
differs extremely and most advantageously from the European 
animal, is his greater sure-footedness and freedom from the 
dangerous vice of stumbling. Any one can satisfactorily con- 



THE AMERICAN HORSE. 3Y 

vince himself of this, by comparing the knees of hack-horses 
let for hire, either in the cities or rural villages of the United 
States, with those of similar English localities. la this coun- 
try, a broken knee is one of the very rarest blemishes encoun- 
tered in a horse ; while of horses let for hire in England, with 
the exception of those let by a few crack livery-keepers in 
London, in the Universities, and in one or two other of the 
most important towns in hunting neighborhoods, a majority 
are decidedly broken-kneed. 

The exeraptfon of the horse, on this side of the Atlantic, 
from this fault, is ascribable: first, to the fact, that both the 
pasture-lands and the roads here are far rougher, more broken 
in surface, and more interrupted by stones, stumps, and other 
obstacles, than in the longer cultivated and more finished coun- 
tries of Europe, which teaches young horses to bend their 
knees, and throw their legs more freely while playing with the 
dams in the field ; and also to lift and set down their feet with 
much greater caution even on our great thoroughfares j 
secondly, to the higher blood and breed of riding-horses in 
England, which are often cantering thorough breds, liable to 
be unsafe travelers on the road ; and lastly, to the well-known 
circumstance, that most of the hired horses are roadsters — these 
are worn-out or broken-down animals of a higher caste, which 
are deemed, by reason of their disqualification for a higher 
position, fit for a secondary one, although suited to none, and 
dangerous in any. 

To this admirable quality of the American horse, must be 
added his extreme good temper and docility, in which he un- 
deniably excels any other horse in the world. From the first 
childhood of the animal until he is fully put to work, he re- 



38 THE AMERICAN HORSE 

quires and receives little or no breaking, unless he show quali- 
ties which promise such speed or endurance as to render it 
advisable to train him as a trotter. Even when this is done, 
it is for the purpose of developing his powers, getting him to 
exert himself to the utmost, and teaching him how to move to 
the best advantage ; and not to render him submissive, easy of 
management, or gentle to be handled. There is scarcely ever 
any difficulty in saddling, in harnessing, in backing, or in in • 
ducing him to go. He may be awkward at first, uncouth, shy, 
and timid ; but he is never, one may almost say, violent, spas' 
modic in his actions, and fierce. 

It is true that horses are treated, for the most part, with 
superior judgment and greater humanity in the United States ; 
that the whip is little used, and the spur almost unknown ; 
still the whole of this remarkable difference in temper, on the 
part of the American horse, cannot be attributed to the differ- 
ence of treatment. 

As he begins, moreover, he continues to the end. One 
rarely encounters a kicker, a runaway, an inveterate shyer, or 
balker, and hardly ever a furious animal, not to be approached, 
save at the risk of limb or life, in an American horse of any 
class or condition. 

Probably this fact may, in some respects, be attributed to 
the less high strain of blood in the American roadster, and 
still more to the hardier and less stimulating mode of treatment 
to which he is subjected. The heating treatment to which the 
English horse is subjected, unquestionably deprives him, in 
some degree, of the power of enduring long-protracted exer- 
tion, privation, hardship, and the inclemency of the weather j 
and the pampering, high feeding, excessive grooming, and 



THE AMERICAN BLOOD-HORSE. 39 

general maintenance of horses in an unnatural and excited 
state of spirits has, assuredly, an injurious effect upon the 
general temper of the animal ; though not, perhaps, so greatly 
as to account for all the difference to which allusion has just 
been made. 

Having premised thus much, in general terms, of the history 
and p&culiarities of the general American horse, we will next 
take up the leading varieties which obtain in this country, 
commencing with 

THE AMERICAlSr BLOOD-HOESE. 

Unlike the human race of the United States, unlike the 
ordinary working horse, unlike the cattle and most of the do- 
mestic animals of North America — which cannot be traced or 
said to belong to any single distinct breed or family, having 
originated from the combination and amalgamation of many 
bloods and stocks, derived from many different countries — the 
blood-horse, or racer, of America stands alone, unquestionably 
of pure English thorough-blood. 

What that English thorough-blood is, it is only necessary 
here to say that, although it is not possible, in every instance, 
to trace the great progenitors of the English and American 
turf, directly on both sides, to Desert blood ; and although it 
can scarcely be doubted that, in the very commencement of 
turf-breeding, there must have been some mixture of the best 
old English blood, probably, in great part, Spanish by descent, 
with the true Arab or Barb race ; yet the impure admixture 
is so exceedingly remote, not within fourteen or fifteen genera- 
tions — since which the smallest taint has been carefully ex- 
cluded — that the present race-horse of England or North 



40 THE AMERICAN BLOOD-HORSE. 

America, cannot possess above one sixteen-thousanclth part of 
any other blood than that of the Desert. 

Nor can it be doubted, that the modern thorough-bred is 
far superior to the present horse of the East in his qualities 
and powers, as he is in size, bone, strength, and ability to 
carry weight. It is to this very superiority of our thorough- 
bred, which has been proved wherever It has encountered the 
Oriental horse, that it must be ascribed, that no late cross of 
Arab blood has, in the slightest degree, improved the Euro- 
pean or American racer. 

It seems now to be a conceded point, that to improve any 
61ood, the sire must be the superior animal ; and, since by care, 
cultivation, superior food, and better management, our descend- 
ant of Desert blood has been developed into an animal supe- 
rior to his progenitors, mares of the improved race can gain 
nothing by being crossed with the original stock ; although it 
is yet to be seen, whether something might not be effected by 
the importation of Oriental mares, and breeding them judiciously 
to modern thorough-bred stallions. 

It has been already stated, that the first systematic attempts 
at improving the blood of the English horse began in the reign 
of King James I., was continued in that of Charles I. and 
during the Commonwealth, and advanced with renewed spirit 
on the restoration of the Stuarts. In the reign of Queen Anne, 
the last of that house who occupied the English throne, the 
English thorough-bred horse may be regarded as fairly estab- 
lished ; the Darley Arabian, sire of Flying Childers, Curwen's 
Barb, and Lord Carlisle's Turk, sire of the Bald Galloway, 
being imported in her reign. Sixteen years after her death, 
and three years before the settlement of Georgia, the youngest 



TilE AMERICAN BLOOD-HORSE. 41 

of the original American colonies, twenty-one foreign, and fifty 
native stallions, some of them the most celebrated horses which 
the world has ever seen, were in service as stock-getters in the 
United Kingdom ; and from some of those are descended all 
our racers of the present day. 

' It was precisely during this period that the American colo- 
nies were planted ; and, as might be anticipated, English horses 
of pure blood were introduced at a very early date. Indeed, 
in those sections where the settlement was mainly effected by 
men attached to Ihe Cavalier party, race-horses were kept and 
trained, race-courses were established, and a well-authenticated 
stock of thorough-bred animals, tracing to the most celebrated 
English sires, many of which were imported in the early part 
of the eighteenth century, was in existence for some time before 
the outbreak of the old French war. 

In the Eastern States, whose settlers were mainly attached 
to the Puritan party, and therefore opposed in an especial man- 
ner to horse-racing, very few horses of thorough blood were im- 
ported. 

In Virginia and Maryland, as the head-quarters of the Cav- 
aliers, it is probable that racing commenced simultaneouvsly, or 
nearly so ; it being an attribute of the principal towns of 
Maryland some years prior to Braddock's defeat in 1753. 
In the latter State, indeed, it appears for some time to have 
been considered a [)art of the duty of the Governor to keep a 
racing stud; since no less than five successive governors were 
all determined turfmen and supporters of the American racing 
interest. 

As our Revolutionary War interrupted the peaceful progress 
of the country and the avocations of our country gentlemen at 



42 THE AMERICAN BLOOD-HORSE. 

SO early a period in the history of the American Tnrf, the dif- 
ficulty of ascertaining how far records or registries have been 
preserved, or were kept from the first, has been materially en- 
hanced. Yet, on the whole, it may be regarded as remarkable 
rather that so many pedigrees can be unequivocally followed 
out, than that a few should be obscure and untraceable farther 
than to an imported mare. Indeed, it must be granted as a fact 
which cannot be questioned or doubted, fully established both 
by their own performances and by the unfailing transmission of 
their hereditary qualities, that our American horses are as cer- 
tainly thorough-bred as are any of those English champions, 
whose blood no one ever dreams of disputing, which go back, 
like that of Eclipse himself, or many others of equal renown, to 
an unknown dam or sire. 

From Virginia and Maryland, the racing spirit extended 
rapidly into the Carolinas, where it has never to this day flagged. 
The oldest race-courses in this country, which are yet kept up 
for purposes of sport, are the Newmarket course, near Peters- 
burg, Virginia ; and the Washington course, near Charleston, 
South Carolina. At Alexandria, D. C, there was a race-course 
early in the last century, and the courses in the neighborhood 
of Richmond have been in existence above seventy years. 

It was not until about the commencement of the present cen- 
tury, that what njay be called race-courses proper were estab- 
lished in New York ; the first club for the promotion of the breed 
of horses by means of racing dating from 1804 ; although long 
previously the improvement of the breed of horses had created 
much interest in that State, celebrated stock-getters having 
been imported as early as 1164 and 1705. 

Into Pennsylvania, a State which has never particularly dis- 



THE AMERICAN BLOOD-HORSE. 



43 



tinguished itself in the racing turf, were brought at an early 
date two horses, Gray Northumberland (also called Irish Gray), 
and Old England ; to these must be given the credit of running 
one of the oldest great American time-races on record, as long 
ago as 11 G1, against two other horses, Selim and Granby, 

Although the use of the horse for merely racing purposed 

does not at present obtain to as great an extent with us as in 

England — a circumstance which can be readily accounted for 

.„-^^te=^fc from the prejudice which many entertain 




BLACK HAWK — AN AMERICAIT RACEB. 



against such a use, owing to the objectionable accompaniments 
which are too often found in connection with it — still it should 
not be forgotten, that the advantage to be derived from the 
thorough-bred horse depends upon far more than his applica- 
bility to the turf and his fitness for racing purposes. Were it 
otherwise, it would scarcely be worth, while to devote the space 



i4 

THE AMERICAN BLOOD-HORSE, 

to the consideration of this topic which has, by- common con- 
sent, been deemed indispensable. 

The truth is, that the race-course was not, in the beginning, 
so much as thought of as a scene for the display of the high 
qualities of this animal ; much less was racing considered by 
our ancestors as an end for which they imported the Eastern 
horse into Europe. It was for the improvement of the native 
stock of horses in the various European Kingdoms, by giving 
to them sp^ed and endurance, — in which respects no other breed 
can compare with them, — that the Asiatic and North- African 
horse was so eagerly sought by the monarchs, especially of Eng- 
land, during the seventeenth, and the early part of the eigh- 
teenth century. 

The race-course was at first employed solely as a method of 
testing the prevalence or superiority, in certain animals or 
breeds of animals, of these qualities of speed and endurance, 
which can by no other known method be so completely, so accu- 
rately, and so fairly tested. Soon after the introduction of the 
thorough-bred horse, this process of testing his qualities grew 
into a favorite sport with all classes of persons in England. 
After the multiplication of race-courses throughout the king-' 
dom and the establishment of racing as a national institution, 
the objects of the possessors and breeders of race-horses under- 
went a change : what had been a means originally, becoming 
eventually, more or less, the end. Horses, in a high form and 
of the most favorite and purest strains of blood, were eagerly 
sought and commanded large prices, for the purposes of sport and 
honorable competition, as was the case in the Olympic Games 
of ancient Greece, 

At a yet later date, a second change of object has taken 



THE AMERICAN BLOOD-HORSE. 45 

place ; and, wi-tli but few exceptions, the thorough-bred horse is 
now kept, both in England and this country, for the paramount 
purpose of money-making, either by the actual winning of his 
prizes, or by his service in the stud, after his racing career is 
ended. , 

Still, although the animals employed may be generally kept 
merely for the gratification of cupidity and the excitement of 
the contest, and though racing and race-courses may be subject 
to abuses by far too many, yet such means are, even now, as 
they were intended to be from the first, the best and only mode 
of really improving the general stock of any country. As the 
points of the thorough-bred horse are precisely those which 
constitute the perfection of a blood-horse in a high form as a 
stallion for improving the breed of animals, and for getting the 
best horses from any possible class of mares, for all possible uses, 
unless for the very slowest and most ponderous draught, the de- 
scription of those points which are most generally accepted as 
accurate is subjoined. 

Purity of blood is an indispensable requisite for the thorough- 
bred horse. By the term " blood," it is not intended to be un- 
derstood that there is any real difference between the blood of 
the thorough-bred horse and that of the half-bred animal, as no 
one could discriminate between the two by any known process. 
The term is here used in the same sense as "breed," and by 
purity of blood is meant purity in the breeding of the individual 
animal under consideration ; that is to say, that the horse 
which is entirely bred from any one source is pure, or free from 
any mixture with others, and may be a pure Suffolk Punch, or 
a pure Clydesdale, or a pure thorough-bred horse. All these 
terms are, however, comparative, since there is no such animal 



46 THE AMERICAN BLOOD-HORSE. 

as a perfectly purely-bred horse of any breed, whether cart-horse, 
hack, or race-horse ; all have been produced from an admixture 
with other breeds, and though now kept as pure as possible, yet 
they were originally compounded of varying elements. As, 
however, the thoroughibred horse as he is called, has long been 
bred for racing purposes, and selections have been made with 
that view alone, it is reasonable to suppose that this breed is 
the best for that purpose, and that a stain of any other is a de- 
viation from the classical stream into one more muddy, and 
therefore impure. Indeed, in actual practice this is found to be 
the case ; for in every instance it has resulted that the horse 
bred with the slightest deviation from the sources indicated by 
the stud-book, is unable to compete in lasting power with those 
which are entirely of that breed. Hence it is established as a 
rule, that for racing purposes every horse must be thorough-bred ; 
that is, bred of a sire and dam, whose names are found in the 
•stud-book. 

The external form of the blocid-horse is of great importance ; 
it being true, other things being equal, that the horse will 
be the best runner which is formed in the mould most like that 
of the greatest number of good race-horses. Still, it is ad- 
mitted on the turf, that high breeding is of more consequence 
than external shape, and that, of two horses, one perfect in 
shape but of an inferior strain of blood, and the other of the 
most winning blood, but iu shape not so well formed, the latter 
will be the most likely to give satisfaction on the race-course. 
Hence originates the proverb, " an ounce of blood is worth 
a pound of bone." Yet, in spite of all this recognized superi- 
ority of blood, it is indisputable that for the highest degree of 
success there must be not only high purity of blood, and that 



THE AMERICAN BLOOD-HORSE. 



i1 



of the most winning strains, but there must also be a frame of 
the most useful character, if not always of the most elegant 
form. Many of our very best horses have been plain and even 
coarse-looking ; but, in spite of their plainness, all their points 
were good and useful, and the deficiency was in mere elegance, 
not in real utility. 

The height of the race-horse varies from fifteen hands to 
sixteen and a half hands, or even seventeen hands ; but the 
general height of our best horses, is about fifteen hands and 
three inches. Few first-class performers have exceeded the 
heighi of sixteen hands and one inch. The average, above given, 
may be fairly laid down as the best height for the race-horse ; 
though it cannot be denied, that for some small and confined 
courses, a smaller horse, of little more than fifteen hands high, 
has a better chance, as being more capable of turning round 
the constantly recurring angles or bends. 

The head and neck should be characterized by lightness, 
which is essential for this department. Whatever is nnneces- 

^^-_ sary is so much dead 
^^^^£r ^ weight ; and whatever is 
fz found in the 
i head and 
s9Jiviii,i/j neck, which 
i/// is not neces- 
sary for the 
~~"^*^ peculiar pur- 
poses of the 
AMERICAN PLANTATION SCENE. racc-horsc, is 

so much weight thrown away, which must still be carried by 
the horse. The head, we may say in detail, should be lean 




48 THE AMERICAN BLOOD-HORSE. 

about the jaw, yet with a full developmeut of forehead, which 
should be convex and wide, so as to contain within the skull 
a good volume of brain. If this fullness exist, all the rest of 
the head may be as fine as possible ; the jaws being reduced to 
a fin« muzzle, with a slight hollowing out in front, but with a 
width between the two sides of the lo^'er jaw where it joins 
the neck, so as to allow plenty of room for the top of the 
windpipe when the neck is bent. The ears should be pricked 
and fine, but not too short ; eyes full and spirited ; nostrils 
large, and capable of being well dilated when at full speed, 
which is easily tested by the gallop, after which they ought to 
stand Out firmly, and so as to show the internal lining fully. 
The neck should be muscular, and yet light; the windpipe 
loose and separate from the neck, — that is, not too tightly 
bound down by the membrane of the neck. The crest should 
be thin and wiry, not thick and loaded, as is often seen in 
coarse stallions, or even in some mares. 

Between the two extremes of the ewe-neck and its opposite, 
there are ' many degrees, but for racing purposes the former 
is preferable of the two, to the latter ; for few horses can go 
well with their necks bent so as to draw the chin to the bosom ; 
yet here, as in other cases, the happy medium between the 
two extremes is the most desirable. 

The body, or middle-piece, should be moderately long, and 
not too much confined between the last rib and the hip bone.' 
So long as the last or back-ribs are deep, it is not of so much 
importance that they should be closely connected to the hip- 
bone, for such a shape shortens the stride; and though it 
enables the horse to carry a great weight, yet it prevents him 
from attaining a high rate of speed. The back itself should 



• THE AMERICAN BLOOD-HORSE. 49 

V muscular, and the hips so wide as to allow of a good de- 
velopment of the muscular department. The withers may rise 
gently, but not too high, with that thin, razor-like elevation 
which many people call a good shoulder, but which really has 
nothing to do with that part, and is only an annoyance to the 
saddler, in preventing its being pinched by the saddle. The chest 
itself should be w^ell developed, but not too wide and deep ; no 
horse can go a good distance without a fair "bellows-room;" 
but, supposing the beast to be sound and of good quality, the 
amount of lungs" will suffice which may be contained in a 
medium-sized chest, and all above that is wasted, and is extra 
weight. Many of our best-winded hoi'ses have had medium- 
sized chests, and some of the very worst have been furnished 
with room enough for a blacksmith's bellows to play in. If 
the heart only does its duty well, the lungs can always furnish 
sufficient air ; and we know that when frequently renewed, and 
with sufficient power, the blood is aerated as fast as it is pro- 
pelled, and the chief difficulty lies in this power of propulsion, 
which resides in the heart alone. If the chest be too wide, it 
materially affects the action of the fore-legs, and, therefore, in 
every point of view, theoretically and practically, there is a 
happy medium between the too great contraction in this de- 
partment, and the heavy, wide, lumbering chests, sometimes 
seen even in the thorough-bred race-horse, especially when 
reared upon rich succulent herbage, more fitted for the bullock 
than for the Eastern horse. In the formation of the hips, the 
essential point is length and breadth of bone for muscular at- 
tachment, and it matters little whether the croup droops a lit- 
tle, or is pretty straight and level, so that there is a good 
longth from the hips to the haunch-bone the line between which 



50 THE AMERICAN BLOOD-HORSE. 

two points may be either nearly horizontal, or forming a con- 
siderable angle with the ground ; but still in both cases it 
should be a long line, and the longer it is the more muscular 
substance is attached to it, and the greater leverage will the 
muscles have. 

The fore-quarter, consisting of the shoulder, upper and lower 
arm and leg and foot, should be well set on to the chest ; and the 
shoulder-blade should lie obliquely on the side of that part, with 
a full development of muscle to move it, and thrust it well forward 
in the gallop. Obliquity is of the greatest importance, acting as 
a spring in taking off the shock of the gallop or leap, and also 
giving a longer attachment to the muscles, and in addition en- 
abling them to act with more leverage upon the arm and leg. 
As the shoulder-blade does not reach the top of the withers, 
and as the bones forming that part have nothing to do with 
the shoulder itself, many high-withered horses have bad and 
weak shoulders, and some very upright ones ; whilst, on the 
other hand, many low-withered horses have very oblique and 
powerful shoulders, and such as to give great facility and plia- 
bility to the fore extremity. The shoulder should be very 
muscular, without being over-done or loaded, and so formed 
as to play freely in the action of the horse. The point of the 
shoulder which is the joint corresponding to the human shoulder, 
should be free from raggedness, but not too flat ; a certain degree 
of development of the bony part is desirable, but more than 
this leads to defects, and impedes the action of this important 
part. The upper arm, between this joint and the elbow, 
should be long, and well clothed with muscles; the elbow set on 
quite straight, and not tied in to the chest ; the lower arm muscu- 
lar and long; knees broad and strong, with the bony projection 



THE AMERICAN BLOOD-HORSE. 51 

behind well developed ; legs flat, and showing a suspensory liga- 
ment large and free; pasterns long enough, without being 
weak ; and the feet sound, and neither too large nor too small, 
and unattended with any degree of contraction, which is the 
bane of the thoroirgh-bred horse. 

The hind-quarter is the chief agent in propulsion, and is 
therefore of the utmost consequence in attaining a high speed. 
It is often asserted that the oblique shoulder is the grand 
requisite in this object, and that it is the part upon which speed 
mainly depends, and in which it may be said to reside. This is, 
to some extent, true, because there can be no doubt that with a 
loaded shoulder high speed is impracticable ; for,, however 
powerfully the body may be propelled, yet when the fore-quar- 
ter touches the ground it does not bound off again as smartly 
as it ought to do, and the pace is consequently slow. The 
elastic shoulder, on the contrary, receives the resistance of the 
earth, but reacts upon it, and loses very little of the power 
given, by the strike of the hind-quarter, which, nevertheless, 
must be strong and quick, or else there is nothing for the 
shoulder to receive and transmit. For the full action of the 
hind-quarters, two things are necessary, viz : first, length and 
volume of muscle ; and, secondly, length of leverage, upon 
which that muscle may act. Hence, all the bones comprising 
the hind-quarter should be long, but the comparative length 
must vary a good deal, in order that the parts upon which the 
muscles lie may be long, rather than those connected with the 
tendons, which are mere ropes, and have no propelling power 
residing in them, but only transmit that which they derive from 
the muscles themselves. Thus, the hips should be long and 
wide, and the two upper divisions of the limb — viz.^ the stifle and 



52 THE AMERICAN BLOOD-HOBSB. 

lower thigh — should be long, strong, and fully developed. By 
this formation, the stifle-joint is brought well forward, and there 
is a considerable angle between these two divisions. The hock 
should be long and strong, free from gum or spavin, and the 
point long, and so set on as to be free from weakness at the 
situation of curb. In examining the hind-quarter, to judge of 
its muscular development, the 'horse should not be looked at 
sideways, but his tail should be raised, and it should be ascer- 
tained that the muscles of the two limbs meet together below 
the anus, which should in fact be well supported by them, and 
not left loose, and, as it were, in a deep and flaccid hollow. 
The outline of the outer part of the thigh should be full, and in 
ordinary horses the muscles should swell out beyond the level 
of the point of the hip. This fullness, however, is not often 
seen to such an extent in the thorough-bred horse, until he has 
arrived at mature age, and is taken out of training. The 
bones below the hock should be flat and free from adhesions : 
the ligaments and tendons fully developed, and standing out 
free from the bones ; and the joints well formed and wide, yet 
without any diseased enlargement ; the pasterns should be mo- 
derately long, and oblique ; the bones of good size ; and, lastly, 
the feet should correspond to those already alluded to in the 
anterior extremity. 

These points, taken as a whole, should be in proportion to 
one another — that is to say, the formation of the horse should 
be "true." He should not have long, well-developed hind- 
quarters, with an upright, weak, or confined fore-quarter. Nor 
will the reverse of this answer the purpose ; for, however well- 
formed the shoulder may be, the horse will not go well unless he,, 
has a similar formation in the propeller. It is of great impor- 



THE AMERICAN BLOOD-HORSE. 53 

tance, therefore, that the thorough-bred horse should have all his 
various points in true relative development, and, that there should 
not be the hind-quarter of a long, racing-like horse, with the 
thick, confined shoulder which would suit a stride less reaching 
in its nature. 

The color of the thorough-bred horse is now generally bay, 
brown, or chestnut, one or the other of which will occur in ninety- 
nine cases out of a hundred ; gray not being common, though 
it sometimes appears. Black, also, occasionally makes its ap- 
pearancCj^ but not more frequently than gray. Roans, duns, 
sorrels, etc., are now quite exploded, and the above five colors 
may be said to complete the list of colors seen in the race-horse. 
Sometimes these colors are mixed with a good deal of white, in 
the shape of blazes on the face, or white legs and feet ; or even 
both may occur, and the horse may have little more than his 
body of a brown, bay, or chestnut. Most people, however, 
prefer the self-color, with as little white as possible ; and nothing 
but the great success of a horse's stock would induce breeders 
to resort to him, if they were largely endowed with white. 
Gray hairs mixed in the coat, are rather approved than other- 
wise ; but they do not amount to a roan, in which the gray 
hairs equal, or even more than that, the other colors mixed 
with them. 

The texture of the coat and skin is a great proof of high, 
breeding, and, in the absence of the pedigree, would be highly 
regarded ; but when that is satisfactory, it is of no use descend- 
ing to the examination of an inferior proof; and, therefore, ex- 
cept as a sign of health, the skin is seldom considered. In all 
thorough-bred horses, however, it is thinner, and the hair more 
silky than in common breeds j and the veins are more apparent 



54 THE AMERICAN BLOOD-HORSE. 

under the skin,. partly from its thinness, but also from thelb 
extra size and number of brandies. This network of veins is 
of importance in allowing the circulation to be carried on 
during high exertions, when, if the blood could not accumulate 
in them, it would often choke the deep vessels of the heart 
and lungs ; but, by collecting on the surface, great relief is 
afforded, and the horse is able to maintain such a high and long- 
continued speed, as would be impracticable without their help. 
Hence these points are not useful as a mere mark of breed, 
but as essential to the very purpose for which that breed was 
established. 

The mane and tail should be silky, and not curly, though a 
slight wave is often seen. A decided curl is almost univer- 
sally a mark of degradation, and shows a stain in the pedigree 
as clearly as any sign can do. Here, however, as in other 
cases, the clear tracing of that all-powerful proof of breeding, 
will upset all reasoning founded upon inferior data. The 
setting on of the tail is often regarded as of great importance, 
but it is chiefly with reference to appearances ; for the horse is 
not dependent for action or power upon this appendage. Nor 
IS strength of dock of any value as a sign, and many very stout 
horses have been known with flaccid and loosely pendant tails. 

It is well known that certain horses can run half a mile at 
high speed, but no more; others, a mile; others, again, a mile, 
and a half, or two miles ; whilst another class, now less common 
than formerly, require a distance of three or four miles to de- 
velop their powers, as compared with ordinary horses. These 
peculiarities are generally hereditary, though not always so ; 
but still, when the blood is known, it may generally be surmised, 
that the individual will, or will not, stay a distance. When the 



THE AMERICAN BLOOD-HORSE. 55 

cross in question is stout on one side, and flashy on the other, 
it is not easy to guess to which the young scion may lean ; but 
in those cases where a horse is bred from sire or dam, both of 
stout blood, or the reverse, the experienced hand may, in almost 
all cases, decide beforehand upon the qualities of the son or 
daughter, as far as staying qualities are concerned. Again, 
there are some horses of strong, compact frames, with short 
backs and strong quarters, who may be expected to climb a hill 
without difficulty, especially if of stout blood ; and, again, there 
are others of lathy frames, with long but weak points, and a 
great deal of daylight under them, who may win over the flat 
for a mile, or a mile and a quarter, but can never climb a hill, 
or get beyond the above distance over a flat. All these points 
ishould be carefully studied by the breeder in getting together 
his breeding stock, and by the owner in deciding how he will 
enter his young produce in the race. 

In passing from the consideration of the history of the 
American Race-Horse to the examination of other races and 
types of this animal in general use in our country, it must be 
borne in mind, as before remarked, that the thorough-bred horse 
of America is the only family of the horse on this continent of 
pure and unmixed blood. 

In the United States, and British America, the process of 
absorption, or abolition of all the old special breeds, and of the 
amalgamation of all into one general race, which may fairly be 
termed specially "American," possessing a very large admix- 
ture of thorough blood, has gone on far more rapidly than in 
England — the rather that, with the one solitary exception of 
the Norman horse iu Canada, no special breeds have ever taken 



56 THE AMERICAN BLOOD-HORSE. 

root as such, or been bred, or even attempted to be bred in 
their purity, in any part of America. 

In Canada East, the Norman horse, imported by the early 
settlers, was bred for many generations entirely unmixed ; and, 
as the general agricultural horse of that province, exists so yet, 
stunted somewhat in size by the cold climate, and the rough 
usage to which he has been subjected for centuries, but in no 
wise degenerated; for he possesses all the honesty, courage, 
endurance, hardihood, soundness of constitution, and charac- 
teristic excellence of feet and legs of his progenitor. Through- 
out both the provinces, he may be regarded as the basi^ of 
the general horse, improved as a working animal by crosses, of 
English half-bred sires ; and as a roadster, carriage-horse, a 
higher class riding or driving horse, by an infusion of English 
thorough blood. 

All these latter types are admirable animals ; and it is from 
the latter admixture that have sprung many of the most cele- 
brated trotting horses, which, originally of Canadian descent, 
have found their way into the New England States and New 
York, and there won their laurels as American trotters. Still, 
it is not to be denied, that there are in different sections of the 
United States, different local breed.^ of horses, apparently pecu- 
liar, and now become nearly indigenous to those localities, and 
that those breeds differ not a little, as well in qualities as in 
form and general appearance. A good judge of horse-flesh, 
for instance, will find little difficulty in selecting the draught- 
horse of Boston, that is to say, of Massachusetts and Yermout, 
from those of New York and New Jersey, or any of the three 
from the large Pennsylvania team-horses, or from the general 
stock of the Western States. 



TllE VERMONT DRAUGHT-HORSE. 5T 

The Yermont draught-horse, and the great Pennsylvania 
horse, known as the Conestoga horse, appear in some considera- 
ble degree to merit the title of distinct families ; inasmuch as 
they seem to reproduce themselves continually, and to have 
done so from a remote period, comparatively speaking, within 
certain regions of country, which have for many years been 
furnishing them in considerable numbers to those markets, for 
which their qualities render them most desirable. 

With the limited information at present accessible as to the 
origin and derivation of these various families, nothing more 
can be done in the present work than to describe the charac- 
teristic points of the breeds in question ; and, by comparison 
with existing foreign races, to approach conjecturally the blood 
from which they are derived, and also the manner in which they 
have been originated, where they are now found. 



THE VERMONT DRAUGHT-HOHSB, 

"No person familiar with the streets of New YorV /an have 
failed to notice the magnificent animals, for the most part dark 
bays, with black legs, manes, and tails, but a few browns, and 
now and then, but rarely, a deep, rich, glossy chestnut, which 
draw the heavy wagons of the express companies in that city. 
They are the verji model of what draught-horses should be; 
combining immense power with great quickness, a very respect- 
able turn of speed, fine show, and good action. 

These animals have almost invariably loftjF crests, thin withers, 
and well set-on heads ; and, although they are emphatically 
draught-horses, they have none of that shagginess of mane, tail, 
and fetlocks, which indicates a descent from the black horse 
of Lincolnshire, and none of that peculiar curliness or waviness 



58 



THE VERMONT DRAUGHT-HORSE. 



which marks the existence of Canadian or Norman blood for 
many generations, and which is discoverable in .the manes and 
tails of very many of the Morgan horses. 

The peculiar characteristics of these horses are, however, the 
shortness of their backs, the roundness of their barrels, and the 
closeness of their ribbing-up. One would say, that they are 
ponies, until he comes to stand beside them, when he is as- 
_z-3_~ . tonished to find that they are oftener 
over, than under, sixteen hands in height. 




THE VERMONT DRAUGHT-HORSE. 



Nine out of ten of these horses are from Vermont ; and not only 
are they the finest animals in all the United States, for the 
quick draught of heavy loads, but the mares of this stock are 
incomparably the likeliest, from which, by a well-chosen tho- 
rough-bred sire, to raise the most magnificent carriage-horses in 
the world. 

As to the source of this admirable stock of horses, it may be 



THE VERMONT DRAUGHT-HORSE. 59 

said, that the size, the action, the color, the comparative free- 
dom from hair on the limbs, the straightness of the longer hairs 
of the mane and tail, and the quickness of movement, would at 
once lead one to suspect a large cross, perhaps the largest of 
any, on the original mixed country horse, of Cleveland Bay. 
There are, however, some points in almost all of these horses, 
which must be referred to some other foreign cross than the 
Cleveland, not thorough bred, and certainly, as above remarked, 
not Norman or Canadian, of which these animals do not exhibit 
any characteristic. These points are, principally, the shortness 
of the back, the roundness of the barrel, the closeness of the 
ribbing-up, the general punchy or pony build of the animal, 
and its form and size, larger and "more massively muscular than 
those of the Cleveland Bay, yet displaying fully as large, if not 
a larger, share of blood than belongs to that animal in its un- 
mixed form. 

The prevalent colors of this breed also appear to point to 
an origin different, in part, from that of the pure Cleveland 
Bays, which lean to the light or yellow bay variation, while 
these New Englanders tend as decidedly to the blood bay, if 
not to the brown bay, or pure brown. These latter are espe- 
cially the dray-horse colors, and the points above specified are 
those, in a great eieasure, of the improved dray-horse. The 
cross of this blood in the present animal, if there be one, is 
doubtless very remote ; and, whether it may have come from a 
single mixture of the dray stallion long since, or from some 
half-bred imported stallion, perhaps got by a three-part tho- 
rough bred and Clevelander from a dray mare, must, of course, 
be doubtful. One need have little hesitancy in asserting that 
the bay draught-horse of Vermont, has in its veins, principally 



iO 



THE CONESTOGA HORSE. 



Cleveland Bay blood, with some cross of thorough blood, one 
at least, directly or indirectly, of the improved English dray- 
horse, and not impossibly a chance admixture of the Suffolk. 



THE CONESTOGA HORSE. 

In appearance this noble draught-horse approaches far more 
nearly to the improved Mght-class London dray-horse, and has 
little, if any, admixture of Cleveland Bay, and certainly none 




^^^■'a^i^ 

A CONESTOGA — THE GREAT PENNSYLVANIA DRAUGHT-HORSB. 

of thoi'ough blood. He is a teamster, and a teamster only ; 
6ut a very noble, a very honest, and a moderately quick-work- 
ing teamster. In size and power some of these great ani- 
mals employed in draught upon the railroad track in Market 
street, Philadelphia, are little, if at all, inferior to the dray- 
horses of the best brewei'ies and distilleries in London [ many 



THE CONESTOGA HORSE. 61 

of them coming fully up to the standard of seventeen or seven- 
teen and a half hands in height. 

In color, also, they follow the dray-horses ; being more often 
blood-bays, brown, and dapple-grays than of any other shade. 
The bays and browns, moreover, are frequently dappled also in 
their quarters, which is decidedly a dray-horse characteristic 
and beauty ; while it is, in some degree, a derogation to a horse 
pretending to much blood. This peculiarity is often observ- 
able also in the larger of the heavy Yermont draught-horses, 
and is not unkno'frn in the light and speedy Morgan. 

They have the lofty crests, shaggy volumes of mane and tail, 
round buttocks, hairy fetlocks, and great round feet of the 
dray-horse ; they are, however, longer in the back, finer in the 
shoulder, looser in. the loin, and perhaps, fatter in the side than 
their English antitypes. They do not run to the unwieldy 
superfluity of flesh, for which the dray-horse is unfortunately 
famous ; they have a lighter and livelier carriage, a better step 
and action, and are, in all respects, better travelers, more 
active, generally useful, and superior animals. 

They were for many years, before railroads took a part of 
the work off their broad and honest backs, the great carriers 
of produce and provisions from the interior of Pennsylvania to 
the seaboard, or the market ; and the vast white-topped- wagons, 
drawn by superb teams of the stately Conestogas, were a dis- 
tinctive feature in the landscape of that great agricultural 
State. The lighter horses of this breed, were the general farm- 
horses of the country ; and no one, who is familiar with the 
agricultural regions of that fine State, can fail to observe that 
the farm-horses generally, whether at the plough, or on the 



62 THE CANADIAN HORSE. 

road, are of considerably more bulk and bone than those of 
New York, New Jersey, or the Western country. 

Of the Gonestoga horse, although it has long been known 
and distinguished by name as a separate family, nothing is 
positively authenticated, from the fact that such pedigrees 
have never been, in the least degree, attended to ; and, perhaps, 
no less from the different language spoken by the German 
farmers, among whom this stock seems first to have obtained, 
and by whom principally it has been preserved. It would ap 
pear, however, most probable, taking into consideration the 
thrifty character, and apparently ample means of the early 
German settlers, their singular adherence to old customs and 
conservatism of old-country ideas, that they brought with them 
horses and cattle, such as Wouvermans, and Paul Potter painted ; 
and introduced to the rich pastures of the Delaware and the 
Schuylkill, the same type of animals which had become famous 
in the similarly constituted lowlands of Flanders, Guelderland, 
and the United Provinces. 



THE CANADIAN HORSE. 

The Canadian is generally low-sized, rarely exceeding fifteeff 
hands, and more often falling short of it. His characteristic? 
are a broad, open forehead; ears somewhat wide apart, and not 
unfrequently a basin face ; the latter, perhaps, a trace of the 
far remote Spanish blood, said to exist in his veins ; the origin 
of the improved Norman or Percheron stock, being, it is usually 
believed, a cross of the Spaniard, Barb by descent, with the 
old Norman war-horse. 

His crest is lofty, and his demeanor proud and courageous. 
His breast is full and broad ; his shoulder strong, though some- 



THE CANADIAN HOESE. 63 

what straight, and a little inclined to be heavy ; his back broad, 
and his croup round, fleshy, and muscular. His ribs are not, 
however, so much arched, nor are they so well closed -up, as his 
general shape and build would lead one to expect. His legs 
and feet are admirable ; the bone large and flat, and the sinews 
i>ig, and nervous as steel-springs. His feet seem almost un- 
conscious of disease. His fetlocks are shaggy ; his mane 
voluminous and massive, not seldom, if untrained, falling on 
both sides of his neck; and his tail abundant; both having a 
peculiar crimpled"wave, never seen in any horse which has not 
some strain of this blood. 

He cannot be called a speedy horse in his pure state ; but 
he is emphatically a quick one, an indefatigable, undaunted 
traveler, with the greatest endurance, day in and day out, 
allowing him to go his own pace — say from six to eight mtles 
the hour — with a horse's load behind him, oi an animal one 
can derive. He is extremely hardy, will thrive on any thing, 
or almost on nothing; is docile, though high-spirited, remark- 
ably sure-footed on the worst ground, and has fine, high action, 
bending his knee roundly, and setting his foot squarely on the 
ground. As a farm-horse and ordinary farming roadster, there 
is no better or more honest animal ; and, as one to cross with 
other breeds, whether upwards by the mares to thorough-bred 
stallions, or downwards by the stallions to common country 
mares of other breeds, he has hardly any equal. 

From the upward cross, with the English or American tho- 
rough-bred on the sire's side, the Canadian has produced some 
of the fastest trotters and the best gentleman's road and saddle- 
horses in the country ; and, on the other hand, the Canadian 
stallion, wherever he has been introduced, as he has been largely 



64 THE INDIAN PONY. 

in the neighborhood of Skaneateles, and generally in the western 
part of the State of New York, is gaining more and more favor 
with the farmers, and is improving the style and stamina of 
the country stock. He is said, although small himself in stature, 
to have the unusual quality of breeding up in size with larger, 
and loftier mares than himself, and to give the foals his own 
vigor, pluck, and iron constitution, with the frame and general 
aspect of their dams. This, it may be remarked in passing, 
appears to be a characteristic of the Barb blood above all others, 
and is a strong corroboration of the legend, which attributes to 
him an early Andalusian strain. 



THE INDIAK" PONY. 

The various breeds of Indian ponies found in the West, 
generally appear to be the result of a cross between the Southern 
mustang, descended from the emancipated Spanish horses of 
the Southwest, and the smallest type of the Canadian, the pro- 
portions varying according to the localities in which they are 
found ; those further to the South sharing more largely of the 
Spanish, and those to the North of the Normal blood. 

These little animals, not exceeding thirteen hands in height, 
have, many of them, all the characteristics of the pure Cana- 
dians, and, except in size, are not to be distinguished from 
them. They have the same bold carriage, open countenance, 
abundant hair, almost resembling a lion's mane, the same 
general build, and, above all, the same iron feet and legs. 
They are merry goers, and over a hard and good road can 
spin along at nearly nine miles in the hour. They are dis- 
tinguished for their wonderful sure-footedness, sagacity, and 
docility. They are driven without blinkers or bearing reins. 



THE NARRAGANSETT PACER. 65 

and where, as is often the case, bridges seem doubtful, the 
bottom of miry fords suspicious of quagmires, or the road other^ 
wise dangerous, they will put down their heads to examine, try 
the difficulty with their feet, and, when satisfied, will get 
through or over places which seem utterly impracticable. 

Whence this peculiar pony breed of Canadians has arisen 
cannot with certainty be traced ; it seems, however, to be almost 
entirely peculiar to the Indian tribes, and, therefore, may have 
been produced by the dwarfing process, which will arise from 
hardship and priv^ion, endured for generation after generation, 
particularly by the young animals and mares while heavy with 
foal. Most of these animals have no recent cross of the Spanish 
horse ; although some ponies approaching nearly to the same 
type, show an evident cros of the Mustang ; and many animals 
called Mustangs, have in them some unmistakable Canadian 
blood. 



THE NAKRAGANSETT PACER. 
This beautiful animal, which, so far as can now be ascertained, 
has at present entirely ceased to exist, and concerning which 
the strangest legends and traditions are afloat, was, it may be 
asserted with comparative certainty, of Andalusian blood. The 
legends, to which allusion has been made, are two-fold ; or, 
rather, there are two versions of the same legend ; one saying 
that the original stallion, whence the breed originated, was 
picked up at sea, swimming for his life, no one knew whence 
or thither, and, that he was so carried in by his salvors to the 
Providence Plantations ; the other, evidently another form of 
the same story, stating that the same original progenitor was 
discovered running wild in the woods of E-hode Island. 
5 



66 THE NARRAGANSETT PACER. 

The question, however, thus far seems to be put at rest by 
the account of these animals, given in a note to the very curious 
work, "America Dissected," by the Rev. James McSparran. 
D. D., which is published as an appendix to the History of the 
Church of Narragansett, by Wilkins Updike. In this work, 
the Doctor twice mentions the pacing horse, which was evi- 
dently at that remote date, (1721-59,) an established breed in 
that province. "To remedy this," he says — "this" being the 
great extent of the parishes in "Virginia, of which he is at first 
speaking, and the distance which had to be traveled to church, 
— " as the whole province between the mountains, two hundred 
miles up, and the sea, is all a champaign and without stones, 
thcsY have plenty of a small sort of horses, the best in the world, 
like the little Scotch Galloways ; and 'tis no extraordinary jour- 
ney to ride from sixty to seventy miles, or more, in a day. I 
have often, but upon large pacing horses, rode fifty, nay, sixty 
miles a day, even here in New England, where the roads are 
rough, stony, and uneven." Elsewhere he speaks more point- 
edly of the same breed, "The produce of this Colony," 
(Rhode Island,) "is principally butter and cheese, fat cattle, 
wool, and fine horses, which are exported to all parts of Englisk 
America. They are remarkable for fleetness and swift pacing , 
and I have seen some of them pace a mile in a little more than 
two minutes, and a good deal less than three.'" 

If the worthy doctor of divinity was a good judge of pace, 
and had a good timing watch, it would seem that the wonderful 
me of our fleetest racers was equaled, if not outdone, up- 
wards of a century ago ; at all events, he establishes, beyond a 
peradventure, the existence of the family, and its unequaled 
powers both of speed and endurance. 



THE NARRAGANSETT PACER. 67 

To the latter extract is attached a lengthy note, a portion 
»f which we give. " The breed of horses, called 'Narragansett 
Pacers,' once so celebrated for fleetness, endurance, and speed, 
Las become extinct. These horses were highly valued for the 
saddle, and transported the rider with great pleasantness and 
sureness of foot. The pure blood could not trot at all. For- 
merly, they had pace races. Little Neck Beach, in South 
Kingston, one mile in length, was the race-course. A silver 
tankard was the prize, and high bets were otherwise made on 
the spe|;d. Some of these prize tankards were remaining a 
few years ago. Traditions respecting the swiftness of these 
horses a-je almost incredible. Watson, in his ' Historical Tales 
of Olden Times,' says: 'In olden time, the horses most valued 
were pacers, now so odious deemed. To this end the breed 
was propagated with care. The Narragansett pacers were in 
such repute, that they were sent for, at much trouble and ex- 
pense, by some who were choice in their selections.'" 

The most natural reason assignable for the extinction of this 
breed, would seem to be somewhat as follows. Up to the be- 
ginning of the present century in this country, — much as it was 
half a century yet farther back in Englaijd, — the roads were 
so bad, as to be, except in the finest weather, utterly imprac- 
ticable for wheel-carriages; and that, except on the great turn- 
pike-roads, and iff the immediate vicinity of the larger towns, 
private pleasure-vehicles were almost unknown ; all long joui- 
neys, with few exceptions, all excursions for pleasure or for 
ordinary business, and all visitings between friends and neigh- 
bors being performed by both sexes on the saddle. At that 
time there was, therefore, a demand, as an actual necessity, im 
epeedy, and, above all, for easy and pleasant-going saddle-horses. 



68 THE NARRAGANSETT PACER. 

Pacers, whenever they could be found, would most readily 
answer the desired end. 

The expense of this was, of course, considerable, since the 
pacer could not be used for any other purpose ; when, there- 
fore, the roads improved, in proportion to the improvement of 
the country and the general increase of the population, wheel- 
carriages generally came into use, and the draught-horse took 
the place of the saddle-horse. It was soon found that a horse 
could not be kept even tolerably fit for the saddle, if he was 
allowed to work in the plough or draw the team, while the 
same labor in no wise detracted from the chaise or carriage- 
horse. The pacer, therefore, gave way to the trotter; and the 
riding-horse, from being an article of necessity, becaiiie ex- 
clusively one of luxury ; to such a degree, that, until compara- 
tively a recent period, when ladies began again to take up 
riding, there have been very few distinctively broken riding- 
horses, and still fewer kept exclusively as such in the Northern 
States of America. 

This, unquestionably, is the cause of the extinction of the 
pacer, although there have been pacing-horses in the eastern 
section of this country, professedly from Rhode Island, and 
called by names implying a Narragansett origin ; and although 
it may well be that they were from that region, and possibly, 
in a remote degree, from that blood, yet tlTey did not pace 
naturally because they were Narragansett Pacers, but were so 
called, because coming somewhere from that region of country, 
they paced by accident — as many chance horses do — or, in some 
instances, had been taught to pace. 

Considering the rare qualities of this variety, and its ad- 
mirable adaptedness for many purposes of pleasure and conve- 



THE MORGAN HORSE. 



69 



nience, it is a matter for real regret that the family has entirely 
disappeared, presumably without any prospect or hope of its 
resuscitation. 



THE MOBGAN HORSE. 

Within a few years past the sporting world have become 
familiar with a class or type of horses coming from the State 
of Vermont, known as the Morgan horse ; in behalf of which a 
claim has been made, that it is a distinct family, directly de- 
scended from a single horse, owned a little 




KIBXS ALLEN — A FAST TROTTING MORGAN HORSE. 

before and a little after the commencement of the present cen- 
tury, by Justin Morgan, of Randolph, in Vermont, from whom 
the name takes its rise. 

Without choosing to go into an examination of the validity 
of this claim — relative to which question an amount of bicker- 
ing, crimination and recrimination has sprung up, sufBcient to 



70 THE MORGAN HORSE. 

furnish the stock iu trade of all our stump orators for the next 
fifty Presidential campaigns — we content ourselves here witli 
alluding to the strong points and excellencies of this particular 
variety, (for such the most sturdy opponents to its rank as a 
distinct family freely admit that it possesses,) referring the 
reader, who is curious in such matters, to the appropriate trea- 
tises for and against the claim, which have been as voluminous 
as the most prolix of Presidential messages. 

'• The original, a ' Justin Morgan' " — we now quote from 
" Morgan Horses," by D. C. Linsley — " was about fourteen 
hands high, and weighed about nine hundred and fifty pounds. 
His color was dark-bay, with black legs, mane, and tail. He 
had no white hairs upon him. His mane and tail were coarse 
and heavy, but not so massive as has been sometimes described; 
the hair of both was straight, and not inclined to curl. His 
head was good, not extremely small, but lean and bony, the face 
straight, forehead broad, ears small and very fine, but set father 
wide apart. His eyes were medium size, very dark and promi- 
nent, and showed no white around the edge of the lid. His 
nostrils were very large, the muzzle small, and the lips close 
and firm. His back and legs were, perhaps, his most noticeable 
points. The former was very short ; the shoulder-blades and 
thigh-bones being very long and oblique, and the loins exceed- 
ingly broad and muscular. His body was rather long, round 
and deep, close-ribbed up ; chest deep and wide, with the breast- 
bone projecting a good deal in front. His legs were short, 
close-jointed, thin, but very wide, hard and free from meat, with 
muscles that were remarkably large for a horse of his size ; and 
this superabundance of muscle manifested itself at every step. 
His hair was short, and at almost all seasons short and glossy. 



THE MORGAN HORSE, Tl 

He had a little long hair about the fetlocks, and for two or 
three inches above the fetlock, on the back-side of the legs ; the 
rest of his limbs were entirely free from it. His feet were small, 
but well-shaped ; and he was in every respect perfectly sound 
and free from blemish. He was a very fast walker. In trotting, 
his gait was low and smooth, and his step short and nervous ; 
he was not what in these days would be called fast, and we 
think it doubtful whether he could trot a mile much, if any, 
within four minutes, although it is claimed by many that he 
could trot in three. 

"Although he raised his feet but little, he never stumbled. 
His proud, bold, and fearless style of movement, and his vigor- 
ous, untiring action have, perhaps, never been surpassed. * 
***** He was a fleet runner at short distances. 
Running short distances for small stakes, was very common in 
Vermont fifty years ago. Eighty rods was very generally the 
length of the course which usually commenced at a tavern or 
grocery, and extended the distance agreed upon up or down the 
public road. In these races the horses were started from a 
scratch ; that is, a mark was drawn across the road in the dirt, 
and the horses, ranged in a row upon it, went off at the drop- 
ping of a hat, or some other signal. 

"It will be observed that the form of Justin Morgan was not 
such as, in our days, is thought best calculated to give the 
greatest speed for a short distance. Those who believe in long- 
legged racers will think his legs, body, and stride, were all too 
short, and to them it may, perhaps, seem surprising that he 
should be successful, as he invariably was, in such contests." 

The qualities claimed for this stock are neat style, good 
trotting action, great honesty, great quickness and sprightliness 



f2 THE MORGAN HORSE. 

of movement, — apart from extraordinary speed, which is not 
insisted upon as a characteristic of th'e breed, although some 
have possessed it — and considerable powers of endurance. 
There has been some conflict of opinion concerning the courage 
and endurance of the Morgans, and their ability to maintain a 
good stroke of speed, say ten miles an hour, for several hours 
in succession ; but it is now well established that this exception 
has not been fairly taken, and that these- horses lack neither 
courage nor ability to persevere, though not at a high rate of 
speed. 

By fair deduction from the various conflicting accounts of 
the Morgans, as they now exist, it may be stated that they are a 
small, compact, active style of horse, showing the evidence of a 
strain of good blood. They rarely, if ever, exceed fifteen hands 
two inches, and it is probable that a hand lower, or from that 
up to fifteen, is nearer to their standard. They are not par- 
ticularly closely ribbed up, and many of them incline to be 
sway-backed. Their hind-quarters are generally powerful, and 
their legs and feet good. There is an evident family resem- 
blance in their foreheads, their neck and crests being so often, 
as to render the mark somewhat characteristic, lofty but erect, 
without much curvature, and the neck apt to be thick at the 
setting-on of the head, which, though good, is rarely blood-like. 
The manes and tails are almost invariably coarse, as well as 
heavy and abundant, and have very often a strong wave, or 
even curl, of the hair. 

It is admitted by the most strenuous opponents of this horse 
as a distinct family, that the very best general stock for breed- 
ing for general work — namely, a high cross of the very liest 
thorough-bred on the sires side, with the very best general stock 



NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 



73 



on the dam's — is to be found, so far as the TJuited States are 
concerned, on the frontiers of Yermont, and that of the most 
approved quality. 

Having given the history of the various types or families of 
the horse throughout the world, we next propose taking up 



THE JSTATUKAIi HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 




SKELETON OF THE HORSE AS COVERED BY THE MUSCLES. 

1, 1. Th« seven cervical vertebrse, or bones of the neck. 2. The sternum, or breasl- 
bo»e. 3. The scapula, or shoulder-blade. 4. The humerus, or bone of the arm. 5, 
S. The ra'dius, or bone of the fore-arm. 6. The nlna, or elbow. 7. The cartilages of 
the ribs. 8, 8, 8. The costffi, or ribs. 9. Tlie carpus, or seven bones. 10, 10. The 
metacarpal, or shanli-bones : the larger metacarpal, or cannon, or shank-bone, in 
front; and the small metacarpal, or splint-bone, behind. 11. The upper pastern. 
12. The lower pastern. 1.3. The coffin-bone. 14 to 14. The eighteen dorsal vertebra;, 
or bones of the spine. 15. The six lumbar vertebrae, or bones of the loins. 16, 16. The 
haunch, consisting of the ilium, the ischium, and the pubis. 17, 17. The femur, or 
thigh-bone. 18, 18. The stifle-joint, with the patella, or knee-cap. 19, 19. The tibia, 
or proper leg-bone. 20. The fibula. 21, 21. The tarsus, or hock. 22. The metatarsal 
bones of the hind-leg. 2.3, 23. The pastern of the hind-feet, including the upper and 
larger bone, (fig. 23,1 the lower pasteru, (fig. 2.5,) and the coffin-bone. (fig. 24.) 26, 26. 
The caudal vertebra, or tail-bones. 

DI^^[SI0N. Vertebrata — possessing a back-bone. 
Class. Mammalia — such as give suck. 
Order. Pachydermata — thick-skinned. 



H NATURAL HISTORY OP THE HORSE. 

Family. SoUpeda — uncleft-footed. 

Genus. Equus — the horse family. 

With the horse are ranked all those quadrupeds, whose generic 
distinction is the undivided hoof — the equine genus. 

Equus cahallus, the horse. 

Equus Hemionus, the dziggtai, Asiatic. 

Equus Zebra, the zebra, \ 

Equus Burchelli, I South African, 

Equus Quagga, the Quagga, j 

Equus Asinus, the ass. 

The horse by far the noblest of the genus, is easily distin- 
guishable from the rest of the group. His varieties are exceed 
ingly numerous, and differ widely in physical appearance. The 
effects of climate and other agencies are displayed in his frame. 
It has been asserted, though not upon sufficient basis, that he 
arrives at the greatest perfection between the fifteenth and fifty- 
fifth degrees of northern latitude. The mare is found capable 
of generating her species as early as the second year of her 
existence ; but it is detrimental to her form and the future ener- 
gies of her offspring, thus prematurely to tax the productive 
powers of her frame. It would be far more profitable to delay 
this important function to the fourth or fifth year, when the 
outline of her form approximates more closely to that of the 
adult, and the vital energies of the animal economy become 
more confirmed. Mares, in common with the females of many 
other quadrupeds, are subject to a periodical appetency for the 
male, which in them is termed horsing. The natural season of 
its first occurrence is from the end of March to July, and so 
providential is this arrangement, that the foal will be produced 
at a time when nourishment is plentiful for its support. 



NATURAL HISTORY OP THE HORSE. *l5 

Common assertion fixes the period of gestation, or the time 
intervening between conception and foaling, at eleven montha j 
whether lunar or calendar, is not explained. This discrepancy 
will appear the more unsatisfactory, when it is recollected tha^ 
eleven calendar months want but two days of twelve lunai 
months. By various investigations made in France, it has been 
established that the term of eleven calendar months was often 
exceeded by several weeks ; and sometimes, though less fre- 
quently, parturition took place within that period. Some 
breeders entertain an opinion, that old brood-mares carry the 
foal considerably longer than young ones ; but no satisfactory 
evidence is offered by them in support of this opinion. 

The indications of approaching parturition are enlargement 
of the external parts of generation, and a gummy exudation 
from the orifice of the teats. Birth generally takes place 
within twenty-four hours after the appearance of the latter 
symptom; but the first acts as a warning, by preceding it for 
several days. It is but seldom that the mare requires manual 
assistance at the time of foaling, which generally takes place, 
without difficulty or danger in the night. The mare, unlike the 
generality of quadrupeds, foals standing. She rarely produces 
twins, and when doable births do occur, the offspring almost 
invariably die. 

As great facility of motion appears to have been designed by 
nature in the formation of the horse, many physical peculiarities 
contribute to insure that end. A bulky, pendulous udder, like 
that possessed by some of the ruviinantia, would be incom- 
patible with that quality. The mamma, therefore, is small, and 
furnished with only two teats, which supply a milk of a highly 



76 NATURAL HISTORY OF THB HORSE. 

nutritious cliaracter, and possessing a larger quantity of saccha' 
rine matter tlian any other animal is known to possess. 

The disproportionate length of the foal's legs, which is so 
strikingly apparent, when compared with those of the adult 
animal, is thought by some naturalists to be provided by pre- 
scient nature to enable the young animal to keep pace with 
its dam during flight from any menacing danger. Linnaeus 
attempted to ascertain the future height of the colt by admea- 
surement of its legs ; but so much is found to depend upon the 
quantity and character of the nutriment with which it is pro- 
vided during the period of its growth, that little reliance can 
be placed upon early experiments of this kind. The historian, 
the warrior, and the horseman, Xenophon, has long ago 
alluded to the same subject in his treatise upon horsemanship, 
" I now explain," said he, " how a man may run the least risk 
of being deceived, when conjecturing the future height of a 
horse. The young horse, which, when foaled, has the shank- 
bone the longest, invariably turns out the largest. For, as time 
advances, the shank-bones of all quadrupeds increase but little ; 
but that the rest of the body may be symmetrical, it increases 
in proportion." 

Puberty commences in both sexes as early as the second year, 
but all the structures continue to be gradually developed until 
the end of the fifth year, by which time the changes in the teeth 
are perfected, and the muscles have acquired a growth and tone 
which give to the form the distinctives of adolescence. It is 
during the term which elapses between the period of adult age 
and that of confirmed virility, that a further progressive change 
takes place in the animal economy ; the powers of the whole 
frame continue to acquire strength, and although there is no 



NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 17 

farther increase in height, the parietes of the large cavities and 
the muscles of voluntary motion assume a finished and rotund 
appearance, and render the animal more capable of enduring 
continued privation and exertion ; the vital endurance and re- 
sistance being greater than during the period of adolescence. 
The fire and expression of the head, the spirit, character, and 
disposition, become also more marked toward the termination 
of this epoch. 

The natural period of the decay of the vital powers, senility, 
and mature death, may be conjectured to be about thirty years ; 
but few horses, owing to our barbarous treatment, attain that 
term. 

The walk, the trot, and the gallop are the usually well-known 
natural paces of the horse ; but the fact of some individuals 
contracting the pace called amble (which is neither racking or 
pacing), without previous tuition, has induced many writers to 
regard that also as a natural method of progression. 

In England, and other northern countries, on the approach 
of mild weather, the horse, by a natnral process, analogous to 
moulting in birds, divests himself of his winter's clothing of long 
hair, and produces one of a shorter and cooler texture ; and 
again, before the recurrence of cold weather, reassumes his warm 
and lengthened coat to protect himself from the inclemency of 
the approaching season. The autumnal change is not by any 
means so general as that which takes place at the commence- 
ment of spring ; in America, however, at least in the northern 
parts, this change is invariable. The hair is not so completely 
changed ; only a portion of it is thrown off, and that which re- 
mains, with that which springs up, grows long, and is adapted 
to the temperature of the atmosphere. These alternate changes 



78 NATURAL HISTORY OP THE HORSE. 

are not so well marked in countries possessing an even tem- 
perature, nor even are they so plainly seen in horses kept in the 
warm atmosphere of a close stable all the year round. When 
the shedding of the coat commences, the bulbs of the old hair 
become pale, and by the side of each a small black globular 
body is formed, which is soon developed into the new hair. 
Thus the matrix of the new hair is not the old bulb, but it is 
based in another productive follicle. The long hair of the 
mane, tail, and fetlocks is not shed at definite periods with that 
of the body, but is replaced by a shorter and more uniform 
process. The hair of the mane and tail will, if protected, grow 
to an almost incredible length. 

The property of changing the color of the hair with the 
season, possessed by many animals of the arctic region, adapting 
them to the temperature, is also manifested in the horse, though 
in a much less degree, for it may be seen that when constantly 
exposed to the elements, the long winter-coat assumes a much 
lighter hue than that of its predecessor. 

The horse in common with many other animals, is provided 
with a thin, sub-cuticular muscle, covering the shoulders, flanks, 
and sides, whose use is to corrugate the skin, shake off flies, 
a,nd dislodge other annoying substances. 

The sense of smell is so delicately acute in the horse, that 
perhaps he is not exceeded in this function by any other animal. 
The nose is provided with a very extensive surface for the dis- 
tribution of the olfactory nerve, by the curious foldings of the 
turbinated bones. It is principally by means of this faculty 
that he is enabled to distinguish the qualities of the plants upon 
which he feeds, and to reject such as are of a noxious or poison- 
ous description, "Nature," said Linnteus, "teaches the brute 



NATURAL HlS'fORY OP THE HORSE, Y9 

creation to distinguish, without a preceptor, the useful from the 
liurtful, while man is left to his own inquiries." On putting 
the finger into the nostrils, at the upper and outward parts, 
they pass into blind pouches of considerable dimensions. These 
curious cavities have nothing to do with smelling, because they 
are lined with a reflection of common integument, but they may 
possibly be of use in mechanically distending the external en- 
trance of the nostrils, and thus materially facilitate respiration 
during violent exertion. They are also brought into use when 
the animal neighs • and the Hungarian soldiery slit them up, to 
preclude the possibility of being prematurely discovered to the 
enemy by the exercise of this habit. It is worthy of remark, 
in this connection, that the preference of Arabs for the mare to 
the horse, for warlike purposes, is attributable to the fact that 
they do not neigh when they scent the vicinity of other horses, 
as stallions invariably do — the Arabs never attacking, save by 
surprise. Those nations which fight by open force have no 
such preference, but mainly use the stallion. On the lower part 
of the nostril, toward the outer edge, may be seen the mouth of 
a small tube, which conveys the tears from the inner canthus, 
or corner of the eye. It opens on the skin just before it joins 
the lining membrane of the nose. This little cavity has often 
been mistaken, by unqualified persons, for an ulcer common in 
glanderous affections, and the poor animal has frequently fallen 

victim to the error. 

Their eyes are large in proportion to those of some other 
quadrupeds, and the pupilar opening is of an oblate elliptic 
form, with its long axes parallel to the horizon, thus increasing 
the lateral field of vision. Round the edges of the pupil is a 
curious fringe of deep plum-colored eminences, supposed to be 



80 



NATURAL HISTORY OP THE HORSE. 



serviceable in absorbing the superabundant rays of light which 
may be transmitted to the eye. The horse's sight is excellent, 
and, although not regarded as a nocturnal animal, he can dis- 
tinguish objects at night with great facility. There are but few 
horsemen, who have not benefited by this power, when tha 
shades of night have fallen round them. 

The ears ai'e comparatively small, but the conch is endowed 
with extensive motion, so as to catch the sound coming from 




NAMES APPLIED TO THE VARIOUS EXTERNAL PARTS OF THE HORSE. 

any quarter. Their hearing is quick, and although blindness 
^s so distinctively prevalent among horses, deafness is exceed- 
ingly uncommon. During sleep, one ear is usually directed 
forward, and the other backward; when on a march at night, 
in company, it has been noticed "that those in the front direct 
their ears forward, those in the rear backward, and those in the 
centre turn them laterally, or across ; the whole troop seeming 
thus to be actuated by one feeling, which watches the general 



NATURAL HISTORY OP THE HORSE. 81 

safety." In contests of speed the ears are generally laid back- 
wards, so as to afford no opposition to the rapid progress of 
the animal. It must be evident, that if the concave surfaces 
of these organs be presented forward, they would gather the 
wind, and slightly impede progression. Another reason as- 
signed for this deflection, is that the animal may avoid the 
inconvenience, if not pain, which the current of air, produced 
by his velocity, would inflict on that delicate organ. 

The different vocal articulations to which the horse gives 
utterance, are collectively termed neighing ; but some variety 
of intonation may be discovered in the expression of its pas- 
sions ; as, for instance, the cry of joy or recognition differs in a 
marked manner from that of desire ; and auger from playfulness. 
The females do not neigh so frequently, nor with so much force 
as the males. Castration is known to have a modulating effect 
upon the voice. It is supposed that neighing is produced by 
the vibration of two small triangular membranes found at the 
extremity of the glottis. In the ass and mule, this structure is 
wanting ; but they are provided with a more singurar apparatus. 
Hollowed out of the thyroid cartilages is a small concavity, 
over which is stretched a membrane, similar to the parchment 
on the head of a drum. When air is forced behind this sub- 
stance, a very considerable noise is produced, though from the 
absence of muscularity the vibrations are without modulation, 
and consequently dissonant. 

The intellectual character of the horse is scarcely excelled by 
that of any other quadruped. His perceptions are remarkably 
clear, and his memory excellent. Attachment to those who 
tend him with kindness, forms a prominent trait in his chd^racter. 
The feats which he is often taught to perform, evince a high 
6 



82 NATURAL HISTORY OP THE HORSE. 

intellectual capacity. Travelers in the desert assure us that 
horses possess the faculty of directing their course to the nearest 
water, when hard pressed for that necessary article. 

Horses swim with the greatest facility, and the distances they 
have been known to perform in the water exceed our expecta- 
tion. A horse that was wrecked off the coast of South America 
swam seven miles to land, thus saving his life. 

There exist some important differences in the animal 
jconomy of the equine family and that of other herbivorous 
■animals, which, as the inferences from them are of some conse- 
quence, it is necessary briefly to notice. The horse naturally 
req^tires but little sleep, and even that it often takes standing. 
In a state of nature, when fodder is short, to support itself 
propsdj it is compelled to graze twenty hours out of the 
twenty -fcv:r. Eumiuating animals eat with greater rapidity, 
and lie down to chew the cud. The horse eats no faster than 
it digests. Digestion in the former is interrupted ; in the latter, 
continuous. This explains why the horse has no gall-bladder, 
as it requires no reservoir for that necessary fluid ; for, as fast 
as the bile is secreted by the liver it is carried to the intestines 
to perform its important action on the chymous mass. The 
stomach of the horse is also remarkably small and simple, dif- 
fering widely from the capacious and complicated structures 
of the ruminantia ; but the intestines are long, and the caecum 
capable of containing a large quantity of fluid, of which it is 
considered the receptacle. The mamma of the mare is by no 
means so pendulous and bulky as that of the cow. The horse's 
feet, from their compact, undivided nature, are much less liable 
to injury during fleet exertion than those of the ox. All these 
circumstances tend to establish the individuality of the horse. 



NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 83 

and are so many proofs of admirable design for the purposes 
to whiefi man has applied him ; for, without these peculiarities, 
he would not be so valuable and superior, as a beast of con- 
tinued and rapid motion, and would consequently occupy a very 
inferior station. 

Linnseus asserted that the male horse was without the rudi- 
mentary mamma invariably found in the males of other animals; 
but this naturalist was mistaken, for they may be seen on each 
side of the sheath, and, although of no possible use, still their 
existence preserves the uniformity of nature's operations. 

The horse and zebra possess horny callosities on the inside 
of the fore-legs, above the knees, and on the hocks of the hind- 
legs ; the ass and the quagga have them only on the fore ex- 
tremities. 

In a state of nature, the horse is purely a herbivorous animal, 
but under the restraint which domestication imposes, his habits 
become changed, and grain and dry grasses form the principal 
articles of his diet. Domestication is known to originate many 
diseases totally unknown in a natural state, but it appears to 
have the effect of augmenting the muscular power of the animal 
far beyond its uncultivated state. 

It may be remarked, in addition to what has been previously 
said as to the limit of life allotted to the horse, that there is some 
difficulty in estimating the natural average length of his life, since 
many obstacles oppose an inquiry on a scale of sufficient mag- 
nitude to be satisfactory. The numerous evils entailed on him 
by the arduous labors and the r stricted and unnatural habits 
of a domesticated state tend gr ^atly to abbreviate life. From 
these and other reasons, it cannot be much doubted that his age 
is greatly underrated. Horses are most erroneously termed 



84 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 

aged on the obliteration of tbe mark from the lower incisor 
teeth, which occurs by the completion of the eighth year : and 
though it is far from being the natural term of age and debility, 
or even of the decline of the vital energies, it too frequently 
happens^ that by that time bodily infirmities have been prema- 
turely induced by over-exertion of their powers. Horses at* 
twenty years of age, are often met with in cases where the least 
humanity has been bestowed on their management. Eclipse 
died at the age of twenty-five ; Flying Childers, at twenty-siy. 
Brom's mare Maggie reached more than twenty-nine yeai's. 
Bucephalus, the celebrated horse of Alexander of Macedon, 
lived till thirty. The natural age is probably between twenty- 
five and thirty. A faint and uncertain guide is found in the 
register of the ages of the most celebrated racing stallions, re- 
collecting, however, that several of them were destroyed on 
becoming useless for the purposes of the turf. The united ages 
of ninety-three of these horses amounted to two thousand and 
five years ; or rather more than twenty-one and a half years to 
each horse. 

As a matter oT civil economy, it is important to judge cor- 
rectly of the age of the horse. This is chiefly accomplished 
by observing the natural changes which occur in his teeth, the 
periods at which they appear, are shed a..d replaced, and tbe 
alterations in their form and markings. ^ 

The teeth of most animals ofi'er some criterion by which their 
age can be estimated with more or less accuracy. The teeth 
are nearly the sole indices of t ^e age of the horse, ass, elephant, 
camel, dog, and the polled vari ;ties of the ox and sheep ; while 
in other domesticated animals, as the elk, deer, goat, common 



NATURAL HISTORY OP THE HORSE. 85 

OX and sheep, the horns also present legible indications of the 
progress of time. 

Reference to the teeth to ascertain the age of the horse is 
not by any means of recent origin. Xenophon, in his work on 
horsemanship, from which we have already quoted, alludes to 
it as an established custom used in the selection of cavalry for 
the Grecian armies ; he properly advised the rejection of such 
horses as have lost the dental mark. The same facts are sub' 
sequently noticed by Yarro, Columella, Yegetius, and other 
Roman writers. 

The horse, when full-mouthed, possesses forty teeth — twenty 
in each jaw. They are named from their use, position, and 
character. Those in the front of the moiith, whose office it is 
to gather food when grazing, are termed incisors, or, more pro- 
perly, nijjpers. They are twelve in number; si.Y above, and 
six below. They do not overlap each other, as is the case in 
man, but meet in a broad tabular surface. From these teeth 
the age of the animal is principally deauced. For the sake of 
description, they are usually ranged in pairs, as they appear ; 
and the first pair is called the central, the second the dividers, 
and the third the corner nippers. The tushes, or canines, 
come next ; one above, and one below on each side. They are 
of a pointed form, and are convex on the outer sides, and 
slightly concave on the inner surface. They scarcely ever ap- 
pear above the gums in mares, although their rudiments may 
be discovered on dissection, imbedded in the maxillary bones. 
Tjiey are consequently regarded as sexual distinctions. It is 
difficult to assign their use ; their position precludes the possi- 
bility of their being used as weapons of oflTense or defense. 
They may be viewed as a link of uniformity so commonly 



86 NATTJBAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 

traced in the animated world. The grinders, or molars, are 
twenty-four in number. They are teeth of great power. By 
them the food is crushed or ground into small particles, and 
prepared for the digestive action of the stomach. In order to 
fit them for this office, they possess additional interlayers of 
enamel, which prevent their too rapid wear. 

In common with most animals, the horse is provided with 
two sets of teeth ; those appearing first are known as the tem- 
porary, deciduous, or milk teeth, and are succeeded by the 
'permanent set. On comparing the different magnitudes of the 
jaw-bones of the colt and the adult horse, the necessity of such 
a change is at once apparent. By it the teeth are adapted to 
the size of the maxillary bones. The teeth, from their peculiar 
character and mode of growth, do not admit of any material 
increase of dimension ; and nature was therefore forced either 
to place the large permanent teeth in small and disproportionate 
jaw-bones, or to adapt the size of the teeth by displacement to 
the growth of the bones that contained them. The latter pro- 
cess is adopted, and constitutes one of those remarkable 
evidences of creative power, with which the living frame is 
replete. 

Three substances enter into the structure of the teeth ; first 
the enamel; secondly, the dental hone, or ivory ; and thirdly, 
a cortical envelope, surrounding the fang. The enamel differs 
but little in chemical constitution from the bony body of the 
teeth ; and that principally results from the absence of animal 
matter in it. It appears closely analogous to the univalve 
porcellaneous shells, and is the hardest and most indestructible 
substance of the body. The dental bone is distinctly tubular 
in structure ; these tubuli taking a perpendicular direction, 



NATURAL HISTORY OP THE HORSE. 81 

being exceedingly small, but capable of absorbing ink by capil- 
lary attraction. No such tubuli have been traced in the enamel. 
The teeth, both incisors and grinders, are being constantly 
worn away at the crown ; but the loss is supplied byihe gradual, 
continuous, and equivalent growth from the root. The horse'sj 
teeth are sometimes, but not frequently, subject to disease. It 
is seldom that any of them are lost from age, as is the case with 
man, and most other animals. 

It has been remarked, that the constitution of horses and 
men may be considered as in an equal degree of perfection 
and capability of exertion, or of debility and decay, according 
as youth or age preponderates. Thus, the first five years of 
a horse may be considered as equivalent to the first twenty in 
man ; or thus, that a horse five years old may be comparatively 
considered as a man of twenty ; a horse of ten years, as a man 
of forty ; a horse of fifteen, as a man of fifty ; a horse of twenty, 
as a man of sixty ; of twenty-five, as a man of seventy ; of 
thirty, as a man of eighty ; of thirty-five, as a man of ninety. 
So far from this comparison being in favor of the horse, it may 
rather be regarded as too little. Horses of thirty-five years 
of age are as common as men of ninety, provided it be taken 
into account that there are twenty human subjects for every 
horse ; and, unquestionably, a horse of forty-five is less rare 
than a man of one hundred and ten. 

To this it may be added, that the early English racers 
appear to have been more addicted to longevi'ty than those 
of modern days, and the American horse generally than the 
English ; probably because, in the former case, the horse was 
not put to hard work until his powers were developed by an 
advance toward maturity. Two and three year old training 



NATURAL HISTORY OP THE HORSE. 




was unknown nnti] a recent date ; and, in the latter case, in 
America horses are little used in harness, or for general work, 
until they have attained to five or six years. 

We will next consider the first appearance and successive 
changes of the teeth, with the marks and 
their descriptions from commencement to 
maturity. 

Seven or eight months before the foal is 

born, the germs or beginnings of the teeth 

are visible in the cavities of the jaws. At 

the time of birth, the first and second 

grinders have appeared, large, compared 

EIGHT DATS' TEETH. yf[i]^ thc slzc of the jaw, seemingly filling it. 

In the course of seven or eight days, the two centre nippers 

are seen as here represented. 

In the course of the first month, the third grinder appears, 
above and below ; and not long after, and generally before 
six weeks have expired, another incisor above and below 
will be seen on each side of the two first, which have 
now considerably grown, but not at- 
tained their perfect height. This cut 
will then represent the appearance of 
the mouth. 

At two months, the centre nippers 
will have reached their natural level, 
and between the second and third 
month the second pair will have over- 
taken them. They will then begin 
to wear a little, and the outer 
THEEB OR FOUR MONTHS' TEETH, cdgc, whlch was at first somcwhat 




NATURAL HISTORY OP THE HORSE. 89 

raised and sharp, is brought to a level with the inner 
edge, and so the month continues until some time between the 
sixth and ninth month, when another nipper begins to appear 
on each side of the first two, making six above and below, and 
completing the colt's mouth ; after which the only observable 
difference, until between the second and third year, is in the 
■wear and tear of these teeth. 

These teeth are covered with a polished and exceedingly 
hard enamel ; indeed, it is so hard that it almost bids defiance 
to the action of a file. It spreads over that portion of the 
tooth which appears above the gum, and not only so, but as 
they are to be so much employed in nipping up the grass and 
gathering the animal's food — and in such erfiployment even 
this hard substance must be gradually worn away — a portion 
of it, as it passes over the upper surface of the teeth, is bent 
inward, and sunk into the body of the teeth, and forms a little 
pit in them. The inside and bottom of this pit being black- 
ened by the food, constitute the mark in them, by the gradual 
disappearance of which, in consequence of the wearing down 
of the teeth, we are enabled for several years to judge of the 
age of the animal. 

The colt's nipping teeth are rounded in front, somewhat 
hollow toward the mouth, and presenting a cutting surface, 
with the outer edge rising in a slanting direction above the 
inner edge. This, however, soon begins to wear down, until 
both surfaces are level, and the mark, which was originally 
long and narrow, becomes shorter, wider, and fainter. At 
six months, the four nippers are beginning to wear to a level. 

The annexed cut will convey some idea of the appearance 
of the teeth at twelve months. The four middle teeth are 



90 



NATURAL HISTORY OP THE HORSE. 




TBETH AT TWELVE MONTHS. 



almost level, and the corners are becoming so. The mark in 
the two middle teeth is wide and faint, in the next two teeth 

it is longer, darker, and more 
narrow. In the corner teeth it 
is longest, darkest, and most 
narrow. 

The back teeth, or grinders, 
will not gnide us far in ascer- 
taining the age of the animal, 
for we cannot easily inspect 
them ; but there are some inter- 
esting particulars connected 
with them. The foal is born with two grinders in each jaw, 
above and below, or they appear within two or three days after 
birth. Before the expiration of the month they are succeeded 
by a third, more backward. The crowns of the grinders are 
entirely covered with enamel on the tops and sides, but attrition 
soon wears it away from the top, and there remains a compound 
surface of alternate layers of crusta petrosa, enamel, and 
ivory, which are employed in grinding down the hardest por- 
tions of the food. Nature has, therefore, made an additional 
provision for their strength and endur- 
ance The annexed cut represents a 
srrinder sawed across. The five dark 




spots represent bony matter; the parts 
covered with lines enamel, and the white 
A GBiNDER SAWED ACROSS. spacBS a stroug bony cement uniting the 
other portions of the teeth. 

At the completion of the first year a fourth grinder usually 
comes up, and the yearling has then, or soon afterwards, six 



NATURAL HISTORY OP THE HORSE. 



91 



nippers and four grinders above and below in each jaw, which, 
with the alteration in the nippers just described, will enable us 
to calculate the age of foal, subject to some Tariations, arising 
from the period of weaning and the nature of the food. 

At the age of one year and a half, the mark in the central 
nippers will be much shorter and fainter ; that in the two other 
pairs will have undergone an 
evident change, and all the 
nippers will be flat. At two 
years this will be more mani- 
fest. The accompanying cut 
deserves attention, as giving 
an accurate representation of 
the nippers in the lower jaw 
of a two-year-old colt. 

About this period a fifth 
grinder will appear, and now 
likewise commences anotlier 
adapted to the size and wants of the young animal. They are 
sufficiently large to occupy and fill the colt's jaws ; but when 
these bones have expanded with the increasing growth of the 
animal, the teeth are separated too far from each other to be 
useful, and another and larger set is required. The second 
teeth then begin to push up from below, and the fangs of the 
first are absorbed, until the former approach the surface of the 
gum, when they drop out. Where the temporary teeth do not 
rise immediately under the milk teeth, but by their sides, the 
latter being pressed sideways are absorbed throughout their 
whole length. They grow narrow, are pushed out of place, 
and cause inconvenience to the gum, and sometimes to the 




TWO TEARS TEETH. 



process. The first teeth are 



92 



NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 



cheek. They are then sometimes improperly called wolf's 
teeth, and should be extracted. 

The teeth which first appeared are first renewed, and there- 
fore the front or first grinders are changed at the age of two 
years. During the period between the falling out of the central 
milk teeth, and the coming up of the permanent ones, the colt; 
having a broken mouth, may find some difficulty in grazing. If 

he should fall away consider- 



ably in condition, he should 
be fed with mashes and corn, 
or cut feed. The cut annexed 
represents a three-year-old 
mouth. 

The central teeth are 
larger than the others, with 
two grooves in the entire 
convex surface, and the mark 
is long, narrow, deep, and 
black. Not having yet attained their full growth, they are 
lower than the others. The mark in the next two nippers is 
nearly worn out, and it is wearing away in the corner nippers. 
7s it possible to give this mouth to an early two-year -old''} 
The ages of all horses used to be reckoned from the first of 
May; but some are foaled even as early as January, and being 
actually four months over the two years, if they have been well 
nursed and fed, and are strong and large, they may, with the 
inexperienced, have an additional year put upon them. The 
central nippers are punched or drawn out, and the others appear 
three or four months earlier than they otherwise would. In the 
natural process they would only rise by long pressing upon the 




t;>cjV 



THREE TEARS. 




NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HOpSE. 93 

first teeth, and causing their absorption. But, opposition from 
the first set being removed, it is easy to imagine that their pro- 
gress will be more rapid. Three or four months will be gained 
in the appearance of these teeth, and these three or four months 
will enable the breeder to term him a late colt of the preceding 
year. To him, however, who is accustomed to horses, the 
general form of the animal, the little development of the fore- 
hand, the continuance of the mark upon the next pair of nippers, 
its more evident existence in the corner ones, some enlarge- 
ment or irregularity- about the gums from the violence used in 
forcing out the teeth, the small growth of the first and fifth 
grinders, and the non-appearance of the sixth grinder, which, 
if it be not through the gum at three years old, is swelling under 
it, and preparing to get through — any or all of these circum- 
stances, Carefully attended to, will be a sufficient security against 
deception. 

A horse at three years old ought to have the central per- 
manent nippers growing, the other two pairs wasting, six 
grinders in each jaw, above and below, the first and fifth level, 
the others and the sixth protruding. The sharp edge of new 
incisors, although it could not well be expressed in the cut, will 
be very evident when compared with the old teeth. 

As the permanent nippers wear and continue to grow, a 
narrow portion of the cone-shaped tooth is exposed by the 
attrition, and they look as if they had been compressed, but it 
is not so. Not only will the mark be wearing out, but the 
Towns of the teeth will be sensibly smaller. 

At three years and a half, or between that and four, the next 
pair of nippers will be changed, and the mouth at that time 
cannot be mistaken. The central nippers will have attained 



94 



NATURAL HISTORY OP THE HORSE. 



nearly their full growth. A vacuity will be left where the 
second stood, or they will begin to peep above the gum, and 
the corner ones will be diminished in breadtli, worn down, and 
the mark becoming small and faint. At this period, likewise, 
!the second pair of grinders will be shed. Previously to this 
may be the attempt of the dealer to give to his three-year-old 
an additional year ; but the fraud will be detected by an ex- 
amination similar to that already described. 

At four years, the central nippers will be fully developed ; 
the sharp edge somewhat worn off, and the mark shorter, wider, 
and fainter. The next pair will be up, but they will be small, 

with the mark deep and 
extending quite across 
them as in the annexed 
cut. The corner nippers 
will be larger than the in- 
side ones, yet smaller than 
they were, and flat, and the 
mark nearly effaced. The 
sixth grinders will have 
risen to a level with the 
others, and the tushes will 
» begin to appear. 
Now, more than at any other time, will the dealer be anxious 
to put an additional year upon the animal, for the difference 
between a four-year-old colt and a five-year-old horse, in 
strength, utility, and value, is very great; but the want of wear 
in the other nippers, the small size of the corner ones, the little 
growth of the tush, the smallness of the second grinder, the low 
forehand, the legginess of the colt, and the thickness and little 




FOUR TEARS. 



NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 95 

depth of the mouth, will, to a man of common experience 
among horses, at once detect the cheat. 

The tushes are four in number, two in each jaw, situated 
between the nippers and the grinders, much nearer to the 
former than the latter, and nearer in the lower jaw than in the 
upper, but this distance increases in both jaws with the age. 
In shape, the tush somewhat resembles a cone ; it protrudes 
from the gum about half an inch, and is sharp-pointed and curved. 
The appearance of this tush in the horse may vary from four 
years to four years and six months. It can only be accelerated a 
few weeks by cutting the gum over it. At four years and a half, or 
between that and five, the last important change takes place in 
the mouth of the horse. The corner nippers are shed, and the 
permanent ones begin to appear. The central nippers are con- 
siderably worn, and the next pair are commencing to show 
marks of usage. The tush has now protruded, and is generally 
a full half inch in height ; externally, it has a rounded promi- 
nence, with a groove on 
cither side, and it is evi- 
dently hollowed within. 
The reader scarcely needs 
to be told that after the 
rising of the corner nip- 
per, the animal changes 
its name. The colt be- 
comes a horse, the filly a 
mare. 
FiTE TEARS. At fivc ycars, the 

horse's mouth is almost perfect, as represented in the annexed 
cut. The corner nippers are quite up, with the long, deep 




96 



NATURAL HISTORY OP THE HORSE. 



mark irregular ia the inside, and the other nippers bearing evi- 
dent toliens of increased wearing. The tush is much grown ; 
the grooves have almost or quite disappeared, and the outer 
surface is regularly convex. It i's still as concave within, and 
with the edge nearly as sharp, as it was six months before. 
The sixth molar is quite up, and the third molar is wanting. 
This last circumstance, if the general appearance of the animal, 
and particularly his forehand, and the wearing of the centre 
nippers, and the growth and shape of the tushes be likewise 
carefully attended to, will prevent deception, if a late four- 
year-old is attempted to be substituted for a five-year-old. 
The nippers maybe brought up a few months before their time, 
and the tushes a few weeks, but the grinder is with difficulty 
displaced. The last three grinders and the tushes are never 

shed. 

At six years, as in the 
annexed cut, the mark on 
the central nippers is worn 
out. There will still be 
a difference of color in 
the centre of the tooth. 
The cement filling up the 
hole, made by the dipping 
of the enamel, will pre- 
sent a browner hue than 
the other parts of the 
tooth ; and it will be evi- 
dently surrounded by an edge of enamel, and there will remain 
ever a little depression in the centre, and also a depression 
round the case of enamel ; but the deep hole in the centre of 




SIX TEARS. 



NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 



97 



the teeth, with the blackened surface which it presents, and 
the elevated edge of enamel, will have disappeared. Persons 
not much accustomed to horses have been puzzled here. They 
expected to find a plain surface of uniform color, and knew not 
what conclusion to draw when there were both discoloration 
and irregularity. 

In the next incisors, the mark is shorter, broader, and fainter, 
and in the corner teeth the edges of the enamel are more regu- 
lar, and the surface is evidently worn. The tush has attained 
its fall growth, being nearly or quite an inch long, convex 
outward, concave within, tending to a point, and the extremity 
somewhat curved. The third grinder is fairly up, and all the 
grinders are level. 

The horse may now be said to have a perfect mouth. All 
the teeth are produced, fully grown, and have sustained no 
material injury. During these important changes of the teeth, 
the animal has suffered less than could be supposed possible. 

At seven years, as in the 



accompanying cut, the mark, 
in the way in which it has 
been described, is worn out 
in the four central nippers, 
and is fast wearing away in 
the corner teeth ; the tush is 
also beginning to be altered. 
It is rounded at the point, 
rounded at tbe edges, still 
round without, and beginning to get round inside. 

At eight years old, the tush is rounder in every way ; tbe 
mark is gone from all the bottom nippers, and it may almost 
1 




SEVEX TEAKS. 



98 



NATURAL HISTORY OP THE HORSE. 



be said to be out of the mouth. There is nothing remaining 
in the bottom nippers that can clearly show the age of the 
horse, or justify the most experienced examiner in giving a 
positive opinion. This should be distinctly borne in mind, as 
it is a very common error in the United States, and one especi- 
ally insisted on by dealers having old horses to sell, that the 
age can be positively ascertained even to ten, eleven, or twelve 
years, so that it can be predicated of a horse that he is so old, 
and no older. This is an absolute fallacy. It is easy, from 
many general signs, to see that a horse is above eight years 
old ; but it is impossible to judge certainly how much older. 
The length and angularity of the nippers, the depth of the 
super-orbital cavities, and other points of information, may 
enable a good judge to guess comparatively, but never to speak 
surely. 

Dishonest dealers have been said to resort to a method of 
prolonging the mark on the lowef nippers. It is called Bish- 
oping, from the name of the scoundrel who invented it. The 

horse of eight or nine years 



old — whose mouth is repre- 
sented in the accompany- 
ing cut — is thrown, and 
with an engraver's tool a 
hole is dug in the now al- 
most plain surface of the 
corner teeth, in shape re- 
sembling the mark yet left 
EIGHT OB NINE TEARS. In thosc of a scveu-year- 

old horse. The hole is then burned with a heated iron, and 
a permanent black stain is left. The next pair of nippers is 




NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 99 

sometimes slightly touched. An ignorant man would be very 
easily deceived by this trick ; but the irregular appearance of 
the cavity, the dififusion of the black stain around the tushes, 
the sharpened edges and concave inner surface of which can 
never be given again, the marks on the upper nippers, together 
with the general conformation of the horse, can never deceive 
the careful examiner. 

Horsemen, after the animal is eight years old, are accustomed 
to look to the nippers in the upper jaw, and some conclusion 
has been drawn from the appearances which they present. It 
cannot be doubted that the mark remains in them for some 
years after it has been obliterated in the nippers of the lower 
jaw. 

There are various opinions as to the intervals between the 
disappearance of the mark from the different cutting teeth of 
the upper jaw. Some have averaged it at two years, others at 
one. The latter opinion is more commonly adopted by those 
most conversant, and then the age is thus determined. At 
nine years, the mark will be worn from the middle nippers ; 
from the next pair at ten ; and from all the upper nippers at 
eleven. During these periods the tush is likewise undergoing 
a manifest change. It is blunter, shorter, and rounder. In 
what degree this takes place in the different periods, long and 
favorable opportunities can alone enable the horseman to 
decide. 

The alteration in the form of the tushes is frequently uncer- 
tain. It will sometimes be blunt at eight ; and at others re- 
main pointed at eighteen. 

After eleven, and until the horse is very old, the age may 
be guessed at with some degree of confidence, from the shape 



100 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 

of the upper surface or extremity of the nippers. At eight 
they are all oval, the length of the oval running across from 
tooth to tooth ; but as the horse gets older,' the teeth diminish 
in size — and this commencing in their width, and not in their 
thickness. They become a little apart from each other, and 
their surfaces become round instead of oval. At nine, the 
centre nippers are evidently so ; at ten, the others begin to have 
their ovals shortened. At eleven, the second pair of nippers 
is quite rounded ; and at thirteen, the corner ones have also 
that appearance. At fourteen, the faces of the central nippers 
become somewhat triangular. At seventeen, they are all so. 
At nineteen, the angles begin to wear off, and the central 
teeth are again oval, but in a reversed direction, viz., from 
outward, inward; and at twenty-one, they all wear this 
form. 

It would, of course, be folly to expect any thing like a 
certainty in an opinion of the exact age of an old horse, as 
drawn from the above indications. It is contended by some, 
though denied by others, that stabled horses have the marks 
sooner worn out than those that are at grass ; and crib-biters 
still sooner. At nine or ten, the bars of the mouth become 
less prominent, and their regular diminution will designate in- 
creasing age. At eleven or twelve, the lower nippers change 
their original upright direction, and project forward horizon- 
tally, becoming of a yellow color. 

The general indications of old age, independent of the 
teeth, are the deepening of the hollows over the eyes ; gray 
hairs, and particularly over the eyes, and about the muzzle ; 
thinness and hanging down of the lips ; sharpness of the 
withers, sinking of the back, lengthening of the quarters ; and 



NATURAL HISTORY OP THE HORSE. 101 

the disappearance of windgalls, spavins, and tumors of every 
kind. 

Horses kindly and not prematurely used, sometimes live to 
between thirty-five and forty-five years of age ; and a well 
authenticated account is given of a barge horse that died in 
his sixty-second year. 

Under this head of age, nothing beyond the cut of the com- 
plete aged mouth, with the accompanying description of it, 
would have been here inserted, were it not for the prevalent 
opinion, inculcated by interested dealers in the United States, 
that the age of a horse, after eight or nine years, can be as 
certainly and as exactly predicated by mouth-mark, and his 
exact age guaranteed accordingly, as previously to that 
period. 

Summing up all that need be offered on this particular point, 
we simply say, that if one chooses to buy a horse past mark 
of mouth, he must do so on his own judgment and at his own 
risk ; for to credit any assertions, or to give ear to any horse- 
dealer's opinion on the subject, is sheer folly. 




i^^ Relative to Breeding, — a very important 
subject, all will admit — two very common mis- 
^:;^ takes are made ; the first, that mares are bred 
from only because they are useless for work, 
and consequently have to be turned out to grass 
for the season ; the second, that a mare is put to a handsome 
horse which may chance to strike the fancy of her owner, without 
a moment's consideration on the part of the latter as to how far 
hin particula: mare is suited to that particular horse. The 



BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 103 

consequence of the first error is, that the infirmities of the mare 
are perpetuated in her unfortunate oflfspring, and thus become 
hereditary, to the no small disappointment of the breeder. In 
the second case mentioned, the result is an indescribable 
mongrel, possessing only a combination of bad qualities, without 
a single redeeming trait. 

Now, no principle is better established in breeding than that 
"like will produce like ;" in other words, that the offspring will 
inherit the general or mingled qualities of the parents. So 
true is this, that there is scarcely a disease aflfecting either of 
the parents that is not inherited by the foal, or, at least, to which 
he does not at times show a predisposition. The consequences 
of bad usage or hard work even will descend to the progeny. 
Though the defects may not appear in the immediate offspring, 
they often do in the next, or some succeeding generation. 
Some knowledge is therefore indispensable of the parentage 
both of the sire and the dam. p 

Both parents should be selected with reference not only to 
their individual points of excellence, but also to the relative 
adaptation which the points of one present to the points of the 
other. Though both may be excellent in their way, one parent 
may have points of excellence which actually counteract or neu- 
tralize those of the other. None but sound parents, therefore, 
should be bred from ; accidents, however, are not to be regarded 
as unsoundness ; but if a defect exists in a mare which is in- 
tended for breeding, the breeder should be certain that such 
defect is a mere accident, and not a natural malformation. 
Both parents should also be as free from moral as from physical 
infirmity ; from faults or vices of temper or disposition. Although 
a defect of one parent may sometimes be counteracted by a pre- 



104 BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 

ponderating excellence relative to that defect iu the other, great 
care is necessary that both parents do not possess the same de- 
fect. If one would be perfectly certain in breeding, it is better to 
avoid even such mares as have suffered merely from accident ; nor 
should the mare be put to the horse at too early an age, if one 
would avoid the hazard of obtaining an unreliable offspring. 

The best form of a mare from which to breed, for any pur- 
pose, is a short-legged, lengthy animal, with a deep, roomy 
chest and carcass, wide and capacious hips, and a sound 
constitution. "Breed," of course, must be looked for, accord- 
ing to the class of horses to which the mare belongs ; a good, 
animated countenance, an upright, sprightly carriage ; general 
structure of muscle, bone and sinew firm, dense, and compact. 
The head of the brood-mare is an important point to be re- 
garded ; a mare that has a heavy head and a stupid countenance 
cannot breed a good foal, unless to a horse possessed of fire 
almost to madrfess — for her countenance indicates her disposi- 
tion. The neck should be brought out of the top of the withers, 
and not of the bottom of the shoulders and chest ; the shoulders 
should be well back, the blade-bone lying obliquely from the 
shoulder joint ; the blade should also belong and wide, extend- 
ing nearly to the top of the withers, but attached so closely and 
so well covered with muscle as not to present any undue pro- 
minence ; the back of the shoulder should also be well furnished 
with muscle, appearing to the mounted rider of a wedge shape 
widening towards his knee ; the fore-leg should be perpendicular, 
the toe and the point of the shoulder being in a right line ; the 
foot should be round, even, and of a dark color ; the heels should 
be open, but not low ; the brisket should be deep, especially in 
the case of a riding-horse, as otherwise a crupper will be re- 



BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 105 

quired to keep the saddle in its proper place ; the quarters should 
be long and oval on the top ; the hips cannot be too broad in 
a brood-mare, though in a stallion too wide hips are objection- 
able ; the hocks should be regarded, and the shank-bone and 
(Sinew, both before and behind, should be well developed, and 
dropped straight below the joint. 

As to the shape of the stallion little satisfactory can be said. 
It must depend upon that of the mare, and the kind of horse 
wished to be bred ; but, if there is one point absolutely essential, 

it is compactness — as much 
^^^ goodness and strength 
as possible con^lensed 
:o a small space, 
fext to compactness, 
inclination of the 
shouldershould 
be regarded. A 
huge stallion, 
with upright 
THE AKAB STALLION JUPITER. shouldcrs, Hcvcr 

got a capital hunter or hackney; from such nothing but a 
cart or dray horse can be obtained, and that, perhaps, spoiled 
by the opposite form of the mare. If, however, a merely slow 
draught-horse is desired, an upright shoulder is desirable, if not 
absolutely necessary. 

The principal requirements in connection with breeding may 
be concisely summed up as follows : — 

First. There should be mutual adaptation in form and size, 
and indeed in all important characteristics, between the sire and 
the dam. 




106 BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 

Second. If the mare be defective in any particular, she should 
not be bred to a stallion having a similar, or even an opposite, 
fault ; but one should rather be chosen perfect in that point. 

Third. Exceedingly small mares should not be bred with 
enormously large horses ; distortions will generally be the result. 
For a mare of sixteen hands, a horse of not less than fifteen 
hands should be selected ; if she be too low or small, the horse 
may be an inch or two higher, but not of the tall or leggy kind. 

Fourth. As it is fi^equently the case, that without any known 
cause the blood of a certain kind of horses will not cross well 
with that of another, such instances when ascertained should be 
avoided. 

Fifth. If the mare is of a good kind of horses, but one which 
has degenerated in size from "in-breeding," (that is, from con- 
tinuous breeding into the same family and blood — with their 
own daughters and grand-daughters, in other words — for about 
two generations,) the only remedy is, to breed to the purest 
stallion that can be found, but of a different kind from hers, 
unless some ten or more generations removed. 

Sixth. After breeding for several generations from males and 
females of one kind, it is generally beneficial to change to 
another entirely different ; otherwise degeneracy in size will be 
the general result. 

The mare should not be put to horse under three years of 
age. Although some contend that, if lightly worked, she may 
be used for breeding until she is twenty, yet it is very doubtful 
whether breeding from any mare over twelve years old, at the 
very utmost, will prove satisfactory. If a large colt is desired, 
have a large mare ; as her size has generally more to do with 
the matter than that of the stallion. The most favorable time 



BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 107 

for putting the mare to the horse is from March to the begin- 
ning of May ; colts foaled in March are generally found to turn 
out hardier, and to stand better, than those foaled earlier. 

From the time of covering to within a few days of the ex- 
pected pei'iod of foaling, the cart-mare may be kept at moderate 
labor not only without injury, but with decided advantage. 
She should then be released from work and kept near home 
under the frequent inspection of some careful person. When 
nearly half the time of pregnancy has elapsed, she should have 
a little better food; being allowed one or two feeds of grain in 
the day. As this is about the time when they are accustomed 
to slink their foals, or when abortion occurs, the owner's eye 
should be frequently upon her. Good feeding and moderate 
exercise are the best preventives of this mischance. As the 
mare that has once slunk her foal is liable to a repetition of 
this accident, she should never be suffered to be with other 
mares between the fourth and fifth months ; for so great is the 
power of sympathy or imagination in the mare that if one 
suffers abortion, others in the same pasture will too often share 
the same fate. Farmers frequently suppose that such mishaps 
originate from some infection ; and many wash and paint and 
tar their stables to prevent an infection that really lies in the 
imagination. 

The period of pregnancy varies from forty-four to fifty-six 
weeks, but it is usually from forty-seven to fifty. If the mare, 
whether of pure or common breed, be cared for as suggested 
above, and be in good health while in foal, little danger will 
attend the act of giving birth to the young. Should there be, 
however, false presentation of the foetus, or any difficulty in pro- 
ducing it, recourse should be had to a well-informed veterinary 



108 BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 

surgeon, rather than to run the risk of injuring the mare by 
violent attempts to relieve her. 

After the mare has foaled, she should be turned into some 
well-sheltered pasture, with a shed or hovel into which she may 
run when she pleases. If she has foaled early and the grass 
is scanty, she should have a feed or two of oats or Indian corn 
daily ; if the corn is given in a trough upon the ground, the foal 
will partake of it with her. Nothing is gained at this time by 
starving the mare and stinting the foal. When the new grass 
is plentiful, the quantity of grain may be gradually diminished. 
The proper care of young foals will repay a hundred-fold ; this 
being, indeed, the most critical period of the animal's life, when 
attention or neglect produces the most noticeable and permanent 
results. 

If convenient, the foal may be permitted to run for twelve 
months at the foot of the mare ; but when mares are kept ex- 
pressly for breeding purposes, many circumstances render this 
objectionable. "Within about a month or six weeks from foal- 
ing the mare will be again in heat, and should be put to the 
horse ; at the same time, also, if she is nsed for agricultural 
purposes, she may resume light work. At first, the foal should 
be shut up in the stable during working hours ; but, as it ac- 
quires sufficient strength, it is better to allow it to follow its 
dam. The work will contribute to the health of the mother, 
and increase her flow of milk ; and the foal, by accompanying 
her, will suck more frequently, thrive better, become tamed, 
and gradually familiarized with the objects among which it is 
afterward to live. While the mare is thus worked, she and the 
foal should be well fed ; and two feeds of corn, at least, should 
be added to the green food which they get when turned out 
after their work, and at night. 



BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 



109 



la five or six moutlis, according to tlie growtli of tlie foal, 
it may be weaned. For tliis purpose, it sliould eitlaer be 
housed, or turned into some pasture at a distance from the 
dam. The mare should be put to harder work and drier food. 
If her milk is troublesome, or she pines after her foal, a few 
purgatives (one or two urine-balls, or a physic ball) will bo 
found useful. The foal should be fed well and liberally every 
morning and evening, bruised oats and bran being about the 
best kind of food which can be given. The money so laid out 
upon the liberal nourishment of the colt, is well expended ; 
yet, while he is well fed, he should not be rendered delicate by 
excess of care. Toward the end of summer the foal may be 
turned out to general pasture without fear of his again seeking 
his dam. 

Should the foal be a male, and emasculation be desirable, it 
is better to perform the operation at the time of weaning, that 
the one trouble shall serve for both occasions. If, however, 
weaning take place in June or July, when the fly abounds, the 
operation should not be performed, as this insect by its attacks 
will cause restlessness and consequent inflammation, and thus 
retard recovery. Early spring, or an advanced period of 
autumn, is the best time. This operation should in no instance 
be performed by any other than a competent veterinary sur- 
geon. One thing in this connection should be mentioned ; 
when a horse is suffered to attain two-thirds of his growth 
before emasculation, an animal is obtained of form, power, and 
value far superior to that which has been operated upon when 
a foal. This much is deserving of remembrance ; though we 
cannot omit heartily condemning the practice of emasculation 
at all. 



110 



BREAKING. 




^fcte€t£>«r.C^ 



BHEAKING. 

"No greater mistake can be made than tlie postponement 
of this part of the rearing of a horse. It should always 
commence as soon as the colt is weaned, or immediately after 
the effects of the emasculation have disappeared ; it should 

in this manner be commenced 
carried on gradually, with 
gentleness and kind- 
- ness. The foal should 
be daily handled, par- 
tially dressed, accus- 
tomed to the halter 
when led about, and 
even tied up occasion- 

BREAEINa. 11 c 1 

ally tor an hour or so. 
The tractability, good temper, and value of the horse depend 
much more upon this than most breeders consider. The person 
who feeds the colt should have the entire management of him 
at this period, and he should be a trustworthy person, possessed 
of a qvuiet, uniform temper and a kindly disposition. Many 
a horse is spoiled and rendered permanently untamable by 
early harshness or improper treatment ; and many a horse that 
otherwise would have proved a vicious, unmanageable brute, 
has been brought to be a docile, gentle, and affectionate ser- 
vant by the judicious treatment of those to whose charge his 
management at this particular period was fortunately in- 
trusted. 

Such a treatment is sufficient for the first year ; after the 
second winter, the operation of training should commence in 



BREAKING. Ill 

good earnest. The colt should be bitted, a bit being selected 
which will not hurt his mouth, and much smaller than those in 
common use. The work of bitting may perhaps occupy three 
or four days ; the colt being suffered to amuse himself with the 
bit; to play, and to champ it for an hour or so during a few 
successive days. When he has become accustomed to the bit, 
he may have two long ropes attached to it, slightly fastened 
to his sides by a loose girth over the back, and his feeder may 
thus drive him, as it were, around a field, pulling upon him 
as he proceeds. This will serve as a first lesson in drawing. 
If he is intended for a saddle-horse, a filled bag may be 
thrown across his back and there secured, and, after he has 
become used to this, a crotch may be fastened upon bis back, 
its lower extremities grasping his sides, and thus preparing 
him for the legs of his rider. 

Portions of the harness may next be put upon him, reserving 
the blind winkers for the last ; and a few days afterward he 
may go into the team. It is better that he should be one of 
three horses, having one before him, and the shaft-horse behind 
him. There should at first be the mere empty wagon ; and the 
draught is best begun over the grass, where the colt will not 
be frightened by the noise of the wheels. Nothing should be 
done to him, except giving him an occasional pat or a kind 
word. The other horses will keep him moving and in his place ; 
and after a short time, sometimes even during the first day, he 
will begin to pull with the rest. The load may then be gradu- 
ally increased. 

If the horse is desired for purposes of riding as well as for 
exclusively agricultural uses, his first lesson may be given when 
he is in the team ; his feeder, if possible, being the first one put 



112 BBEAKING. 

upon him. He will be too much confined by the harness and 
by the other horses, to make much resistance; and, in the 
greater number of instances, will quietly and at once submit 
Every thing, however, should proceed gradually and by suc- 
cessive steps, and, above all, no whip or harsh language should, 
under any circumstances, be allowed to be used. Although mild- 
ness is absolutely essential, it is none the less necessary that 
the colt should be taught implicit obedience to the will of his 
master. To accomplish this, neither whip, nor spur, nor loud 
shouting, nor hallooing is necessary; the successful horsebreaker 
is required to possess but the three grand requisites of firmness, 
steadiness, and patience. 

When the colt begins to understand his business somewhat, 
the most difficult part of his work, backing, may be taught him ; 
first, to back well without anything behind him, then with a 
light curb, and afterwards with some more heavy load — the 
greatest possible care being always taken that his mouth be not 
seriously hurt. If the first lesson causes much soreness of the 
gums, he will not readily submit to the second. If he has been 
previously rendered tractable by kind usage, time and patience 
will accomplish every thing that is desired. Some persons are 
in the habit of blinding the colt when teaching him to back. 
This can only be necessary with a restive and obstinate one, and 
even then should be used only as a last resort. 

In the whole process of breaking it should constantly be 
borne in mind, that scarcely any horses are naturally vicious. 
Cruel usage alone first provokes resistance. If that resistance 
is followed by greater severity, the stubbornness of the colt in- 
creases in proportion ; open warfare ensues, in which the man 
seldom gains the advantage, and the horse is frequently ren- 



BREAKING. 113 

dered utterly unfit for service. Correction may, indeed, be 
necessary for the purpose of enforcing implicit obedience, after 
the training has proceeded to a certain extent ; but the early 
lessons should be imparted with kindness alone. Young colts 
are sometimes very perverse ; and many days will occasionally 
pass, before they will suffer the bridle to be put on, or the saddle 
to be worn. It must not, however, be forgotten, that a single act 
of harshness will indefinitely increase this length of time ; but 
that patience and kindness will always prevail. On some occa- 
sion, when the colt is in a better humor than usual, the bridle 
may be put on, or the saddle be worn ; and, if this compliance, 
on his part is acconipanied by kindness and soothing on the 
part of the breaker, and no inconvenience or pain be suffered 
by the animal, all resistance will be ended. 

The same principles will apply to the breaking-in of the horse 
for the road. The handling and some portion of instruction 
sliould commence from the time of weaning ; for upon this the 
future tractibility of the horse in a great measure depends. At 
two years and a half, or three yea^s, the regular process of 
breaking-in should commence. If it is put off until the animal 
is four years old, his strength and obstinacy will be more difB- 
cult to overcome. The plan usually adopted by the breaker 
cannot, perhaps, be much improved ; except that there should 
be much more kindness and patience, and far less harshness and 
cruelty, than those persons are accustomed to exhibit, and a 
o-reat deal more attention to the form and natural action of the 
horse. A headstall is put on the colt, and a cavesson (or ap- 
paratus to confine and pinch the nose,) afiixed to it with long 
reins. He is first accustomed to the rein, then led around a 
ring on soft ground, and at length mounted and taught his 
8 



114 BREAKING. 

paces. Next to preserving the temper and docility of the horse, 
there is nothing of so much importance, as to teach him every 
pace and every part of his duty distinctly and thoroughly. 
Each should constitute a separate and sometimes long-continued 
lesson, taught by a man who will never allow his passion to 
overmaster his discretion. 

After the cavesson has been attached to the headstall, and 
the long reins put on, the colt should be quietly led about by 
the breaker — a steady boy following behind, to keep him moving 
by occasional threatening with the whip, but never by an actual 
blow. When the animal follows readily and quietly, he may be 
taken to the ring and walked around, right and left, in a very 
small circle. Care should be taken to teach him this pace 
thoroughly, never allowing him to break into a trot. The boy 
with his whip may here again be necessary, but an actual blow 
should never be inflicted. 

Becoming tolerably perfect in the walk, he should be quick- 
ened to a trot, and kept steadily at it ; the whip and the boy, 
if needful, urging him on, and the cavesson restraining him. 
These lessons should be short, the pace being kept perfect and 
distinct in each, and docility and improvement rewarded with 
frequent caresses, and handfuls of corn. The length of the 
rein may now be gradually increased, and the pace quickened, and 
the time extended, until the animal becomes tractable in these 
his first lessons ; toward the conclusion of which, crupper straps, 
or something similar, may be attached to the clothing. These, 
playing about the sides and flanks, accustom him to the flapping 
of the coat of the rider. The annoyance which they occasion 
will pass over in a day or two ; for when the animal learns by 
experience that no harm comes from them, he will cease to re- 
gard them. 



BREAKING. 115 

Next comes the bitting. The bits should be large and 
smooth, and the reins buckled to a ring on each side of the 
pad. There are many curious and expensive machines for this 
purpose, but the simple rein will be quite sufficient. It should 
at first be slack, and then very gradually tightened. This pre- 
pares for the more perfect manner in which the head will after- 
ward be got in its proper position, when the colt is accustomed 
to the saddle. Occasionally the breaker should stand in front 
of the colt, and take hold of each side-rein near to the mouth, 
and press upon it; and thus begin to teach him to stop and to 
back on the pressure of the rein, rewarding every act of do- 
cility, and not being too eager to punish occasional careless- 
ness or waywardness. 

The colt may now be taken into the road or street, that he 
may become gradually accustomed to the objects among which 
his services will be required. Here, from fear or playfulness, a 
considerable degree of starting and shying may be exhibited, 
of which as little notice as possible should be taken. The same 
or a similar object should be soon passed again, but at a greater 
distance. If the colt still shies, let the distance be still further 
increased, until he takes no notice of the object. Then he may 
be gradually brought nearer to it ; and this may usually be ac- 
complished without the slightest difficulty ; whereas, had there 
been an attempt to force him close to it in the first instance, 
the remembrance of the contest would have been associated 
with every appearance of the object, and the habit of shying 
would have been established. 

Hitherto, with a cool and patient breaker, the whip may have 
been shown, but will scarcely have been used ; the colt should 
now, however, be accustomed to this necessary instrument of 



116 BREAKING. 

authority. Let the breaker walk by the side of the animal, 
throw his right arm over his back, holding the reins in his left, 
occasionally quickening his pace, and at the moment of doing 
this tapping the horse with the whip in his right hand, and at 
first very gently. The tap of the whip and the quickening of 
the pace will soon become associated in the animal's mind. If 
necessary, these reminders may gradually fall a little heavier, 
and the feeling of pain be the monitor of the necessity of in- 
creased exertion. The lessons of reining in and stopping, and 
backing on the pressure of the bit, may continue to be practised 
at the same time. 

He may next be taught to bear the saddle. Some little 
caution will be necessary in first putting it on. The breaker 
should stand at the head of the colt, patting him and engaging 
his attention, while one assistant, on the off-side, gently places 
the saddle on the back of the animal ; another on the nearest 
side slowly tightening the girths. If he submits quietly to this, 
as he generally will when the previous process of breaking-in 
has been properly conducted, the operation of mounting may 
be attempted on the following, or on the third day. The 
breaker will need two assistants in order to accomplish this. 
He will remain at the head of the colt, patting and making 
much of him. The rider will put his foot into the stirrup, amd 
bear a little weight upon it, while the man on the opposite side 
presses equally on the other stirrup-leather ; and according to 
the docility of the animal, he will gradually increase the weight, 
until he balances himself on the stirrup. If the colt is uneasy 
or fretful, he should be spoken kindly to and patted, or a 
mouthful of grain be given to him ; but if he offers serious re- 
sistance, the lessons must terminate for that day. He may 
possibly be in a better humor on the morrow. 



BREAKING. 



m 



When the rider has balanced himself for a minute or two, he 
may gently throw his leg over, and quickly seat himself in the 
saddle. The breaker should then lead the animal around the 
ring, the rider meanwhile sitting perfectly still. After a few 
minutes he should take the reins, and handle them as gently as 
possible, guiding the horse by the pressure of them ; patting 
him frequently, and especially when he thinks of dismounting; 
and, after having dismounted, offering him a little grain, or 
green feed. The use of the rein in checking him, and of the 
pressure of the l^g and the touch of the heel in quickening his 
pace, will soon be taught, and his education will be nearly com- 
pleted. 

The horse having thus far submitted himself to the breaker, 
these pattings and awards must be gradually diminished, and 
implicit obedience mildly but firmly enforced. Severity will 
iiOt often be necessary, in the great majority of cases it being 

yf^-^/^^v . -iMiM^d. altogether 
— wvNil'fiC uncalled for; 

but should the 
animal, in a 
moment of 
waywardness, 
dispute the 
'command of 
the breaker, 
he must at 
once be taught that he is the slave of man, and 
that we have the power, by other means than those of kindness, 
to bend him to our will. The education of the horse, in short, 
should be that of the child. Pleasure is, as much as possible, 




118 CASTRATION. 

associated with the early lessons ; but firmness, or, if need be, 
coercion, must establish the habit of obedience. Tyranny and 
cruelty will, more speedily even la the horse than in the child, 
provoke the wish to disobey ; and, on every practicable occasion, 
the resistance to command. The restive and vicious horse is, 
in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, made so by ill-usage, and 
not by nature. None but those who will take the trouble to 
make the experiment, are aware how absolute a command the 
due admixture of firmness and kindness will soon give us over 
any horse. 



CASTRATION". 

The period at which this operation may be best performed 
depends, as has been previously remarked, much on the breed 
and form of the colt, and the purpose for which he is destined. 
For the common agricultural horse, the age of four or five 
months will be the most proper time, or, at least before he is 
weaned. Few horses are lost when cut at that age ; though 
cai'e should be taken that the weather is not too bad, nor the 
flies too numerous. 

If the horse is designed either for the carriage or for heavy 
draught, he should not be castrated until he is at least a year 
old ; and, even then, the colt should be carefully examined. If 
he is thin and spare about the neck and shoulders, and low in 
the withers, he will materially improve by remaining uncut 
another six months ; but if his fore quarters are fairly developed 
at twelve months, the operation should not be delayed, lest he 
grow gross and heavy before, and, perhaps, has begun too de- 
cidedly to have a will of his own. No specific age, therefore, 
can be fixf^d 5 but the operation should be performed rather late 



CASTRATION. lU 

in the spring, or early in the autumn, when the air is temperate 
and particularly when the weather is dry. 

"No preparation is necessary for the sucking colt, but it 
may be prudent to physic one of more advanced age. In 
the majority of cases, no after treatment will be necessary, ex- 
cept that the animal should be sheltered from intense heat, and 
more particularly from the wet. In temperate weather he 
will do much better running in the field than nursed in a close 
and hot stable. The moderate exercise which he will necessa- 
rily take in grazfng, will be preferable to entire inaction. 

The old method of opening the scrotum, or testicle bag, on 
each side, and cutting off the testicles, preventing bleeding by 
a temporary compression of the vessel, while they are seared 
with a hot iron, must not, perhaps, be abandoned ; but there is 
no necessity for that extra pain, when the spermatic cord (the 
blood-vessels and the nerve,) is compressed between two pieces 
of wood as tightly as in a vice, and there left until the following 
day, when it may be removed with a knife. 

The practice of some farmers of cording, or twitching their 
colts at an early period exposes the animal to much unneces- 
sary pain, and is attended with no slight danger. 

Another method of castration is by torsion. An incision is 
made, into the scrotum, and the vas deferens is exposed and 
divided. The artery is then seized by a pair of forceps con- 
trived for the purpose, and twisted six or seven times round. 
It retracts without untwisting the coils, and bleeding ceases. 
The testicle is removed, and there is no sloughing or danger. 
The most painful part of the operation — the operation of the 
firing-iron, or the claws — is avoided, and the wound readily 
heals. It is to be remarked, in this connection, that the use 



120 * DOCKING. 

of chloroform has been found very beneficial in performing the 
operation in the old way, both in removing all pain, and also 
preventing that severe struggling which often takes place, and 
which has sometimes been followed with very dangerous con- 
sequences. "With the assistance of this agent, the operation 
has been safely performed in seven minutes, without any pain 
to the animal. 



DOCKING. 

This is an operation, whose only sanction is to be found in 
the requirements of a senseless fashion. " The convenience of 
the rider," which is sometimes urged in its favor, is the veriest 
nonsense afloat. In truth, the operation is one of the most 
useless which the brain of man, fertile in romance and expedi- 
ents as it is, ever devised ; since, instead of adding to the beauty 
of the animal, as some assert, it but adds deformity. iN'ot many 
years back, this attempted improvement upon nature became a 
perfect mania. In England, however, this cruel practice has 
been almost entirely discarded ; and it is to be hoped that the 
operation in the United States also will speedily be frowned 
down. 

The operation, as now performed by veterinary surgeons, wag 
introduced some years ago by the American Veterinary Asso- 
ciation of Philadelphia. It consists in passing a narrow-bladed 
knife (a pricking knife will answer,) between the coccygeal bones 
at the desired point, from above downwards, cutting outwards 
and backwards on each side so as to form two flaps, which are 
carefully brought together over the end of the tail and secured 
by the interrupted suture ; thus giving protection to the stump 
of the tail, and making a much neater finish than by any other 



DOCKING. 121 

nethod which could be adopted. No styptic whatever is re- 
quired, and there need be no fear of hemorrhage, as the union 
generally takes place by what surgeons call first intention. If, 
however, the flaps do not fit nicely, healing will not take place 
without suppuration. This fiact should be borne in mind in 
performing the operation, as much time in healing may thus be 
saved, 

By the old method that joint is searched for, which is nearest 
to the desired length of tail. The hair is then turned up, and 
tied round with tape for an inch or two above this joint, and 
that lying immediately upon the joint is cut off. The horse is 
fettered with the side-line, and then the veterinary surgeon with 
his docking-machine, or the farmer with his carving-knife and 
mallet, cuts through the tail at one stroke. 

Some farmers dock their colts a few days after they are 
dropped. This is a commendable custom on the score of hu- 
manity. No colt was ever lost by it ; the growth of the hair, 
and the beauty of the tail not being at all impaired. 



NICKING, 

This barbarous operation was once sanctioned by fashion, 
and the breeder and the dealer are even now sometimes tempted 
to inflict the torture of it in order to obtain a ready sale for 
their colts. It is not, practiced to the extent that it used to 
be, nor is it attended by so many circumstances of cruelty. 

The operation is thus performed. The side-line is put on 
the horse, or some persons deem it more prudent to cast him, 
and that precaution may be recommended. The hair at the 
end of the tail is securely tied together, for the purpose of 
afterward attaching a weight to it. The operator then grasps 



122 NICKING. 

the tail in his hand, and, lifting it up, feels for the centre of 
one of the bones — the prominences at the extremities guiding 
hiin — from two to four inches from the root of the tail, accord- 
ing to the size of the horse. He then with a sharp knife di- 
vides the muscles deeply from the edge of the tail on one side 
to the centre, and, continuing the incision across the bone of 
the tail, he makes it as deep on the other side. One continued 
incision, steadily yet rapidly made, will accomplish all this. 
If it is a blood-horse that is operated on, this will be sufficient. 
For a hunter, two incisions are usually made, the second being 
about two inches below the first, and likewise as nearly as 
possible in the centre of one of the bones. 

On a hackney, a third incision is made ; for fashion has 
decided that his tail shall be still more elevated and curved. 
Two incisions only are made in the tail of a mare, and the 
second not very deep. 

When the second incision is made, some fibres of the mus- 
cles between the first and second will project into the wound, 
and must be removed by a pair of curved scissors. The same 
must be done with the projecting portions from between the 
second and third incisions. The wound should then be care- 
fully examined, in order to ascertain that the muscles have 
been equally divided on each side, otherwise the tail will be 
carried awry. This being done, pieces of tow must be intro- 
duced deeply into each incision, and confined, but not too 
tightly, by a bandage. A very profuse bleeding only will 
justify any tightness of bandage, and the ill consequences that 
have resulted from nicking are mainly attributable to the un- 
necessary force that is used in confining these pledgets of 
tow. Even if the bleeding, immediately after the operation, 



NICKINa. 



123 



should have been very great, the roller most be loosened in two 
or three hours, otherwise swelling and inflammation, and even 
death, may possibly ensue. Twenty-four hours after the ope- 
ration, the bandage must be quite removed; and then all that 
is necessary, so far as the healing of the incisions is concerned, 
is to keep them clean. 

The wounds must remain open ; and this can only be accom- 
plished by forci- 
bly keeping the 
tail curved back""^ 
during two or 
three weeks. For 
this purpose, a 
cord, one or two 
feet in length, is 
affixed to the end 
of the hair, which 

terminates in an- the usual method. 

other divided cord, each division going over a pulley on each 
side of the back of the stall. A weight is hung at each ex- 
tremity, sufficient to keep the incisions properly open, and 
regulated by the degree in which this is wished to be accom, 
plished. The animal will thus be retained in an uneasy posi' 
tion, although, after the first two or three days, probably not 
of acute pain. It is barbarous to increase this uneasiness or 
pain by affixing too great a weight to the cords ; for it should 
be remembered that the proper elevated curve is given to the 
tail, not by the weight's keeping it in a certain position for a 
considerable time, but by the depth of the first incisions, and 
the degree in which the wounds are kept open. 




124 



NICKING. 



The dock should not, for the first three or four days, be 
brought higher thau the back. Dangerous irritation and in- 
flammation would probably otherwise be produced. It may, 
after that, be gradually raised to an elevation of forty-five 
degrees. The horse should be taken out of the pulleys, and 
gently exercised once or twice every day; but the pulleys 
cannot finally be dispensed with until a fortnight after the 
wounds have healed, because the process of contraction, or the 
approach of the divided parts, goes on for some time after the 
skin is perfect over the incisions, and the tail would thus sink 
below the desired elevation. The French method is simpler 
and less barbarous than ours, allowing 
the horse to lie down or move about at J 
his pleasure. 
Where this ope- 
ration is to be 
performed, it 
might be adopted 
with advantage 
as shown in the- 
engraving an- 
nexed. 

If the tail has 

not been unnecessarily extended by enormous weights, no bad 
consequences will usually follow ; but if considerable inflamma- 
tion should ensue, the tail must be taken from the pulley, and 
carefully fomented with simple warm water, and a dose of 
physic given Locked-jaw has, in some rare instances, fol- 
lowed, under which tne horse generally perishes. The best 
means of cure la the early state of this disease, is to amputate 




THE FRENCH METHOD. 



THE STABLE. 125 

the tail at the joint above the highest incision. In order to 
prevent the hair from coming ofiF, it should be unplaited and 
combed out every fourth or fifth day. 



THE STABLE. 

The most desirable thing in a stable is ventilation. A horf^e 
requires air equally with his master ; and as the latter requires 
a chimney to his sleeping apartment, so does the former. This 
may be a mere outlet through the ceiling, or it may be formed 
as a dome or cupola. It should not, of course, be open at the 
top, or rain will get in, but roofed over, and have an opening 
at the sides. Besides this, there should be openings in the 
wall, near the ground, but not in the stalls. This will produce 
a thorough air, and may be so placed as not to expose the 
horses to the draught. 

The stable should not be less than twelve feet high, from floor 
to ceiling, and the floor should be well paved, slope slightly back- 
ward, and along the back of the stalls should run a gutter, about 
a foot wide and an inch or two deep. No stable should be less 
than eighteen feet deep, and each stall should be at least six- 
feet clear ; but if eight feet can be allowed, so much the better. 
Although some horses will agree when kept together in one 
stall, it is far preferable to allow each a stall to himself. The 
manger should be about sixteen inches deep, the same from front 
to back, more narrow at bottom than at top, and two feet in 
length. The rack is best when closed in front, the back part 
being an inclined plane of wood sloping gradually toward the 
front, and terminating about two feet down. This kind of 
rack effects a considerable saving in hay ; for the reader 
scarcely needs to be reminded that in the common rack much 



126 



THE STABLE. 



of the hay given is dragged down and trampled in the litter. 

It also prevents the hay-seed from falling into the horse's eyes ; 

for the rack is on a 
level with the man- 



ger, and about three 
feetfrom the ground. 
Another advantage 
gained by this rack 
is the facility with 
wliich it can be 
filled, thus obvi- 
ating all necessity 
for alofiover the 
stable, and, con- 
sequently, admit- 
ting of a greater 
height of ceiling 




CtJSTOMART FORM OF STALLS. 



above the horses, as well as of a superior ventilation. 

The windows and the doors should be at opposite ends, as 
ventilation is thereby promoted ; the doors should be divided 
transversely, at the height of about four feet from the ground. 
The upper portion may thus be occasionally opened. White- 
wash is a bad dressing for the interior of the stable, as it causes 
too great a glare of light ; paint of a leaden color is best, and 
it can be washed from time to time with soap and water. 
There should be a bin, properly divided into partitions for 
oats, beans, and the like ; and this is better at the back of the 
stable. 

A few buckets of water dashed over the floor of the stable 
while the horses are at work, will keep all sweet. The litter 



AIR. 127 

should also be turned out to dry, and a little fresh straw spread 
for the horses to stale on. A shed placed beside the stable is 
a great advantage, on two accounts — it admits of the litter 
being dried, and the horse dressed there in wet and stormy 
weather. 

A little powdered gypsum, strown upon the stable floor, will 
also act by absorbing the ammoniacal gas, and thns removing 
its foul smell — a frequent predisposing cause of ophthalmia. 
If the ammonia, however, accumulates in any considerable 
quantity, the speediest and most efficacious remedy as a disin- 
fectant is muriatic acid. 



AIE. 

The importance of thorough ventilation has been adverted to 
under the preceding head, but a few words additional seem 
necessary. 

A hot stable has in the minds of many been long connected 
with a glossy coat for the horse. The latter, it is thought, 
cannot be obtained without the former. To this it may be re- 
plied that in winter a thin, glossy coat is not desirable. Nature 
gives to every animal a warmer clothing when the cold weather 
approaches. The horse — the agricultural horse, especially— 
acquires a thicker and a lengthened coat, in order to defend 
him from the surrounding cold. Man puts on additional and 
a warmer covering, and his comfort is increased and his health 
preserved by it. He who knows anything of the farmer's horse, 
or cares about his enjoyment, will not object to a coat a little 
longer, and a little roughened when the wintry wind blows 
bleak. The coat, however, does not need to be so long as to 



128 Am. 

be unsightly ; and warm clothing, even in a cool stable, will, 
with plenty of careful and faithful grooming, keep the hair suf- 
ficiently smooth and glossy to satisfy the most fastidious. The 
over-heated air of a close stable dispenses with the necessity of 
this grooming, and therefore the idle attendant unscrupulously 
sacrifices the health and safety of the horse. 

If the stable is close, the air will not only be hot, but foul. 
The breathing of every animal contaminates it ; and when, in the 
course of the night, with every aperture stopped, it passes again 
and again through the lungs, the blood cannot undergo its proper 
and healthy change ; digestion will not be so perfectly performed, 
and all the functions of life are injured. Let the owner of a 
valuable horse think of his passing twenty or twenty-two out of 
the twenty -four hours in this debilitating atmosphere. Nature 
does wonders in enabling every animal to accommodate itself 
to the situation in which it is placed, and the horse that lives 
in the stable-oven sufi"ers less from it than would scarcely be 
deemed possible ; but he does not, and cannot, possess the 
power and hardihood which he would acquire under other cir- 
cumstances. 

The air of the improperly closed and heated stable is still 
further contaminated by the urine and dung, which rapidly fer- 
ment there, and give out stimulating and unwholesome odors. 
When one first enters an ill-managed stable, and especially early 
in the morning, he is annoyed, not only by the heat of the con- 
fined air, but by a pungent smell, resembling hartshorn ; what sur- 
prise, then, need be excited at the inflammation of the eyes, and 
the chronic cough, and the disease of the lungs, by which the 
animal, which has been all night shut up in this vitiated atmos- 
phere, is often attacked ; or if glanders and farcy should occa- 



AIR. 129 

sionally break out in such stables ? Chemical experiments have 
demonstrated that the urine of the horse contains in it an ex- 
ceedingly large quantity of hartshorn ; aijd not only so, but 
that, influenced by the heat of a crowded stable, and possibly 
by other decompositions which are going on at the same time, 
this ammoniacal vapor begins to be rapidly given out almost 
immediately after the urine is voided. 

When disease begins to appear among the inhabitants of these 
ill- ventilated places, it is not wonderful that it should rapidly 
spread among them, and that the plague-spot should be, as it 
were, placed on the door of such a stable. When distemper 
appears in spring or autumn, it is in very many cases to be 
traced to such a pest-house. It is peculiarly fatal there. The 
horses belonging to a small establishment, and rationally 
treated, have it comparatively seldom, or, when they do, but 
lightly ; but among the inmates of a crowded stable it is sure 
to display itself, and there it is most deadly. The experience 
of every veterinary surgeon, and of every large proprietor of 
horses, will corroborate this statement. 

Every stable, then, should possess within itself a certain de- 
gree of ventilation. The cost of this would be trifling, and its 
saving in the preservation of valuable animals maybe immense. 
The apertures need not be la^'^e, and the whole, as before said, 
may be so contrived that no direct current of air shall fall on 
the horse, 

A gentleman's stable should never be without a thermometer. 
The temperature should seldom exceed seventy degrees in the 
summer, or sink below forty or fifty degrees in the winter. 
9 



130 UTTEK. 

IiITTEE. 

Having spoken of the vapor of hartshorn, which is so rapidly 
and plentifully given out from the urine of a horse in a heated 
stable, the subject of litter comes naturally next in order. The 
first caution is, frequently to remove it. The early extrication 
of gas shows the rapid putrefaction of the urine ; the conse- 
quence of which will be the rapid putrefaction of the litter which 
is moistened by it. Every thing hastening to decomposition 
should be carefully removed where life and health are to be pre- 
served. The litter which has been much wet or at all softened 
by the urine, and is beginning to decay, should be swept away 
every morning ; the greater part of the remainder may then be 
piled under the manger ; a little being left to prevent the pain- 
ful and injurious pressure of the feet on the hard pavement 
during the day. The soiled and soaked portion of that which 
was left should b© removed at night. In the better kind of 
stables, however, the stalls should be completely emptied every 
morning. 

No heap of fermenting dung should be suffered to remain 
during the day in the corner or in any part of the stable. 
With regard to this, the directions for removal should be per- 
emptory. 

The stable should be so contrived that the urine may quickly 
run off, and the offensive and injurious vapor from the decom- 
posing fluid, and the litter will thus be materially lessened ; but 
if this is effected by means of gutters and a descending floor, 
the descent must be barely sufficient to cause the fluid to escape, 
as, if the toes are kept higher than the heels, it will lead to 
lameness, and is also a frequent cause of contraction of the foot. 



LIGHT. 131 

Stalls of this kind certainly do best for mares ; but for horses 
those are preferable, which have a grating in the centre, and a 
slight inclination in the floor on every side towards the middle. 
A short branch may communicate with a larger drain, by means 
of which the nrine may be carried off to a reservoir outside the 
stable. Traps are now contrived, and may be procured at little 
expense, by means of which neither any offensive smell nor cur- 
rent of air can pass through the grating. 

In stables with paved floors particularly, humanity an/1 
interest, as well as-the appearance of the stable, should induce 
the proprietor of the horse to place a moderate quantity of litter 
under him during the day. 



LIGHT. 

This neglected branch of stable-management is of [f more 
consequence than is generally imagined. The farmer's stable 
is frequently destitute of any glazed window, and ha.s only a 
shutter, which is raised in warm weather, and closed when the 
weather becomes cold. When the horse is in the stable only 
during a few hours in the day, this is not of so much conse- 
quence, nor of so much, probably, with regard to horses of slow- 
work ; but to carriage-horses and roadsters, so far, at least, as 
the eyes are concerned, a dark stable is little less injurious than 
a foul and heated one. In order to illustrate this, reference may 
be made to the unpleasant feeling, and the utter impossibility 
of seeing distinctly, when a man suddenly emerges from a dark 
place into the full glare of day. The sensation of mingled pain 
and giddiness is not speedily forgotten ; and some minutes elapse 
before the eye can accustom itself to the increased light. If 
this were to happen every day, or several times in a day, the 



132 LIGHT. 

sight would be irreparably injured, or possibly blindness would 
be the final result. We need not wonder, then, that the horse, 
taken from a dark stable into a blaze of light, feeling, probably, 
as we should do under similar circumstances, and unable for 
any time to see anything around him distinctly, should become 
a starter ; or that the frequently repeated violent effect of sudden 
light should induce inflammation of the eye so intense as to 
terminate in blindness. There is, indeed, no doubt that horses 
kept in dark stables are frequently notorious starters, and that 
abominable habit has been properly traced to this cause. 

If plenty of light be admitted, the walls of the stable, and 
especially that portion of them which is before the horse's head, 
must not be of too glaring a color. The color of the stable 
should depend on the quantity of light. Where much can be 
admitted, the walls should be of a gray hue. Where darkness 
would otherwise prevail, frequent painting may in some degree 
dissipate the gloom. 

For another reason, it will be evident that the stable should 
not possess too glaring a light ; it is the resting-place of the 
horse. The work of the farmer's horse, indeed, is principally 
confined to the day. The hours of exertion having passed, the 
animal returns to his stable to feed and to repose, and the latter 
is as necessary as the former, in order to prepare him for re- 
newed work. Something like the dimness of twilight is requi- 
site to induce the animal to compose himself to sleep. This 
half-light is more particularly adapted to horses of heavy work. 
In the quietness of a dimly-lighted stable, they obtain repose, 
and accumulate flesh and fat. 



QEOOMlxNG. 



133 



GROOMING. 

To the agriculturist it is not necessary to say mach under 
this head, as custom, apparently without any ill effect, has 
allotted so little of the comb and brush for the farmer's horse. 
The auiqial that is worked all day, and turned out at night, 




GR OOMINa. 



requires little more to be 
done to him than to have the dirt 
brushed off his limbs. Regular grooming, by ren- 
dering his skin more sensitive to the alteration of 
temperature, and the inclemency of weather, would b& 
prejudicial. The horse that is altogether turned 
out, needs no grooming. The dandruff, or scurf, which accu- 



134 GROOMING. 

mulates at the roots of the hair, is a provision of nature to 
defend him from the wind and the cold. 

It is to the stabled horse, highly fed, and little or irregularly 
worked, that grooming is of so much consequence. Good 
rubbing with the brush, or the curry-comb, opens the pores of 
the skin, causes the blood to circulate to the extremities of the 
body, produces free and healthy perspiration, and stands in 
the stead of exercise. No horse will carry a fine coat without 
either unnatural heat, or dressing. They both effect the same 
purpose ; they both increase the insensible perspiration ; but 
the first does it at the expense of health and strength, while 
the second, at the same time that it produces a glow on the 
skin, and a determination of blood to it, rouses all the energies 
of the frame. It would be well if the proprietor of the horse 
were to insist — and to see that his orders are implicitly obeyed 
— that the fine coat, in which he and his groom so much de- 
light, is produced by honest rubbing, and not by a heated 
stable and thick clothing, and, most of all, not by stimulating 
or injurious spices. The horse should be regularly dressed 
every day, in addition to the grooming that is necessary after 
work. 

When the weather will permit the horse to be taken out, he 
should never be groomed in the stable, unless he is an animal 
of peculiar value, or placed for a time under peculiar circum- 
stances. Without dwelling on the want of cleanliness, when 
the scurf and dust which are brushed from the horse lodge in 
his manger, experience teaches that, if the cold is not too 
great, the animal is braced and invigorated to a degree that 
cannot be attained in the stable, from being dressed in the 
open air. There is no necessity, however, for half the punish- 



EXERCISE. 135 

ment which is often inflicted upon the horse in the act of 
dressing ; and particularly on one whose skin is thin and sen- 
sitive. The curry-comb should always be applied lightly. 
With many horses, its use may be almost .dispensed with ; and 
even the brush does not need to be so hard, nor the points of 
the bristles so irregular as they often are, A soft brush, with 
a little more weight of the hand, will be equally effectual, and 
much more pleasant to the horse. A hair-cloth, while it will 
seldom irritate and tease, will be almost sufficient with horses 
that have a thin skin, and that have not been neglected. After 
all, it is no slight task to dress a horse as it ought to be done. 
It occupies no little time, and demands considerable patience, 
as well as dexterity. It will be readily ascertained whether a 
horse has been well dressed, by rubbing him with one of the 
fingers. A greasy stain will expose the idleness of the groom. 
When, however, the horse is changing his coat, both the 
curry-comb and the brush should be used as lightly as pos- 
sible. 

Whoever would be convinced of the benefit of friction to 
the horse's skin, and to the horse generally, needs only to ob- 
serve the effects produced by rubbing the legs of a tired 
horse well with the hands. While every enlargement subsides, 
and the painful stiffness disappears, and the legs attain their 
natural warmth and become fine, th« animal is evidently and 
rapidly reviving ; he takes hold of his food with zest, and then 
quietly lies down to rest. 



EXERCISE. 

The remarks upon this branch, also, can have but a slight 
reference to the agricultural horse. His work is usually, regu- 



136 



EXERCISE. 



lar, and not exhausting. He is neither predisposed to disease 
by idleness, nor worn out by excessive exertion. He, lilie his 
master, has enough to do to keep him in health, and not 
enough to distress or injure him ; on the contrary, the regu- 
larity of his work prolongs life to an extent seldom witnessed 
in the stable of the gentleman. These remarks on exercise, 
then, must have a general bearing, or have principal reference 
to those persons who keep a horse for business or pleasure, 
but cannot afford to maintain a servant for the express pur- 
pose of looking after it. The first rule to be laid down is, 
that every horse should have daily exercise. The animal, that 
with the usual stable feeding stands idle for three or four 
days, as is the case in many establishments, must suffer. He 
is predisposed to fever, or to grease, or, most of all, to diseases 
of the foot ; and if, after three or four days of inactivity, he is 
ridden far and fast, he is almost sure to have inflammation of 
the lungs or of the feet. 

Any horse, used for business or pleasure merely, suffers much 

more from idleness 

^b*,^^ than he does from 

» work. A stable-fed 

fa^ I ^^T-^ l^ ^fel horse should have 

two hours' exercise 
j every day, if he is 
to be kept free from 
disease. Nothing 
of extraordinary, or 
^ffl even of ordinary, 
labor can be effected 
on the road or in 




EXERCISE. 137 

the field, without sufficient and regular exercise. It is this 
which alone can give energy to the system, and develop the 
powers of any animal. 

In training the race-horse, or the horse for hunting pur- 
poses, regular exercise is the most important of all considera- 
tions, however much it may be neglected in the usual manage- 
ment of the stable. The exercised horse will discharge his 
task, and sometimes a severe one, with ease and pleasure ; 
while the idle and neglected one will be fatigued before half 
his labor is accomplished ; and, if he is pushed a little too far, 
dangerous inflammation will ensue. How often, nevertheless, 
does it happen, that the horse which has stood inactive in the 
slable for three or four days, is ridden or driven thirty or 
forty miles in the course of a single day I The rest is often 
purpcfeely given in order that he may be prepared for extra 
exertion — to lay in a stock of strength for the performance 
required of him — and then the owner is surprised and dissatis- 
fied if the animal is fairly knocked up, or possibly becomes 
seriously ill. Nothing is so common and so preposterous, as 
for a person to buy a horse from a dealer's stable, where he has 
been idly fattened for sale for many a day, and immediately to 
give him a long run, and then to complain bitterly, and think 
that he has been imposed upon, if the animal is exhausted be- 
fore the end, or is compelled to be led home sufifering from 
violent inflammation. Regular and gradually increasing ex' 
ercise would have made the same horse appear a treasure to 
his owner. 

Exercise should be somewhat proportioned to the age of the 
horse. A young horse requires more than an old one. Na- 
ture has given to young animals of every kind a disposition to 



138 POOD. 

activity ; but the exercise must not be violent. Much depends 
upon the manner in which it is given. To preserve the tem- 
per, and to promote health, it should be moderate, at least at 
the beginning and at the termination. The rapid trot, or even 
the gallop, may be resorted to in the middle of the exercise,/ 
but the horse should be brought in cool. 



FOOD. 

One half of the diseases of the horse owe their origin to 
over-feeding with hay. This applies more particularly to 
young horses, and to such as are not put to severe work. 
They are ever placed before a full rack, and, like children 
gorged with bread and butter, they eat merely for amusement* 
until at length the stomach gradually becomes preternaturally 
distended, the appetite increases in a relative proportion, be- 
comes sooner or later voracious, and finally merges into a mere 
craving — it being a matter of indifi'erence what the food is, so 
that the stomach is filled with it. This depravity of appetite 
is always accompanied by more or less thirst. This' naturally 
enough produces general debility of the entire digestive func- 
tion, including stomach, bowels, liver, spleen, and pancreas ; 
worms are produced in thousands, and symptoms present 
themselves of so many varied hues, that enumeration, far less 
classification, becomes utterly impossible. 

A horse's appetite is not to be taken as the criterion by 
which to determine the quantity of hay which he is to be per- 
mitted to consume ; for most horses will eat three or four times 
as much as they ought. Horses have been known to consume 
thirty pounds weight of hay between a day and a night ; and 
ten pounds is the most that should have been given during 



FOOD. 139 

that time. Upon eight pounds of hay daily, with a due allow- 
ance of oats, a horse can be kept in full work, in prime health 
and spirits. It is better to keep young horses at grass until 
ubout five years old, and to work them during that period. 
When kept in the stable and not worked they are apt to ac- 
quire many very bad habits ; and if the rack and manger be 
kept empty, with a view of preventing the over-loading of their 
stomachs, they will fall into a habit of playing with and mouth- 
ing them — a habit which finally degenerates into wind-sucking 
or crib-biting. 

The system of manger-feeding is now becoming general 
vmong farmers. There are few horses that do not habitually 
A^aste a portion of their hay ; and by some the greater part is 
fulled down and trampled under foot, in order first to cull the 
sweetest and best locks, which could not be done while the 
hay was confined in the rack. A good feeder will afterward 
pick up much of that which was thrown down : but some of it 
must be soiled and rendered disgusting, and, in many cases, 
one-third of this division of their food is wasted. Some of the 
oats and beans are imperfectly chewed by all horses, and 
scarcely at all by hungry and greedy ones. The appearance 
of the dung will sufficiently establish this. 

The observation of this induced the adoption of manger- 
feeding, or of mixing a portion of cut feed with the grain and 
beans. By this means the animal is compelled to chew his 
food ; he cannot, to any great degree, waste the straw or hay; 
the cut feed is too hard and too sharp to be swallowed without 
sufficient mastication, and while he is forced to grind that down, 
the oats and the beans are also ground with it, and thus yield 
move nourishment ; the stomacli is more slowly filled, and there- 



140 FOOD. 

fore acts better upon its contents, and is not so likely to be 
over-loaded ; and the increased quantity of saliva thrown out in 
the protracted maceration Of the food, softens it, and makes it 
more fit for digestion. 

Cut feed may be composed of equal quantities of clover or of 
meadow hay ; and wheaten, oaten, or barley straw, cut into 
pieces of a half or an inch in length, and mingled well to- 
gether; the allowance of oats or beans is afterwards added, 
and mixed with the whole. Many farmers very properly 
bruise the oats or beans. The whole oat is apt to slip out 
of the feed and be lost ; but when it is bruised, and espe- 
cially if the feed is wet a little, it will not readily separate, or, 
should a portion of it escape the grinders, it will be partly pre- 
pared for digestion by the act of bruising. The prejudice 
against bruising the oats is utterly unfounded, so far as the 
farmer's horse, and the wagon horse, and every horse of slow 
draught, are concerned. The quantity of straw in the feed will 
always counteract, any supposed purgative quality in bruised 
cats. Horses of quicker draught, unless they are actually in- 
clined to scour, will thrive better on bruised than on whole oats ; 
for a greater quantity of nutriment will be extracted from the 
food, and it will always be easy to apportion the quantity of 
straw or beans to the effect of the mixture on the bowels of the 
horse. The principal alteration that should be made for the 
horse of harder and more rapid work, such as the post-horse 
and the stage-coach horse, is to increase the quantity of hay, 
and diminish that of straw. Two trusses of hay may be cut 
with one of straw. 

Some gentlemen, in defiance of the prejudice and opposition 
of the coachman or groom, have introduced this mode of feed- 



FOOD. 141 

ing into the stables of their horses, and with manifest advantage. 
There has been no loss of condition or power, and considerable 
saving of provender. This system is not however, calculated 
for the hunter, or the race-horse. Their food must lie in smaller 
bulk, in order that the action of the lungs may not be impeded 
by the distention of the stomach ; yet many hunters have gone 
well over the field who have been manger-fed, the proportion 
of grain, however, being materially increased. 

For the agricultural and cart-horse, eight pounds of oats, and 
two of beans should be added to every twenty pounds of cut 
feed. Thirty-four or thirty-six pounds of the mixture will be 
sufficient for any horse of moderate size, with fair, or even hard, 
work. The dray and wagon horse may require forty pounds. 
Hay in the rack at night is, in this case, supposed to be alto- 
gether omitted. The rack, however, may remain, as occasion- 
ally useful for the sick horse, or to contain green feed. 

Horses are very fond of this provender. The great majority 
of them, after having become accustomed to it, will leave the 
best oats given to them alone, for the sake of the mingled cut 
feed and grain. The farmer should be cautioned, however, 
not to set apart damaged hay for the manufacture of the 
cut feed. The horse may thus be induced to eat that which he 
would otherwise refuse, and if the nourishing property of the 
hay has been impaired, or it has acquired an injurious principle, 
the animal will either lose condition, or become diseased. Much 
more injury is done by eating damaged hay, or musty oats, than 
is generally imagined. There will be sufficient saving in the 
diminished cost of the provender by the introduction of the 
straw and the improved condition of the horse, without poison- 
ing him with the refuse of the farm. For old horses, and for 



142 FOOD. 

those with defective teeth, cut feed is peculiarly useful, and for 
them the grain should be broken down as well as the fodder. 

While the mixture of the cut feed with the grain prevents it 
from being too rapidly devoured and a portion of it swallowed 
whole, and therefore the stomach is not too loaded with that 
on which, as containing the most nutriment, its chief digestive 
power should be exerted ; yet, on the whole, a great deal of 
time is gained by this mode of feeding, and more is left for rest. 
When a horse comes in wearied at the close of the day, it oc- 
cupies, after he has eaten his grain, two or three hours to clear 
his rack. On the system of manger-feeding, the chaff being 
already cut into small pieces, and the beans and oats bruised, 
he is able fully to satisfy his appetite in an hour and a half. 
Two additional hours are therefore devoted to rest. This is a 
circumstance deserving of much consideration, even in the 
farmer's stable ; and of immense consequence to the stage-coach 
proprietor, the livery-stable keeper, and the owner of every hard- 
worked horse. 

Manger food will be the usual support of the farmer's horse 
during the winter, and while at constant or occasional hard 
work ; but from the middle of April to the end of July, he 
may be fed with this mixture in the day, and turned out at 
nigfit, or he may remain out during every rest-day. A team 
ill constant employ should not, however, be suffered to be out 
at night after the end of July. 

The farmer should take care that the pasture is thick and 
good ; and that the distance from the yard is not too great, or 
the fields too large, otherwise a very considerable portion of 
time will be occupied in catching the horse in the morning. 
He will likewise have to take into consideration the sale he 



FOOD. 143 

would have for his hay, and the necessity of sweet and untrod- 
den pasture for his cattle. On the 
whole, however, turning out in this way, 
when circumstances 
will admit of it, will 
be found to be more 
beneficial for the horse, 
^^& and cheaper than soil- 
ing in the yard. 
^^^^^^ The horse of the in- 
--_ V ^- -3iMl^^^^^^ ferior farmer is some- 
'" -^^P=^"^^=s=' times led on nay or 




OUT TO OKASS. g^^gg ^iQQg^ aj^jj tijg 

animal, although he rarely gets a feed of grain, maintains him- 
self in tolerable condition, and performs the work required of 
him ; but hay and grass alone however good in quality, or in 
whatever quantity allowed, will not support a horse under hard 
work. Other substances, containing a large proportion of 
nutriment in a smaller compass, have been added; a brief 
enumeration of which follows, and an estimate is formed of their 
comparative value. 

In almost every part of Great Britain and this country, oats 
have been selected as that portion of the food which is to aiTord 
the principal nourishment. They contain from seven hundred 
and forty-three to seven hundred and fifty parts of the nutri- 
tive matter. They should be about, or somewhat less than, a 
year old, heaTy, dry, and sweet. New oats will weigh ten or 
fifteen per cent, more than old ones; but the difference consists 
principally in watery matter, which is gradually evaporated. 
New oats are not so readily ground down by the teeth as old 



144 FOOD. 

ones. They form a more glutinous mass, dififici^lt to digest, 
and, when eaten in considerable quantities, are apt to occa- 
sion colic, or even staggers. If they are to be used before 
they are from three to five months old, they would be materi- 
ally improved by a little kiln-drying. There is no fear for 
the horses from simple drying, if the grain is good when put 
into the kiln. The old oat forms, when chewed, a smooth and 
uniform mass, which readily dissolves in the stomach, and 
yields the nourishment which it contains. Perhaps some chemi- 
cal change may have been slowly effected in the old oat, dis- 
posing it to be more readily assimilated. Oats should be 
plump, bright in color, and free from unpleasant smell or taste. 
The musty smell of wet or damaged grain is produced by a 
fungus growing upon the seed, which has an injurious effect 
upon the urinary organs, and often on the intestines, producing 
profuse staling, inflammation of the kidneys, colic, and inflam- 
mation of the bowels. 

This musty smell is removed by kiln-drying the oat; but 
care is here requisite that too great a degree of heat is not 
employed. It should be sufficient to destroy the fungus with- 
out injuring the life of the seed. A considerable improvement 
would be effected by cutting the uuthrashed oat-straw into 
chaff, and the expense of thrashing would be saved. Oat- 
straw is better than that of barley, but does not contain so 
much nutriment as that of wheat. 

When the horse is fed on hay and oats, the quantity of the 
oats must vary with his size and the work to be performed. 
In winter, four feeds, or from ten to fourteen pounds of oats in 
the day, will be a fair allowance for a horse of fifteen hands 
and one or two inches in height, and that has moderate work. 



FOOD. 145 

In summer, half the quantity with green feed will be sufBcient. 
Those which work on the farm have from ten to fourteen 
pounds, and the hunter from twelve to sixteen. There are no 
efficient and safe substitutes for good oats ; but, on the contrary, 
it may be safely asserted, that they possess an invigorating pro- 
perty which is found in no other kind of food. 

Oatmeal forms a poultice more stimulating than one com- 
posed of linseed-meal alone — or they may be mingled in different 
proportions, as circumstances require. In the form of gruel, 
it constitutes one of- the most important articles of diet for the 
sick horse ; not, indeed, to be forced upon him, but a pail con- 
taining it being slung in his box, of which he will soon begin 
to drink when water is denied. Gruel is generally either not 
boiled long enough, or a sufficient quantity of oatmeal is not 
used for it. The proportions should be, a pound of meal thrown 
into a gallon of water, and kept constantly stirred until it boils, 
and five minutes afterwards. 

White-water, made by stirring a pint of oatmeal in a pail of 
water, the chill being taken from it, is an excellent beverage 
for the thirsty and tired horse. 

Barley is a common food of the horse in various parts of the 
continent, and, until the introduction of oats, seems to have 
constituted almost his only food. It is more nutritious than 
oats, containing nine hundred and twenty parts of nutritive 
matter in every thousand. There seems, however to be some- 
thing necessary besides a great proportion of nutritive matter, 
in order to render any substance wholesome, strengthening, or 
fattening ; therefore it is, that with many horses that are hardly 
worked, and, indeed, with horses generally, barley does not 
agree so well as oats. They are occasionally subject to inflam- 
matory complaints, and particularly to surfeit and mange. 
10 



146 FOOD. 

When barley is giveji, the quantity shonid not exceed a peck 
daily. It should always be bruised, and the chaff should con- 
sist of equal quantities of hay and barley-straw, and not cut too 
short. If the farmer has a quantity of spotted or unsalable 
barley that he wishes thus to get rid of, he must accustom his 
horses to it very gradually, or he will probably produce serious 
illness among them. For horses that are recovering from illness, 
barley, in the form of malt, is often serviceable, as tempting the 
appetite and recruiting the strength. It is best given iu mashes 
— water, considerably below the boiling heat, being poured upon 
it, and the vessel or pail kept covered for half an hour. 

Grain, fresh from the mash-tub, either alone or mixed with 
oats or chaff, or both, may be given occasionally to hofses of slow 
draught ; they would, however, afford very insuflScient nourish- 
ment for horses of quicker or harder work. 

Wheat is more rarely given than barley. It contains nine 
hundred and fifty-five parts of nutritive matter. When farmers 
have a damaged or unmarketable sample of wheat, they some- 
times give it to their horses, and, it being at first used in small 
quantities, they become accustomed to it, and thrive and work 
well ; it should, however, always be bruised, and given in chaff. 
Wheat contains a greater portion of gluten, or sticky, adhesive 
matter, than any other kind of grain. It is difficult of diges- 
tion, and apt to cake and form obstructions in the bowels. This 
will more often be the case, if the horse is suffered to drink 
much water soon after feeding upon it. 

Fermentation, colic, and death, are occasionally the conse- 
quence of eating any great quantity of wheat. A horse that is 
fed on it, should have very little hay. The proportion should 
not be more than one truss of hay to two of straw. Wheat or 



FOOD. 147 

flour, boiled in water, to the thickness of starch, is given with 
good efifect in over-purging, especially if combined with chalk 
and opium. 

Bran, or the ground husk of the wheat, used to be frequently 
given to sick horses, on account of the supposed advantage 
derived from its relaxing the bowels. There is no doubt that 
it does operate gently on the intestinal canal, and assists in 
quickening the passage of its contents, when occasionally given ; 
but it must not be a constant, or even frequent food. Bran or 
pollard often accumulates in the intestines, when given injudi- 
ciously, seriously impairing the digestive powers. Bran may, 
however, be useful as an occasional aperient in the form of a 
mash, but never should become a regular article of food. 

Beans aflTord a striking illustration of the principle, that the 
nourishing or strengthening effects of the different articles of 
food depend more upon some peculiar pro- 
jperty which they possess, or upon some 
combination which they form, than 
upon the nctual 
quantity of nutri- 
tive matter. Beans 
_ contain but from 
five hundred and 
twenty to six hun- 
dred parts of nu- 

THE AMEKICAN BACER, BLACE MARIA. , •,. , , 

tritive matter ; yet 
they add materially to the vigor of the horse. There are many 
horses that will not stand hard work without beans being 
mingled with their food ; and there are horses, whose ten- 
dency to purge it may be necessary to restrain by the astrin- 




148 FOOD. 

gency of the bean. Th«re are few travelers who are not aware 
of the difference in the spirit and continuance of the horse, 
whether he is allowed or denied beans during the continuance 
of the journey. They afford not merely a temporary stimulus, 
but they may be daily used without losing their power, or pro- 
ducing exhaustion. They are indispensable to the hard-worked 
coach-horse. Weakly horses could never get through their 
work without them ; and old horses would otherwise often sink 
under the task imposed upon them. They should not be given 
whole, or split, but crushed. This will make a material differ- 
ence in the quantity of nutriment which will be extracted. They 
are sometimes given to turf-horses, but only as an occasional 
stimulant. Two pounds of beans may, with advantage, be 
mixed with the chaff of the agricultural horse, during the winter. 
In summer, the quantity of beans should be lessened, or they 
should be altogether discontinued. Beans are generally given 
whole. This is very absurd ; for the young horse, whose teeth 
are strong, seldom requires them ; while the old horse, to whom 
they are in a measure necessary, is scarcely able to masticate 
them, swallows many of them which he is unable to break, and 
drops much grain from his mouth in the ineffectual attempt to 
crush them. Beans should not be merely split, but crushed ; as 
they will even then furnish sufficient employment for the grin- 
ders of the animal. Some persons use chaff with beans, instead 
of oats. This may possibly be allowed with hardly-worked 
horses ; but, in general cases, beans without oats would be too 
binding and stimulating, and would produce costiveness, and 
probably megrims or staggers. 

Beans should be at least a twelvemonth old before they are 
given to the horse, and they should be carefully preserved from 



rooD. ^ 149 

damp and mouldiness, which at least disgust the animal, if 
they do no other harm, and harbor an insect which destroys 
the inner part of the bean. 

The straw of the bean is nutritive and wholesome, and is 
usually given to the horses. Its nutritive properties are sup- 
posed to be little inferior to those of oats. The small and 
plump bean is generally the best. 

Peas are occasionally given. They appear to be in a slight 
degree more nourishing than beans, and not so heating. They 
contain five hundred and seventy-four parts of nutritive matter. 
For horses of slow work they may be used ; but the quantity 
of chaff should be increased, and a few oats added. They have 
not been found to answer with horses of quick draught. It is 
essential that they should be crushed ; otherwise, on account of 
their globular form, they are apt to escape from the teeth, and 
many are swallowed whole. Exposed to warmth and moisture 
in the stomach, they swell considerably, and may painfully and 
injudiciously distend it. The peas that are given to horses 
should be sound, and at least a year old. In some sections, 
pea-meal is frequently used, not only as an excellent food for 
the horse, but as a remedy for diabetes. 

Linseed is sometimes given to sick horses — raw, ground, and 
boiled. It is supposed to be useful in cases of catarrh. 

Indian Corn in combination with roots, forms a valuable 
article of diet. Horses will eat the mess with an avidity of 
appetite calculated to excite surprise at first. The mess, to 
which a little salt should invariably be added, will keep them 
in fair average condition ; and those which it is desirable to 
fatten may have a small quantity of oats, pea or bran meal 
added. 



150 FOOD. 

Hay is most in perfection when it is about a year old. The 
horse, perhaps, would prefer it earlier, but it is then neither so 
wholesome nor so nutritive, and often has a purgative quality. 
When it is about a year old, it retains, or should retain, some- 
what of its green color, its agreeable smell, and its pleasant 
taste. It has undergone the slow process of fermentation, by 
which the sugar which it contains is developed, and its nutritive 
quality is fully exercised. Old hay becomes dry and tasteless, 
and innutritive and unwholesome. After the grass is cut, and 
the hay stacked, a slight degree of fermentation takes place in 
it. This is necessary for the development of the saccharine 
principle ; but it occasionally proceeds too far, and the hay be- 
comes mow-burnt, in which state it is injurious, or even poison- 
ous. The horse soon shows the effect which it has upon him. 
He has diabetes to a considerable degree ; he becomes, hide- 
bound ; his strength is wasted ; his thirst is excessive ; and he 
is almost worthless. 

Where the system of manger-feeding is not adopted, or where 
hay is still allowed at night, and chaff and grain in the day, 
there is no error into which the farmer is so apt to fall as to 
give an undue quantity, and that generally of the worst kind. 
The pernicious results of this practice have been already men- 
tioned in the commencement of this head, and the practice can- 
not be too strongly reprobated. 

It is a good practice to sprinkle the hay with water in which 
salt has been dissolved. It is evidently more palatable to the 
animal who will leave the best unsalted hay for that of an infe- 
rior quality which has been moistened with brine ; and there 
can be no doubt that the salting materially assists the process 
of digestion. The preferable way of salting hay is to sprinkle 



FOOD. 161 

it over the different layers as it is put away, or as the stack is 
formed. From its attraction to water, it would combine with 
that excess of moisture which in wet seasons, is the cause of too 
rapid and violent fermentation, and of the hay becoming mois- 
tened, or of the stack catching fire, and it would become more, 
incorporated with the hay. The only objection to its being thus 
used is, that the color of the hay is not so bright ; but this will 
be of little consequence for home consumption. 

Clover is useful for soiling the horse ; and clover hay is 
preferable to meadow hay for chaff. It will sometimes tempt 
the sick horse, and may be given with advantage to those of 
slow and heavy work ; but custom seems properly to have for- 
bidden it to the roadster or those used for quick work. 

The Swedish Turnip is an article of food, the value of 
which, particularly for agricultural horses, has not been suf- 
ficiently appreciated. Although it is far from containing the 
amount of nutritive matter which many have supposed, that 
which it has seems to be capable of complete and easy diges- 
tion. It should be sliced with chopped straw, and without hay. 
It quickly fattens the horse, and produces a smooth glossy coat 
and a loose skin. It is a good plan to give it once a day, and 
that at night when the work is done. 

The virtues of Carrots are not sufficiently known, both as 
contributing to the strength and endurance of the sound horse, 
and to the rapid recovery of the sick one. To the healthy 
horse they should be given sliced in his chaff. Half a bushel 
will be a fair daily allowance. There is little provender, of 
which the horse is more fond. There is none better, nor, per- 
haps, so good. When first given, it is slightly diuretic and 
laxative, but as the horse becomes accustomed to it, these effects 



1 52 FOOD. 

cease to be produced. They also improve the state of the skin. 
They form a good substitute for grass, and an excellent altera- 
tive for horses out of condition. For sick and idle horses they 
render grain unnecessary. They are beneficial in all chronic 
diseases connected with breathing, and have a marked influence 
upon chronic cough and broken wind. They are serviceable 
in diseases of the skin, and in combination with oats they re- 
store a worn horse much sooner than oats alone. 

Potatoes have been given and with advantage in their raw 
state, sliced with chaff; but, where it has been convenient to 
boil or steam them, the benefit has been far more evident. 
Purging then has rarely ensued. Some have given boiled pota- 
toes alone, and horses, instead of rejecting them, have soon 
preferred them even to oats ; but it is better to mix them with the 
usual manger feed, in the proportion of one pound of potatoes 
to two and a half pounds of the other ingredients. The use of 
the potato must depend upon its cheapness, and the facility 
for boiling it. Those who have tried potatoes extensively in 
the feeding of horses, assert that an acre of potatoes goes as 
far as four acres of hay. A horse fed upon them should have 
his quantity of water materially curtailed. Half a dozen horses 
would soon repay the expense of a steaming boiler for potatoes 
in the saving of provender alone, without taking into account 
their improved condition and capability for work. 

The times of feeding should be as equally divided as conve- 
nience will permit ; and when it is likely that the horse will be 
kept longer than usual from home, the nose-bag should inva- 
riably be taken. The small stomach of the horse is emptied in 
a few hours ; and if he is allowed to remain hungry much be- 
yond his accustomed time, he will afterwards devour his food 



WATER. 153 

SO voraciously as to distend the stomach and endanger an attack 
of the staggers. 

When extra work is required from the animal, the system of 
mo,nageraent is often injudicious ; for a double feed is put upon 
him, and as soon as he has swallowed it, he is started. It would 
be far better to give him a double feed on the previous evening, 
which would be digested before he is wanted, and then he might 
set out in the morning, after a very small portion of grain had 
been given to him, or, perhaps, only a little hay. One of the 
most successful methods of enabling a horse to get well through 
a long journey, is to give him only a little at a time while on 
the road, and at night to indulge him with a double feed of 
grain and a full allowance of beans. 



WATER. 

The watering of the horse is a very important but disregarded 
portion of his general management, especially by the farmer. 
He lets his horses loose morning and night, and they go to the 
nearest pond or brook and drink their fill, and no harm results ; 
for they obtain that kind of water which nature designed them 
to have, in a manner prepared for them by some unknown in- 
fluence of the atmosphere, as well as by the deposition of many 
saline admixtures. 

The kind of water fitted for the horse has not been, as a 
general thing, sufficiently considered. The difiference between 
what is termed hard and soft water, is a circumstance of general 
observation. The former contains certain saline principles, 
which decompose some bodies, as appears in the curdling of 
soap, and prevent the decomposition of others, as in the making 
of tea, the boiling of vegetables, and the process of brewing. 



154 WATER. 

It is natural to suppose that these different kinds of water would 
produce somewhat differing effects upon the animal frame : and 
such is the case. Hard water, freshly drawn from the well, 
will frequently roughen the coat of the horse unaccustomed to 
it, or cause griping pains, or materially lessen the animal's 
power of exertion. The racing and the hunting-groom are 
perfectly aware of this ; and instinct or experience has made 
even the horse conscious of it, for he will never drink hard 
water if he has access to soft, and he will leave the most trans- 
parent and the purest water of the well for a river, although 
the stream may be turbid, and even for the muddiest pool. 
Some trainers, indeed, have so much fear of hard or strange 
water, that they carry with them to the different courses the 
water which the animal has been accustomed to drink, and that 
which they know agrees with it. 

The temperature of the water is of far more consequence than 
its hardness. It will rarely harm if taken from the pond or 
the running stream; but its coldness, when recently drawn from 
the well, has often proved injurious ; it has produced colic, 
spasms, and even death. 

There is often considerable prejudice against the horse being 
fairly supplied with water. It is supposed to chill him, to 
injure his wind, or to incapacitate him for hard work. It cer- 
tainly would do so, if, immediately after drinking his fill, he 
were galloped hard ; but not if he were suffered to quench his 
thirst more frequently when at rest in the stable. The horse 
that has free access to water, will not drink so much in the 
course of the day as another, who, in order to cool his parched 
mouth, swallows as fast as he can, and knows not when to 
stop. 



WATER. 155 

A horse may, with perfect safety, be far more liberally sup- 
plied with water than he generally is. An hour before his work 
commences, he should be permitted to drink a couple of quarts. 
A greater quantity might probably be objectionable. He will 
perform his task far more pleasantly and effectually than with 
a parched mouth and tormenting thirst. The prejudice both 
of the hunting and the training groom on this point is cruel, 
as well as injurious. The task or the journey being accom- 
plished, and the horse having had his head and neck dressed, 
his legs and feet washed, should have his water before his body 
is cleaned. When dressed, his grain may be offered to him, 
which he will readily take ; but water should never be given 
immediately before or after the grain. 

If the horse were watered three times a day, especially in 
summer, he would often be saved from the sad torture of thirst 
and from many a disease. Whoever has observed the eagerness 
with which the overworked horse, hot and tired, plunges his 
muzzle into the pail, and the difficulty of stopping him before 
he has drained the last drop, may form some idea of his previ- 
ous suffering, and will not wonder at the violent spasms, inflam- 
mation, and sudden death, that often follow. 

It is a judicious rule with travelers, that when a horse begins 
to refuse his food, he should be pushed no further that day. It 
may, however, be worth while to ascertain whether this does 
not proceed from thirst as much as from exhaustion ; for in 
many instances his appetite and his spirits will return soon 
after he has partaken of the refreshing draught. 



156 PASTURING. 

PASTUBIWG. 

So far as mere health is concerned, grass is the most salubri- 
ous food which the horse can receive. "When it is eaten where 
/it grows, the horse is said to be turned out, to be getting a run 
at grass, or to be at grass. When it is cut, and consumed in 
the stable, the horse is said to be soiled. 

It is probable that grass eaten in the field produces quite the 
same effects as that eaten in the stable. But at pasture, there 
are several agents in operation to which the stabled horse is not 
necessarily exposed. The exercise which he must take ; the 
position which his head must assume, in order that he may ob- 
tain food ; the annoyance he suffers from flies ; his exposure to 
the weather ; the influence of the soil upon the feet and legs ; 
and the quantity of food placed at his disposal ; are the prin- 
sipal points wherein pasturing differs from soiling. 

The Exercise which he must take as he gathers his food, 
varies according to the herbage. When the ground is bare, 
the exercise may amount even to work, but to a sound horse 
it is never injurious ; in cold weather it keeps him warm, or, 
at least, prevents him from becoming very cold. With a lame 
horse, the case is different. In some species of lameness, as 
in chronic diseases of the joints, the slow but constant exercise 
thus rendered necessary is highly beneficial ; but the exertion 
demanded by a bare pasture is unfavorable to any sprain or 
lameness arising from disease in the ligaments and tendons. 
Lameness, when very great, no matter where seated, forbids 
pasturing, even though the grass be knee-high. The pain of 
standing, and moving on two or three legs, may be so great 
ihat the horse will be obliged to lie down before he has ob- 



PASTURINa loT 

taineJ half a meal. It is for slight lameness only that horses 
should be turned out ; and the pasture should be such as to 
afford sufficient nutriment, without giving the horse more ex- 
ercise than is good for the disease. 

The legs of fast-working horses often become turned, shape- 
less, tottering, bent at the knee, and 
straight at the pasterns. These 
always improve at 
pasture, as, indeed, 
they do in the sta- 
\\# H JEUS^^H^^^^PHIHIli^^^ ^^6, or loose-box, 

when the horse is 
thrown out of work. 
Grazing exercise 
does not appear to 
PASTUKiNQ. be unfavorable to 

their restoration ; but when the knees are vci'y much bent, the 
horse is unfit for turning out ; he cannot graze ; when his head 
is down, he is ready to fall upon his nose, and it costs him 
much effort to maintain his balance. 

The position of the head ia the act of grazing is unfavor- 
able to the return of blood from the brain, from the eyes, from 
all parts of the head. Horses that have had staggers, or bad 
eyes, those that have recently lost a jugular vein, and those 
that have any disease about the head — strangles, for instance — 
should not be sent to pasture. The disease becomes worse, or, 
if gone, is apt to return. Even healthy horses are liable to 
attacks on the brain, when turned to grass, particularly when 
the weather is hot, and the herbage abundant. 

Horses that have been for more than a year In the stable, 




158 PASTURING. 

and especially those that have been reined up in harness, often 
experience considerable difficulty in grazing. The neck is 
rigid, and the muscles which support the head are short. It 
is often several weeks before an old coach-horse can graze 
with ease. Very old coach-horses that have short, stiff necks, 
should not be turned out when they can be kept in ; if they 
must go, they should be watched, lest they die of want. 

Exposure to the Weather. Wet, cold weather always 
produces emaciation and a long coat. If the horse is put out 
without preparation, he is apt to have an attack of inflamed 
lungs, or sore throat, or a common cold, with discharge from 
the nose, and may sicken and die. Many persons seem to think 
that no usage is too bad for the horse, if it do not immediately 
produce some fatal disease. Early in spring, or late in au- 
tumn, the animal is turned out of a warm, comfortable stable, 
and left to battle with the weather as he best can. He crouches 
to the side of a wall, shivering and neglected, as if he had no 
friend in the world. In time, the horse becomes inured to the 
weather, if he does not sink under it, but sometimes he comes 
home with diseased lungs, and very often with a cough which 
never leaves him, and which produces broken wind. 

Shelter, so easily provided — at the cost of a few rude 
boards even — is too much neglected in the pasture. A hovel, 
covered on three sides, the fourth open to the south, and just 
higti enough to admit the horse, will answer the puroose. 
The bottom should be sloping, elevated, and quite dry. When 
litter can be afforded, it will tempt the horse out of the blast. 
There may be hay-racks and mangers, strong, though of rude 
construction. In summer, the horse can retire here during the 
heat of the day, and in the more inclement season he may thus 
avoid the wind and the storm. 



PASTURING. 159 

Exposure to hot weather is not so pernicious, although it 
always produces pain, if the horse be turned out in the middle 
of summer. For a while he is fevered all day and loses flesh ; 
but he soon recovers. The parts that are most apt to suffer 
are the brain and the eyes. Staggers, that is, an affection of 
the brain, is not common, and the eyes never suffer permanent 
mischief. They are inflamed by the flies, but the brain is in- 
jured, partly by the heat, and partly by the pendent position 
of the head. 

Flies. The horse is persecuted by at least three kinds of 
flies. One, the common horse-fly, settles on his ears and dif- 
ferent parts of his body, tickling and teazing him. Another is 
a large fly, termed the gad-fly ; it is a blood-sucker, bites pretty 
smartly, and irritates some tender-skinned horses almost to 
madness, forcing them sometimes to rush into the water to 
escape their attacks. Another fly is a small insect, whose name 
is unknown, which lives in the blood, attacking those parts 
where the skin is thinnest, as the eyelids, inside and outside, the 
Bheath, and the vagina. The eyelids especially always swell 
where this fly abounds, and the swelling is sometimes so great 
as to make the horse nearly blind, while the eye is red and 
weeping. The injury however, is not permanent. 

The principal defense which the horse has against these 
puny, but tormenting enemies, is his tail. On some parts of 
his body he can remove them with his teeth and his feet ; and 
that which cannot be done by these, is done by the tail. With 
us, however, in far too many instances the effective instrument 
which nature has furnished is removed, or materially impaired, 
before he has attained maturity; and, as if the pains of 
servitude were not sufficiently great and numerous, domestica- 
tion is rendered still more intolerable by whim and caprice. 



160 PASTURING. 

The soil. Much has been said about the influence of the 
soil upon the horse's feet and legs, and much exaggeration of 
assertion has been set afloat. Horses reared in soft, marshy 
pastures have large flat feet, low at the heels, and weak every- 
where. On dry ground the hoof is hard, strong, and small, 
the sole concave, and the heels high. But to impart any 
peculiar character to the hoof, or to produce any change upon 
it, a long and continuous residence upon the same kind of 
soil is necessary. A period of six months may produce some 
change ; but it is so insignificant in general that it is not 
apparent. 

The low temperature at which the feet and legs are kept in 
a moist pasture has probably some influence, though not very 
great, in abating inflammation in those parts. The legs be- 
come finer and free from tumors and gourdiness ; but they 
would improve nearly or quite as soon, and as much, in a 
loose box. 

When the pastures are hard and baked by the sun, unshod 
horses are apt to break away the crust, and they often come 
home with hardly horn enough to hold a nail. Feet that have 
never been shod suffer less ; others should, as a general thing, 
be preserved by light shoes, especially on the fore feet ; kick- 
ing horses, when shod behind, are rather dangerous among 
others. 

It has been supposed that the act of grazing throws con 
siderable stress upon the tendons of the fore legs, and ulti- 
mately impairs them. This has been urged against grazing 
hunters ; but so far as sound legs are concerned, there seems 
to be no foundation for the supposition, and it certainly has 
never been proved. 



PASTURING. 161 

Quantity op food. In the stable, a horse's food can be 
apportioned to him as his wants may require ; but at pasture, 
he may get too much or too little. It is difficult to put the 
horse where he will obtain all the nourishment he needs, and 
no more. In a rich pasture, he may acquire an inconvenient 
load of fat ; in a poor one, he may be half starved. If he 
must go out, he may be taken in before he becomes too fat ; 
or lie may be placed in a bad pasture, and fed up to the point 
required by a daily allowance of grain. 

Time of turning out. Horses are pastured at all times of 
the year. Some are out for lameness, some for bad health, 
and some, that they may be kept for less than the stable 
cost. The usual time of turning out is about the end of 
April, or the beginning of May. Then the grass is young, 
juicy, tender, and more laxative than at a later period. The 
spring grass is best for a horse in bad health, worn out by 
sickness, hard work, or bad food. The weather is mild, neither 
too hot nor too cold ; when it is unsettled and backward, the 
delicate horse, and sometimes every one, should come in at 
night and on bleak days. Toward the end of summer, the 
grass is hard, dry, coarse, fit enough to afford nutriment, but 
not to renovate a shattered constitution. The days are hot, 
the nights cold and damp, and the flies strong and numerous. 
This is not the time for turning out a delicate or thin-skinned 
horse. 

Many persons are accustomed to give the horse a dose or 
two of physic before sending him to grass. Unless the animal 
has tumid legs, or is afflicted with some ailment, this is en- 
tirely unnecessary, though it may do no harm. To prepars 
the 'horse for exposure to the weather, the clothing to which 
11 



162 PASTURING. 

he has been accustomed is lightened, and then entirely re- 
moved, a week or two before turning him out. The tempera- 
ture of the stable is gradually reduced, until it becomes as 
cool as the external air. These precautions are most neces- 
sary for horses that have been much in the stable, and particu- 
larly a warm stable. For eight or ten days previous to going 
out, the animal should not be groomed. The dust and per- 
spiration which accumulate upon the hair, seem in some 
measure to protect the skin from rain and from flies. The 
feet should be dressed, and the grass shoes, or plates, applied 
a week before turning out. If they are injured by the nails, 
the injury will become apparent before much mischief is done ; 
at grass it might not be noticed so soon. On the day of going 
out, the horse should be fed as usual. If he goes to grass 
when very hungry, he may eat too much. Indigestion will be 
the result, which may prove fatal. Weather permitting, night 
is usually chosen for the time of turning out, as the horse is 
not so apt to gallop about. Let loose in the day time, many 
are disposed to gallop till they lame themselves, and to try 
the fences. 

In autumn, or early in spring, the stable preparation for 
grass is often insufficient. If the horse be tender, or the 
weather unsettled, he should be taken home every night, 
for perhaps the first week. For eight or ten days longer, 
it may be proper to house him on very wet or stormy nights. 
The stable given to him should always be cool, not so cold 
as the external air, but never so warm as if he were accus- 
tomed to it 

Confinement. Some horses are not easily confined at pas- 
ture. They break or leap the fences, and wander over the 



PASTURINa. 163 

country, or proceed to the stable. The fore feet are some- 
times shackled in order to confine them ; but these fetters, if 
worn for a long time, are apt to alter the horse's action, ren- 
dering it short, confined, irregular, at least for a time, till he 
regains the use of his shoulders. Sometimes the horse is tied 
by a rope to a stake driven in the ground- He then requires 
almost constant watching, for he must be often shifted as he 
eats down the grass, and he may get his legs entangled in the 
rope, thereby casting himself, and receiving serious injury, 
onless relief be immediate. Sometimes he is tied to a stake, 
which he can drag about the field. He soon finds that he can 
walk where he pleases, but he cannot run, and seldom attempts 
to leap. This, however, is also liable to throw the horse 
down, or to injure his* legs by getting them entangled in the 
rope. To prevent the horse from leaping, a board is some- 
times suspended round his neck, reaching to his knees, which 
it as apt to bruise. None of these clumsy and unsafe restraints 
should ever be employed, when it is possible to dispense with 
them. Few horses, mares in spring and stallions excepted, 
require them after the first two days. For horses that are 
turned out only an hour or two during the day, they are as 
much used to^enable him to be easily caught when wanted, as 
to prevent him from wandering. 

Attendance while out. Horses at grass should be visited 
at least once every day. If neglected for weeks, as often 
happens, one may be stolen, and conveyed out of the country 
before he is missed ; the fences may be broken ; the water 
may fail; the horses may be lamed, or attacked with sickness; 
one may roll into a ditch, and die there for want of assistance 
to extricate him ; the shoes may be cast ; the heels may crack ; 



164 PASTURING. 

thrushes may form ; sores may run into sinuses, or become full 
of maggots ; the feet and legs may be injured by stubs, thorns, 
broken glass, or kicks ; or the horses may quarrel, fight, and 
wound each other. That these and similar evils and accidents 
may be obviated, or soon repaired, the horses should be visited 
every morning by a trustworthy person who knows what is re- 
quired of him. 

The grain, hay — either or both — if any be given, should be 
furnished at regular intervals ; when fed with grain, the horses 
ought to be watched till it is eaten, lest they rob each other, 
or some prowling thief appropriate the whole. Horses at 
grass require, and should have, no dressing, as it exposes the 
skin too much. The shoes may be removed, however, and the 
feet dressed every four or five weeks. * 

Treatment after Grazing. When taken from grass to 
warm stables, and put upon rich, constipating food, horses fre- 
quently become diseased. Some catch cold, some suffer in- 
flammation in the eyes, some take swelled legs, cracked heels, 
grease, thrushes, founders, surfeit, or a kind of mange. 
These are very common ; and physic is often, and indeed 
generally, given to prevent them. They are produced by a 
combination of circumstances ; by sudden transition from gentle 
exercise and indolence or exciting work ; from a temperate to 
stimulating diet ; from a pure, cool, and moving atmosphere, 
to an air comparatiYely corrupt, hot, and stagnant. These 
changes must be made, and are, to a certain extent, unavoid- 
able ; but it is not in all cases necessary that they should be 
made suddenly. It is the rapid transition from one thing to 
another and a different thing, that does all the mischief If it 
were effected by slow degrees, the evils would be avoided, and 



PASTrRING. 165 

there would be less need, or none at all, for those medicines 
which are given to prevent them. 

During the first week, the temperature of the stable ought 
to be little dififerent from that of the external air, Sub- 
sequently it may be raised, by slow degrees, till it is as warm 
as the work or other circumstances demand. The horse should 
not at first be clothed, and his first clothing should be light. 
Crrooming may commence on the first day ; but it is not good 
to expose the skin very quickly by a thorough dressing. The 
food should be laxative, consisting of bran-mashes, oats, and 
hay ; but no beans, or very few. Walking-exercise, twice a 
day, is absolutely necessary for keeping the legs clean, and it 
assists materially in preventing plethora. 

The time required for inuring a horse to stable treatment, 
depends upon several circumstances. If taken home in warm 
weather, the innovation, so far as the temperance and the 
purity of the air are concerned, may be completed in about 
two weeks. If the horse is not very lean, his skin may be well 
cleaned in the first week ; and to clean it, he must have one or 
two gentle sweats, sufficient to detach and dissolve the dust, 
mud, and oily matter which adhere to the skin, and glue the 
hair together. All this, or as much of it as possible, must foe 
scraped off while the horse is warm and perspiring. If it is 
allowed to get dry before scraping, he is just where he was. 
If the weather be cold, there need be no great hurry about 
cleaning him completely. 

The propriety of giving physic after grazing has been often 
questioned. In the stable, its utility is generally acknow- 
ledged. In books it is sometimes condemned as pernicious, 
som£times as useless. It may be safely said, however, that. 



166 PASTUEINO. 

there are many cases in which physic is very useful ; bat that, 
as a general thing, it is given too indiscriminately, and before 
it is wanted. 

To a lusty horse, one or two doses may be given for the 
purpose of reducing him, for removing superfluous fat and 
flesh. The physic may be strong, sufficiently so to produce 
copious purgation. It empties the bowels, takes up the carcass, 
and gives freedom to respiration ; it promotes absorption, an(J 
expels the juices which embarrass exertion. Work, sweating 
and a spare diet of condensed food, will produce effects with* 
out the aid of physic. But purgation shortens the time of 
training, and it saves the legs. If the horse must be rapidly 
prepared for work, with as little hazard as possible to his legs, 
he must have physic. The first dose may be given on the day 
when he comes from grass ; the others, if more than one be 
necessary, at intervals of eight or ten clear days. 

A lean horse, fresh from grass, needs no physic till he has 
been stabled for several days, and perhaps not then. By the 
time he has acquired strength sufficient to stand training, his 
bowels are void of grass, and his belly small enough to allow 
freedom of respiration. At the end of a fortnight or three 
weeks, the lean horse ought to be decidedly lustier. If too 
much so, and acquiring flesh too rapidly, one dose of physic 
may be given, active enough to produce smart purgation, and 
prevent the evils which arise from plethora. If he is not 
taking on flesh so rapidly as he should, he may have two, 
perhaps three, mild doses of physic, just active enough to 
produce one or two watery or semi-fluid evacuations. If he 
eat a great deal without improving in condition, he is probably 
troubled with worms, and half a drachm of calomel may be 



PASTURING. 167 

added to each dose of physic. If he does not feed well, there 
is probably a torpid state of the digestive apparatus, produced 
by a bad or deficient diet. lu such a case, mild physic is 
still proper, and, in addition, the horse may have a few tonic 
balls between the setting of one dose and the administration 
of another. Four drachms of gentian, two of ginger, and one 
of tartar emetic, made into a ball with honey, forms a very 
useful tonic. One of these may be given every day, or every 
second day, for a fortnight. If the horse does not improve 
under these, he requires the aid of a veterinary surgeon. 

The mode op grazing farm-horses requires some notice. 
Other horses are sent to pasture, and with few exceptions, re- 
main at it for days and weeks without interruption. Those 
employed in agriculture are pastured in three different ways. 
By one, the horse is constantly at grass, except during his 
hours of work ; he is put out at night, is brought in the 
next morning, goes to work for two or three hours, and is 
then returned to pasture for about two hours ; in the afternoon 
lie again goes to work, which may be concluded at five or six 
o'clock, and from that time till he is wanted on the next morn- 
ing he is kept at grass. By another mode, the horse is turned 
out only at night. During the day he is soiled in his stable 
at his resting intervals. When work is over for the day, he 
is sent out till the next morning By the third mode, which 
is generally allowed to be the best, the horse is turned to grass 
only once a week. He is pastured from the time his work is 
finished on Saturday night till it commences again on Monday 
morning. 

If the horses have any thing like work, the first two modes 
are decidedly objectionable. There is much expenditure of 



163 SERVICE. 

labor in procuring the food, and there is great loss of time. 
It may cost the horse four or five hours good work to cut 
down the grass which he eats, A man supplied with a scythe 
will do the same work with far less labor in a few minutes. 
If there be nothing else for the horse to do, it is quite right 
to make him gather his own food. But, otherwise, it is absurd 
to make him exhaust his strength and time in doing that which 
a man can do so much more easily and quickly. Besides this 
expenditure of the horse's time and strength, the loss of 
manure, and the damage done to pasture by the feet, ought to 
be taken into consideration. 

The third mode of grazing appears to be the least objection- 
able. The horses have no field labor on Sunday ; if the pas- 
ture be good, the weather favorable, and the horses not 
fatigued, they are better at grass than in the house. 

In some places the road-horses are sometimes put to grass 
on Sunday. This practice has nothing apparently to recom- 
mend it. The weekly work of these horses in general de- 
mands the rest which Sunday brings ; and if they travel at a 
fast pace, as all coach-horses do now, they are apt to eat so 
much grass, and carry such a load in their bellies, that on 
Monday they are easily over-worked. The breathing is im- 
peded, unless the horses purge, which few do. They often 
come from grass as haggard and dejected as if they had done 
twice their ordinary work the day before. 



SEHVICE. 

A change of lodging, or of diet, is often a cause of disease. 
When a fresh horse is procured, it is well to know how he has 
been treated during the previous month ; if he is a valuable 




SERVICE. 169 

animal, he will certainly be worth this inquiry. Horses that 
come from a dealer have probably been standing in a warm 
stable, well-clothed, well-groomed, highly fed, and seldom 
exercised. They have fine glossy 
coats, are lusty, and in high^jr^ 
spirits; but 
their flesh is 
soft and flabby. 
They are unfit ^'^M^ 
for fast work ; ^ 
they are easily '^=^-^^' 
heated by exer- 
tion, and when 
the least warm, seevice. 

are very apt to take cold. But, wherever the horse comes 
from, or whatever his condition may be, changes in reference 
to food, temperature, and work, must be effected by slow 
degrees. It is absurd and always pernicious to take a horse 
from the field, and put him in a warm stable, and on rich 
food all at once ; it is no less erroneous to take him from 
a warm to a cold stable, or to demand exertion to which he 
has not been trained. 

When the horse's history cannot be traced, both his work and 
his diet should at first be moderate. More of either than he 
has been accustomed to, will do more harm than less of either. 
It may, however, soon be ascertained by trying him whether he 
has been doing much work ; if fit for work, he may be fed in 
proportion. The temperature of the stable had better be 
warmer than colder. If too warm, the horse will perspire ; his 
coat will be wet in different places, especially in the morning 



170 SERVICE. 

when the stables are first opened. If it be too cold, his coat 
will be roughened, and become dim, and the horse will catch 
cold, evidence of which will be given by a cough. 

The work of some horses exposes them much to the weather 
Those employed in street-coaches, in the carriages of medical 
men, all those that have to stand in the weather, can never do 
so with safety until they have been seasoned. In the cold rainy 
season, many are destroyed, and many more endangered by in- 
judicious exposure. Wet weather is the most pernicious ; yet 
it is not the rain alone that does the mischief. If the horse is 
kept in motion, and afterwards perfectly and quickly dried, or 
is kept in motion till he is dry, he suffers no injury. His coat 
may be bleached till it is like a dead fur ; but the horse does 
not catch cold. If he is allowed to stand at rest with his coat 
drenched in the rain, the surface of the body rapidly loses its 
heat, there being no stimulus to the formation of it ; the blood 
circulates slowly, accumulates internally, and oppresses vital 
organs, especially the lungs ; the legs become excessively cold 
and benumbed ; the horse can hardly use them, and, when put 
in motion, he strikes one against the other. Exposure, when it 
deprives the body of heat in this way, is a fruitful source of in- 
flamed lungs, of thoracic influenza, catarrh, and founder. When 
the skin is wet, or the air very cold, the horse should, if possible, 
be kept in motion, which will preserve him, however little he 
may have been accustomed to exposure. 

Horses that have been kept in warm stables, and never out 
but in fair weather, are in most danger. If they cannot be kept 
in constant motion, they must be prepared before they are ex- 
posed. If they commence work in summer, or early in the 
autumn, they will be fully inured to the weather before the worst 



SERVICE. Itl 

part of winter arrives. But if they commence in winter, they 
should be out for only one or two hours at a time ; in good days 
they may be out longer, no one being able to give a precise rule 
as to the length of time appropriate, as it varies with the con- 
dition of the animal, the weather, and the work required. It 
should shorten with the wetness or coldness of the weather, and 
the tenderness of the animal. If he must run rapidly from one 
place to another, and wait perhaps half an hour at each, he is 
in more danger than if the pace were slower, and the time of 
waiting shorter ; and if moved about constantly, or every ten 
minutes, he suffers less injury than if he was standing still. After 
a time he becomes inured to exposure, and may be safely trusted 
in the severest weather. 

Repeated and continued application of cold to the surface of 
the body stimulates the skin to produce an extra supply of heat. 
The exposure of two or three days is not sufficient to rouse the 
skin to this effort. It is always throwing off a large quantity 
of heat ; but it is several days, and with many horses several 
weeks, before the skin can assume activity sufficient to meet the 
demands of a cold or wet atmosphere. Ultimately, it becomes 
so vigorous that the application of cold, whether wet or dry, is 
almost instantly followed by an increased production of heat. 
To this, however, there are limits. By exposure, gradually 
increasing in length and frequency, the system may be able to 
maintain the temperature at a comfortable warmth for three or 
four successive hours, even when the horse is standing at rest 
in wet or cold. But he cannot endure this beyond a certain 
point. Exhaustion and emaciation succeed, in spite of all the 
food the horse can eat. The formation of so much heat con- 
sumes the nutriment that ought to produce vigor for work. 



172 SERVICE. 

Hence, working horses kept very much in very cold stables are 
lean and dull. 

I: is chiefly the horses that have to stand in the weather, 
which require preparation for exposure. Bleeding, purging, 
and other means, which debilitate or emaciate, are never neces- 
sary in this process. Hunting, stage-coach, and cart-horses 
seldom require any preparation for exposure, as they are in 
motion from the time of leaving the stable till their return. 
They only require to be well and quickly dried when wet. 

New horses are very liable to have the skin injured by thq 
harness. The friction of the saddle, collar, or traces, pro- 
duces excoriation. In some horses this is altogether unavoidT 
able, especially when they are in poor condition. Their skin 
is tender, and a little chafing exposes the quick. In all 
horses it is some time before the skin thickens, and becomes 
suflBciently callous to carry the harness without injury. The 
1»ime required to undergo this change varies materially, and 
cannot be much shortened by any means. Attention to the 
darness, however, will freqiipntly prevent excoriation. After 
every journey, the neck should be closely examined. If 
there be any spot, however little abraded, hot and tender when 
pinched, that part of the collar which produced it should be cut 
out before the next journey. The guard, or safe, is a useful 
article to prevent galls of this kind. It is merely a thin slip 
of soft leather, covering the seat of the collar. It obviates 
friction, and prevents injurious pressure from any little protub^ 
ance or hardness in the stuffing of the collar. On the first or 
second journey a new horse often comes in with his neck some- 
what inflamed ; it is hot, tender, and covered with pimples. 
In the stables it is said to be Jired. A solution of common 



SERVICE. 173 

fait in water is commonly applied, and it serves to allay the 
(nflammation ; it should be applied whenevei' the collar is re- 
moved. Tumors, containing bloody water, frequently rise on 
the neck. They should be opened immediately, emptied, and 
kept opened for a few days. The piece must be taken out 
of the collar, and a safe used. On a hilly road the lower part 
of the collar often galls the neck seriously, in spite of any 
alteration in the stuffing. A broad strap attached to the 
collar, and passing over the windpipe, is a good remedy. 
The strap should be two inches broad, and drawn tightly 
enough to keep the collar steady, and make it stand nearly 
upright. It should be adjusted before the head is put on the 
bearing 'reins, and should be worn till the neck is quite sound. 
A broad breast-band may also be substituted for the neck 
collar, till the neck and shoulders get well. A horse will pull 
nearly as well in this as in the collar and hames. When the 
traces, crupper, or pad, threaten or produce excoriation, they 
must be kept off by cushions placed behind, before, or at each 
side of the part injured. 

The back requires nearly as much care as the neck. A new 
saddle is objectionable for a new horse, particularly when he 
has to travel far under a heavy rider. A tender back may be 
hardened by frequent use of the saddle and a light weight. 
The horse may stand saddled in the stable, and saddled when 
he goes to exercise. When the back is hot, and the skin dis- 
posed to rise in tumors, the saddle should remain on till the 
back becomes cool. Slacken the girths, raise the saddle for a 
moment, and then replace it. Its weight prevents tumors ; 
excoriation and firing must be treated as on the neck. 
Always let the pommel of the saddle be dry before it is again 



174 SERVICE. 

used, and put it on half an hour before the horse is to b« 
mounted. 

Horses, from whom extraordinary exertions are not de- 
manded, and those that are never expected or required to do 
all that a horse is capable of doing, stand in little need of 
inurement to work, and it is seldom that any is intentionally 
given. When a saddle or draifght-horse is purchased, he is 
often put to his work at once, without any preparation. He 
is treated as if he were as able for the work as it is possible to 
make him. So long as the work is slow and not very labori- 
ous, he may perform it well enough ; but this system will not 
do for full work, whether fast or slow. If the horse has been 
idle for a month or two, he is weak. It matters little that he 
is plump and in good spirits. He raav be able to draw a 
load of twenty or thirty hundred-weight with ease, and per- 
haps to draw it a considerable distance ; but on the next day 
fie is sore all over, stiff, feeble, dull, almost unable to carry 
his own weight. If the same work be exacted day after day, 
the horse loses flesh, and at last becomes unfit for any work. 
But if the werk be less severe at first, and gradually increases 
from week to week, the horse at last acquires strength and 
endurance greater, perhaps, than he ever before possessed. He 
is then able to do with ease as much in a week as would have 
completely knocked him up at the beginning. For slow, 
moderate work, this is all the preparation which the horse 
needs. At first, let it be very gentle ; and the weight he is to 
carry or draw, and the distance he is to travel, may be in- 
creased as he is found able to bear it. In preparing the horse 
for hunting, racing, or coaching, the treatment must be some- 
what different. 



SHOEING. 



175 



SHOEING. 

There is hardly any other class of mechanics who combine 
so much ignorance of the principles on which their art is 
founded, with so much conceit of their knowledge, as do or- 
dinary horse-shoers ; and it should be one of the first duties 
of the horse-owner to inform himself of the nature and struc- 
ture of the horse's foot, the reason why shoeing is necessary at 
all, what parts of the foot it protects, what is the best form 
of shoe to effect the purpose, how it may be best fastened to 
the foot, and how often it should be removed. 

To illustrate these important points, cuts are here intro- 
duced, showing the construction of the horse's foot. 

Our first one shows the ground surface of the hoof prepared 
for receiving a shoe ; and marks very distinctly the difference 
between the curvature of the outer and inner quarters. 

The hoof is. divided into 
horny crust or wall, sole, and 
frog. The horny crust is se- 
creted by the numerous blood- 
j 2 vessels of that soft protruding 
band which encircles the upper 
edge of the hoof, immediately 
^2 beneath the termination of the 
hair ; and is divided into toe, 
quarters, heels, and bars. Its 
GROTTTO SITR7ACE OF THE HOOP. tcxturc Is inscnsiblc, but elas- 

C. The toe — rasped away to receive the turned-up shoe, a 1. The inner toe. a 2. 
Theoirfertoe. 61. The inner quarter. & 2. The ow/er quarter, cl. The in?ter heel. 
c 2. The outer heel. d. d. d. The sole. e. e. The crust or -wall of the hoof. /./. 
The bars. g. g. The commissures, h. k. I. The frog. h. The part immediately under 
the navicular joint, k. The oval cleft of the frog. I. The eleyated boundary of the 
cleft, i. i. The bolbs of the heels. 




ne 



SHOEING. 



tic throughout its whole extent ; and, yielding to the weight o! 
the horse, allows the horny sole to descend, whereby much in- 
convenient concussion of the internal parts of the foot is avoided. 
But if a large portion of the circumference of the foot is fettered 
by iron and nails, it is plain that that portion, at least, cannot 
expand as before ; and the beautiful and efficient apparatus for 
effecting this necessary elasticity, being no longer allowed to 
act by reason of these restraints, becomes altered in structure ; 
and the continued operation of the same causes, in the end, 
circumscribes the elasticity to those parts alone where no nails 
have been driven ; giving rise to a train of consequences de- 
structive to the soundness of the foot, and fatal to the usefulness 
of the horse. 

The toe of the fore foot is the thickest and strongest portion 
of the hoof, and is in consequence less expansive than any other 

part, and there^ 
fore better calcu- 
lated to resist the 
effects of the nails 
and the shoe. The 
thickness of the 
ho-rn gradually 
diminishes to- 
ward the quarters 
THE HOOF OF THE HORSE. End facels, partlcu- 

Is a broad flat mass of horn, projecting upward into the middle of the elastic cush- 
ion, and caUed "the frog stay." b, b. Are two horny projections rising into the 
cavity of the hoof formed by the commissures, c. c. Are portions of the same projec- 
tions, and are situated just under the two ends of the navicular bone, and mark the 
point on either side where diminution in the'natural elasticity of the fatty frog would 
be felt with the greatest seventy by the navicular joint ; for under the most favorable 
circumstances, the quantity of cushion between these points and the navicular joint 
cannot be very lavtre ; nnd hence the importance of our doing all we can to preserve 
its elasticity as long as possible. 




SHOEINa. 



m 



larly on the inner side of the foot, whereby the power of yield- 
ing and expanding to the weight of the horse is proportionably 
increased, clearly indicating that those parts cannot be nailed 
to an unyielding bar of iron, without a most mischievous inter- 
ference with the natural functions of the foot. In the hind foot, 
greater thickness of horn will be found at the quarters and heels, 
than in the fore foot. This difference in the thickness of horn 
is beautifully adapted to the inequality of the weight which 
each has to sustain, the force with which it is applied, and the 
portions of the hoof upon which it falls. 

The toe of the fore foot encounters the combined force and 
weight of the fore hand and body, and consequently in a state 
of nature is exposed to considerable wear and tear, and calls 
for greater strength and substance of horn than is needed by 
any portion of the hind foot, where the duty of supporting the 
hinder parts alone is distributed on the quarters and heels of 
both sides of the foot. 

The bars are 
continuations of 
the wall, reflected 
at the heel towards 
the centre of the 
foot, where they 
meet in a point, 
leaving a triangu- 
lar space between 
A SECTION OF THE FOOT. ^hcm for thc frog. 

\. The coronet bone. 2. The coffin bone. 3. The navicular boae. a. The waU. 6. 
The sole. c. The cleft of the frog. d. d. The frog. e. e. The fatty frog, or elastic 
cushion. /. The sensitive sole. ff. The seo.sitive frog. h. h. h. Tendons of the mus- 
cles which bend the foot. i. Part of the pastern bone. Ic. k. Tendons of the muscles 
■which extend the foot. I'. The coffin joint, m. The navicular joint, n. The coronary 
substance, o. The sensible lamiuje, or covering of the colliu bone. 

12 




178 SHOEING. 

The whole inner surface of the horny crnst, from the centre 
of the toe to the point where the bars meet, is everywhere lined 
with innumerable narrow, thin, and projecting horny plates, 
which extend in a slanting direction from the upper edge of the 
wall to the line of junction between it and the sole, and possess 
great elasticity. These projecting plates are the means of 
greatly extending the surface of attachment of the hoof to the 
coffin bone, which is likewise covered by a similar arrangement 
of projecting plates, but of a highly vascular and sensitive cha- 
racter ; and these, dovetailing with the horny projections 
above named, constitute a union combining strength and elas- 
ticity in a wonderful degree. 

The horny sole covers the whole interior surface of the foot 
excepting the frog. In a well-formed foot it presents an arched 
appearance, and possesses considerable elasticity, by virtue of 
which it ascends and descends, as the weight above is either 
suddenly removed from it, or forcibly applied to it. This de- 
scending property of the sole calls for one especial consideration 
in directing the form of the shoe ; for, if the shoe be so formed 
that the horny sole rests upon it, it cannot descend lower ; and 
the sensitive sole above, becoming squeezed between the edges 
of the coffin bone and the horn, produces inflammation, and 
perhaps abscess. The effect of this squeezing of the sensitive 
sole is most commonly witnessed at the angle of the inner heel, 
where the descending heel of the coffin bone, forcibly pressing 
the vascular sole upon the horny sole, contuses a small blood- 
vessel, and produces what is called a corn, but which is, in fact, 
a bruise. 

The horny frog occupies the greater part of the triangular 
space between the bars, and extends from the hindermost part 



SHOEING. 1Y9 

of the foot to the centre of the sole, just over the point where 
the bars meet, but is united to them only at their upper edge ; 
the sides remain unattached and separate, and form the channel 
called the commissures. 

If we carefully observe the form and size in the frog in the 
foot of a colt of from four to five years old, at its first shoeing, 
and then note the changes which it undergoes as the shoeings 
are repeated, we shall soon be convinced that a visible departure 
from a state of health and nature is taking place. At first it 
will be found large and full, with considerable elasticity ; the 
cleft oval in form, open, and expanding, with a continuous, 
well-defined, and somewhat elevated boundary ; the bulbs at the 
heels fully developed, plump, and rounded ; and the whole mass 
occupying about one-sixth of the circumference of the foot. By 
degrees the fulness and elasticity will be observed to have 
diminished ; the bulb at the heels will shrink, and lose their 
plumpness ; the cleft will become narrower, its oval form disap- 
pear, the back part of its boundary give way, and it will dwindle 
into a narrow crack, extended back between the wasted, or 
perhaps obliterated, bulbs, presenting only the miserable remains 
of a frog, such as may be seen in the feet of most horses long 
accustomed to be shod. 

The bones proper to the foot are three in number, — viz., the 
coffin bone, the navicular bone, and part of the coronet bone ; 
they are contained within the hoof, and combine to form the 
coffin joint ; but the smallest of them, the navicular bone, is of 
far more importance as connected with the subject of shoeing, 
than either of the others ; for upon the healthy condition of this 
bone, and the joint formed between it and the tendon, which 
passes under it to the coffin bone, and is called the navicular 
joint, mainly depends the usefulness of the horse to man. 



180 SHOEING. 

This small bone, which in a horse sixteen hands high mea- 
sures only two and a quarter inches in its longest diameter, 
three-fourths of an inch at the widest part of its shorter diameter, 
and half an inch in thickness in the centre, its thickest part, has 
the upper and under surfaces and part of one of the sides over- 
laid with a thin coating of gristle, and covered by a delicate 
secreting membrane, very liable upon the slightest injury to 
become inflamed ; it is so placed in the foot as to be continually 
exposed to danger, being situated across the hoof, behind the 
coffin bone, and immediately under the coronet bone ; whereby 
it is compelled to receive nearly the whole weight of the horse 
each time that the opposite foot is raised from the ground. 

The coffin bone consists of a body and wings ; and is fitted 
into the hoof, which it closely resembles in form. Its texture 
is particularly light and spongy, arising from the quantity of 
canals or tubes that traverse its substance in every direction, 
affording to numerous blood-vessels and nerves a safe passage 
to the sensitive and vascular parts surrounding it ; while the 
unyielding nature of the bone effectually protects them from 
compression or injury, under every variety of movement of the 
horse. 

In an unshod foot, the front and sides of the coffin bone are 
deeply furrowed and roughened, to secure the firmer attachment 
of the vascular membranous structure, by which the bone is 
clothed ; but in the bone of a foot that has been frequently shod, 
the appearance is greatly changed, the furrows and r<*ughness 
giving place to a comparatively smooth surface. This change 
is probably produced by the shoe limiting, if not destroying, the 
expansive power of that part of the horn to which it is nailed : 
whereby a change of structure in the membrane itself, as ^' ^a as 



SHOEING. 181 

absorption of the attaching portions of the bone, is induced ; for 
it is an invariable hiw of the animal economy not to continue 
to uneniployed structures the same measure of efficient repara- 
tion that is extended to parts constantly engaged in performing 
their allotted tasks. The shoe restricts or prevents expansion ; 
while nature, as the secret influence is called, immediately sets 
to work to simplify the apparatus for producing the expansion, 
which art has thus rendered impracticable, and substitutes for 
it a new structure, less finely organized, but admirably suited 
to the altered condition of the parts. 

The wings extend from the body of the bone directly back- 
ward, and support the lateral cartilage of the foot. 

The sensitive sole, or, as it is sometimes called, the fleshy sole, 
is about the eighth of an inch thick, and is almost entirely made 
up of blood-vessels and nerves ; it is one of the most vascular 
and sensitive parts of the body, and is attached to the lower 
edge of the sensitive covering of the coffin bone, to the bars, 
and point of the frog, and also with great firmness to the whole 
of the arched under-surface of the coffin bone. 

The sensitive frog inclucles not only the part corresponding 
to the sensitive sole, but also the peculiar spongy elastic sub- 
stance which intervenes between it and the navicular joint, and 
fills the space between the cartilages. The proper sensitive 
frog is thicker, and less finely organized, than the sensitive sole, 
possessing fewer blood-vessels and nerves. 

It is a common, but very erroneous, opinion, that the shape 
of the perfect foot is circular, or very nearly so. This induces 
most smiths to endeavor to reduce the foot to that shape as soon 
as possible. There are very few things in nature so little varied 
as the form of the ground surface of horses' feet ; for whether the 



182 SHOEING. 

hoof be high-heeled and upright, or low-heeled and flat, large or 
small, broad or narrow, the identical form of ground-surface is 
maintained in each, so long as it is left entirely to nature's 
guidance. The outer quarter, back to the heel, is curved con- 
siderably and abruptly outward, while the inner quarter is 
carried back in a gradual and easy curve. The advantage of 
this form is so obvious, that it is strange that any interference 
should ever be attempted with it. The enlarged outer quarter 
extends the base, and increases the hold of the foot upon the 
ground ; while the straighter inner quarter lessens the risk of 
striking the foot against the opposite leg. 

The inclination of the front of the horny crust of the foot 
should be at an angle of about forty-five degrees. If the foot 
is much steeper than this, it is very liable to contract ; while, 
if it is much more slanting, it constitutes what is called 
the " oyster shell" foot, in which there is an undue flatness of 
.the sole, and a tendency to pumiced feet. 

Before removing the old shoes, care should be taken to 
raise all the clinches of the nails to prevent injury to the 
crust, and to avoid giving pain to the horse ; even after 
clinches are raised, if the shoes cannot be easily drawn off, 
those nails which seem to hold most firmly should be punched, 
or drawn out, that the shoe may be removed without injury to 
the hoof, and without weakening the nail-hold for the new 
shoeing. 

The shoe being removed, the edge of the crust should be 
well rasped to remove so much of the horn as would have been 
worn away by the contact with the ground, had it been un- 
shod. In no case should the rasp be used on the surface of 
the hoof, except to make the necessary depressions .for the 



SHOEING. 183 

clinches, after the new shoe has been put on, and to shape the 
hoof below the line of the clinches of the nails. The hoof, 
above this line, will inevitably be injured by such treatment, 
which is one of the most fruitful sources of brittleness of the 
horn, which often results in "sand-crack." 

The operation of paring out the horse's foot is a matter re- 
quiring both skill and judgment, and is, moreover, a work of 
some labor, when properly performed. It will be found that 
the operator errs much oftener by removing too little than 
too much ; at least it is so with the parts which ought to be 
removed, which are almost as hard and unyielding as flint, and 
in their most favorable state, require considerable exertion to 
cut through. 

No general rule can be given applicable to the paring out 
of the feet of all horses, or even of the feet of the same horse 
at all times. It would be evidently unwise, for example, to 
pare the sole as thin in a hot, dry, season, when the roads are 
broken up, and strewed with loose stones, as would be proper 
in a moderately wet one, when the roads are well bound and 
even ; for, in the case first named, the sole is in constant danger 
of being bruised by violent contact with loose stones, and 
therefore, needs a thicker layer of horn for its protection; 
while the latter case offers the most favorable surface that the 
greater part of our horses ever have to travel upon, advantage 
of which should be taken for a thorough paring out of the 
sole, in order that the internal parts of the foot may derive the 
full benefit accruing from an elastic and descending sole ; a 
condition of things very essential to the due peribrmance of 
their separate functions. To take another illustration : horn 
grows very freely, especially toward the toe in horses with 



184 SHOEING. 

upright feet and high heels ; and such are always benefited by 
having the toe shortened, the heels lowered, and the sole well 
pared out; whereas in horses with flat feet and low heels, 
horn grows sparingly, and the toe of such feet being always 
weak, admits of very little shortening. Such heels being 
already too low, they should scarcely be touched with the 
rasp ; and the sole presents such a small quantity of dead 
horn, that the knife should be used with great discretion. 

The corners formed by the junction of the crust and bars 
should be well pared out, particularly on the inside ; for this 
is the common seat of corn, and any accumulation of horn in 
this situation must increase the risk of bruising the sensitive 
sole between the inner part or heel of the coffin bone and the 
horny sole. Little, if anything, is gained by allowing the 
bars to project beyond the surface of the sole ; the power of 
resisting contraction cannot possibly be increased by this 
arrangement, and the projecting rim is left exposed to the 
danger of being broken and bruised by contact with stones 
and other hard substances ; and the method is further attended 
with the disadvantages of making the cleaning out of these 
corners a work of considerable ingenuity with so unwieldly an 
instrument as a common drawing-knife. It is much preferable 
to pare them down to a level with the sole, or very nearly so ; 
avoiding, however, every approach to what is styled ' opening 
out the heels," a most reprehensible practice, which means 
cutting away the sides of the bars, so as to show an apparent 
increase of width between the heels, which may for the time 
deceive the eye, but is in reality a mere deception, purchased 
at the expense of impaired powers of resistance in the bars 
and ultimate contraction of the feet. It is palpable that the 



SHOEING. 185 

removal of any portion from the sides of the bars must diminish 
their substance, and render them weaker, and consequently 
less able to resist contraction. 

The frog should never be cut or pared, except in very rare 
cases of horses with unusually fast-growing frogs. The first 
stroke of the knife removes the thin horny covering altogether, 
and lays bare an under surface, totally unfitted, from its moist, 
soft texture, for exposure either to the hard ground or the 
action of the airj in consequence of which exposure it soon 
becomes dry and shrinks ; then follow cracks, the edge of 
which turning outward forms rags ; these rags are removed 
by the smith at the next shoeing, by which means another 
similar surface is exposed, and another foundation laid for 
other rags ; and this process continues until finally the pro- 
truding, plump, elastic cushion, interposed by nature between 
the navicular joint and the ground, and so essential to its 
preservation from injury, is converted by this senseless inter- 
ference into the dry, shrunk, unyielding apology for a frog, to 
be seen in the foot of almost every horse that has been regu- 
larly shod for a few years. The frog is provided within itself 
with two very efficient modes of throwing off any superfluou3 
horn with which it may be troubled, and it is very unwise in 
man to interfere with them. The first and most common of 
these modes is the separation from the surface of the fr«g of 
small, bran-like scales, which becoming dry, fall off in a kind, 
of whitish scurf, not unlike the dust that adheres to Turkey 
figs ; the other, which is upon a large scale, and of rarer oc- 
currence, is sometimes called "casting ihh frog." A thick 
layer of frog separates itself in a body, and shells off as deep 
as a common paring with a knife ; but this very important 



186 SHOEING. 

difference is to be noted between the two operations — that 
nature never removes the horny covering until she has pro- 
vided another horny covering beneath, so that although a 
large portion of the frog may have been removed, there still 
remains behind a perfect frog, smaller, it is true, but covered 
with horn, and in every way fitted to sustain exposure; while 
the knife, on the contrary, removes the horny covering, but 
is unable to substitute any other in its stead. The frog should, 
therefore, be left to itself; nature will remove the superfluous 
horn, and the rags do no harm, since, if they are unmolested, 
they will soon wholly disappear. 

The shoe should possess these general features : first, it should 
be, for ordinary work, rather heavy, in order that it may not 
be bent by contact with hard, uneven roads ; second, it should 
be wide in the web, and of equal thickness and width from the 
toe to the heel, that it may as much as possible protect' the 
sole, without altering the natural position of the foot ; third, it 
should be well drawn in at the heels, that it may rest on the 
bars, and extend to the outer edge of the crust on the outside, 
and reach beyond the bar nearly to the frog, so that there may 
be no danger of its pressing on ths " corn-place," or angles 
between the bar and the crust ; anc fourth, it should in no 
part extend beyond the outer edge of the crust, lest it 
strike* against the opposite leg when the horse is travel- 
ing, or be stepped on by another horse, or be drawn off by a 
heavy soil. 

Such a shoe, and its position on the foot, is shown in the 
cut opposite. 

The shoe should be made as nearly of this form as the 
chape of the foot will allow ; but it is always to be borne in 



SHOEING. 



18T 



mind, that the shoe is intended for the foot, and not the 
foot for the shoe, and that it is therefore peculiarly proper 
to make the shoe to fit the 
natural form of the foot, in- 
stead, as is too often the case, 
of paring, burning, and rasp- 
ing the foot until it fits the 
shoe, which is made accord- 
ing to the smith's notion of 
what the form of the horse's \1 
foot should be. No amount 
of paring can bring the foot 
of a horse to an unnatural 
figure, and also leave it 
sound and safe for work and use. 




THE POSITION OF THE SHOE. 



This cut represents the foot with the shoe rendered ti-ansparent, showing what parts of 
the foot are protected and coTered by bringing in the heels of tlie shoes, n, a, a, the 
crust, with the shoe closely fitted all around. 6, b, the bars, protected by the shoe. 
c, c, the heels, supported by the shoe, d, the situation of corns protected from injury. 

The truth really is, that the shape of the shoe cannot by 
possibility influence the shape of the foot ; for the foot being 
elastic, it expands to the weight of the horse in precisely the 
same degree, whether it is resting upon the most open or the 
most contracted shoe. It is the situation of the nails, and not 
the shape of the shoe, that determines the form of the ^ foot. 
If the nails be placed in the outside quarter and toe, leaving 
the heels and quarters on the inside, which are the most ex- 
pansive portions, free, no shape which we can give to the 
shoe can of itself change the form of the foot. It must not, 
however, be inferred from this, that the shape of the shoe is 
therefore of no importance ; quite the contrary being the case, 



188 SHOEING. 

as has been already shown. As the shape of the foot is in no 
degree changed by the form of shoe, that form should mani- 
festly be adopted which produces the greatest number of ad- 
vantages with the fewest disadvantages. 

A small clip at the point of the toe is very desirable, as 
preventing displacement of the shoe backwards ; it need not 
be driven up hard, as it is simply required as a check or stay. 
The shoe should be sufficiently long to fully support the angles 
at the heels, and not so short, as is too often the case, that a 
little wear imbeds the edge of it in the born at these parts. 
The foot surface of the shoe should always have a good flat 
even space left all around for the crust to bear upon ; for it 
must be remembered, that the crust sustains the whole weight 
of the horse, and should therefore have a perfectly even bear-, 
ing everywhere around the shoe. In this space the nail-holes 
should be punched ; and not, as is too generally the case, 
partly in it, and^ partly in the seating. In what is technically 
called "back-holing the shoe," which means completing the 
openings of nail-holes on the foot surface, great care should be 
taken to give them an outward direction, so as to allow the 
points of the nails to be brought out low down in the crust. 
The remainder of the foot surface should be carefully seated 
out particularly around the elevated toe, where it might other- 
wise press inconveniently upon the sole, and the seating should 
be carried on fairly to the point where the crust and bars 
meet, in order that there may be no pressure in the seat of 
corns ; the chance of pressure in this situation will be still fur- 
ther diminished by beveling off the inner edge of the heels with 
a rasp. 

The ground surface should be perfectly flat, with a groove 



SHOEING. 189 

running round the outer edge, just under the plain surface, upon 
which the crust bears. The principal use of this groove is to 
receive the heads of the nails that secure the shoe, and prevent 
their beading or breaking off; it is further useful in increasing 
the hold of the shoe upon the ground, and should be carried 
back to the heels. 

In fitting the shoe on the foot, it should never while red-hot 
be burned into its place, as this would so heat the sensitive sole 
as to produce a serious derangement of its parts ; but it may 
with safety be touched lightly to the foot, that by a slight 
burning it may indicate those parts where the foot needs paring; 
indeed, it is necessary to pursue this course in order to make 
the shoe so exactly fit the foot that there will be no danger of 
its moving sufficiently to loosen the hold of the nails. The shoe 
should be made with steel in front, this being sloped backwards 
to a line running at right angles with the upper slope of the 
hoof. Old shoes being always worn to about this form, new 
ones should be so made, and the steel will prevent their being 
unduly worn. 

The shoe having been so fitted that the foot exactly touches 
it in every part, the next step is to nail it fast to the hoof. 
Upon the number and situation of the nails which secure it 
depends the amount of disturbance that the natural functions 
of the foot are destined to sustain from the shoe. If the nails 
are numerous, and placed back in the quarters and heels, n9 
form of shoe, however perfect, can save the foot from contrac- 
tion and navicular disease. If, on the contrary, they are few, 
and placed in the outside quarter and toe, leaving the inside 
quarter and heels free to expand, no form of shoe is so bad that 
it can, from defective form alone, produce contraction of the 
foot. 



190 SHOEING. 

Various experiments, which have been made for the purpose 
of ascertaining how few nails are absolutely necessary under 
ordinary circumstances for retaining a shoe securely in its place, 
have satisfactorily established that five nails are amply suf&cient 
for the fore-shoes and seven for the hind. The nails should not 
be driven high up in the crust, but brought out as soon as pos- 
sible ; they should also be very lightly driven up before the 
clinchers are turned down, and not, as is generally the case, 
forced up with all the power which the smith can bring to bear 
upon them with his hammer. The clinches should not be 
rasped away too fine, but turned down broad and firm. The 
practice of rasping the whole surface of the hoof after the 
clinches have been turned down, should never be allowed ; it 
destroys the covering provided by nature as a protection against 
the too rapid evaporation of the moisture of the hoof, and 
causes the horn to become dry and brittle. 

The fear, very commonly entertained, that a shoe will be cast 
almost at every step, unless it is held to the foot by eight or 
nine nails driven high up into the crust, is utterly groundless, 
as both theory and practice concur in asserting. If the pre- 
sence of a nail in the crust were a matter of no moment, and 
two or three more than are necessary were merely useless, no 
great reason would exist for condemning the common practice 
of using too many nails ; but it is far otherwise ; — the nails 
separate the fibres of the horn, which never by any chance be- 
come united again, but continue apart and unclosed, until by 
degrees they grow down with the rest of the hoof, and are 
finally, after repeated shoeings, removed by the knife. 

If the clinches chance to rise, they must be at once replaced,, 
as such rising imparts to the nails a freedom of motion which 



SHOEING. 191 

is certain to enlarge the size of the holes ; and this mischief is 
often increased by the violent wrenching from side to side which 
the shoe undergoes in the process of removal by the smith. As 
these holes cannot possibly grow down and be removed under 
three shoeings, it will be found that even with seven nails the 
crust must always have twenty-one of these separations existing 
in it at the same time ; and as they are often from various causes 
extended into each other, they necessarily keep it in a brittle, 
unhealthy state, g,nd materially interfere with the security of 
the future nail-hold. 

By the mode of fastening above advocated the struggle be- 
tween the expansion of the foot and the resistance of the shoe 
is entirely overcome ; the outer side of the foot, being the only 
part nailed to the shoe, carries the whole shoe with it at every 
expansion ; while the inner side, being unattached, expands in- 
dependently of it, whereby all strain upon the nails is avoided, 
and the foot is left, with respect to its power of expansion, aa 
nearly as possible in a state of nature. 

The position of the hind foot and the nature of its office 
render it less liable to injury than the fore foot, and conse- 
quently it less frequently lames. As, however, disease of the 
navicular bone of this foot is by no means impossible, care 
should be taken to guard against its contraction by interfering 
as little as possible with the expansive power of the foot ; and 
this is best done by keeping the nails on the inside as far re- 
moved from the heel as convenient, placing four nails in the 
outer and three in the inner side of the shoe. The holes in the 
inner side should be punched closer together, and kept more 
towards the toe than those on the outside, which should be 
more spread out, as affording greater security of hold to 



192 



SHOEINQ. 



the foot. The shoe should be carefully fitted to the hoof all 
round, particularly at the heels, which are too often left without 
any support whatever ; and the mischievous custom of turning 
down the outer heel only must be avoided, because it throws 
the weight entirely upon the inner quarter, which is the part 
least able to bear it, and causes much uncomfortable strain 
to the fetlock joint above. Calkins, even though they are 
turned down of perfectly even length on each side, (which, how- 
ever, is rarely done,) are objectionable appendages, and had 
better be dispensed with, except, perhaps, for very heavy draft, 
where their ends by entering the ground may prevent the foot 
from slipping backwards, and may thus enable the toe to obtain 
a firmer hold. 

The form of shoe here referred to, and the position of the 
nail-holes are shown in the cut annexed. 

Before leaving this subject it 
should be remarked, that con- 
tracted feet — that is, feet that 
have shrunken and become nar- 
row at the heels, and of which the 
frog has become materially re- 
duced in size, — are often, and 
doubtless most frequently, caused 
by inflammation arising from im-. 
proper shoeing. It is the custom 
of many smiths to " set the shoes 
THE PROPER FORM OF A SHOE. ^ell off at thc hcels;" and to 

. m The heels of an even thickness with the rest of the shoe. b. b. Show the points 
at Tbich the heels of the hoof terminated, c. c. The seating carried back, so as to 
clear the angles at the heels, and leave the seat of corns free from pressure, d. The 
nait-holes placed in the flat surface which supports the crust, where they should 
always he. e. The hindfirmost nail of the inner side at the inner toe, whereby the 
whole of the quarter aud heel are left free to expand. 




ADMINISTERING MEDICINE. 193 

carry tlie seating or level of the upper side of the shoes so far 
back that the heels, instead of resting on a flat surface, as they 
would on a properly fitted shoe, rest on the slopes of the seat- 
ing, which are in this respect simply two incline(J planes, so 
placed that, at each step taken by the horse, his heels must be 
pressed together, until a greater or less contraction is made 
manifest, but at too late a period to enable us to remedy the 
evil ; for there is no means by which this contraction of the foot 
can be cured — although, when it exists only to a slight extent, 
the internal portions of the foot will sometimes accommodate 
themselves to its new form. So far as disease is the result of 
bad shoeing, it can be obviated by so forming the shoe that it 
will afford a sufficient and perfectly secure and level support for 
the heels. 



ADMINISTERING MEDICINE. 

The most common form in which medicine is given to the 
horse is by means of the ball, which is an oblong mass of rather 
soft consistence, yet tough enough to retain its shape, and 
wrapped up in thin paper for that purpose. The usual weight 
of the ball is from half an ounce to an ounce, but they may be 
given of a larger size, if they are made longer but not wider. 
Every person in charge of horses should know how to give a 
ball, which is managed either with or without a balling-iron, an 
instrument seldom wanted, and which sometimes occasions con- 
siderable injury to the roof of the horse's mouth. Occasionally, 
a horse cannot be managed by any other means ; but, generally 
speaking, these instruments only furnish an excuse for bad 
management. In giving a ball in the ordinary way, the horse's 
tongue is drawn out of his mouth on the off or right side, and 
13 



194 



ADMINISTERING MEDICINE. 



held there firmly with the left hand grasping it as near the root 
as possible, but to a certain extent yielding to the movement 
of the horse's head, so as not absolutely to tear it out. While 
the tongue is thus held, the ball is placed between the fingers 
and thumb of the right hand, extended in a wedge-like or 
conical form, so as to pass as far down the swallow as possible ; 
and the hand in this form, with the arm bared to the shoulder, 
is carried over the root of the tongue till it feels the impedi- 
ment caused by the contraction of the swallow, when the fingers 
leave the ball there, and the hand is withdrawn quickly yet 
smoothly, while at the same moment the tongue is released, and 
the head is held up till the ball is seen to pass down the gullet 
on the left side of the neck, after which the head may be released. 
When the balling-iron is used, the oval ring of which it is com- 
posed is passed into the mouth, so as to keep it open, being 
first well guarded with tow or cloths wrapped around it ; the 
handle is then held in the left hand, together with the halter, 
so as to steady the head, and yet to keep the horse from biting ; 
and while thus held the hand can be freely carried over the 
tongue, and the ball be deposited in the pharynx. When a 
horse is very determined, it is sometimes necessary to keep the 
iron in the month by means of the check-pieces of an ordinary 
bridle buckled to the sides of the oval ring ; but this expedient 
is seldom required if the halter is firmly grasped with the handle 
of the iron. 

In the usual way the horse to be balled is turned around in 
his stall, which prevents his backing away from the person 
in charge ; and if the latter is not tall enough, he may stand 
upon a sound stable-bucket, turned upside down. Balls 
should be recently made, as they sooa spoil by keeping ; not 



ADMINISTERING MEDICINE. 195 

only losing their strength, but also becoming so hard as to be 
almost insoluble in the stomach, and frequently passing 
through the bowels nearly as they went into the mouth. 
When hard they are also liable to stick in the horse's gullet. 
If ammonia, or any other strong stimulant, is given in this 
way, the horse should not have his stomach quite empty, but 
should have a little gruel or water just previously ; for if this 
is put off till afterward, the nauseous taste of the ball almost 
always prevents -his drinking. When arsenic forms an ingre- 
dient of the ball, it should be given soon after a feed of corn ; 
or a quart or two of gruel should be given instead, just before 
the ball. 

The administration of a drench is a much more trouble- 
some affair than the giving of a ball ; and in almost all cases 
more or less of the dose is wasted. Sometimes, however, a 
liquid medicine is to be preferred, as in colic or gripes, when 
the urgent nature of the symptoms demands a rapidly acting 
remedy, which a ball is not, as it requires time to dissolve ; 
and, besides this, a ball cannot contain any of the spirituous 
cordials. The best instrument for giving a drench is the 
horn of the ox, cut obliquely, so as to form a spout. Bottles 
are sometimes used in an emergency, but their fragile nature 
always renders them dangerous. In giving a drench, the 
tongue is held in the same way as for the delivery of a ball, 
but the head must be more elevated ; the drench is then care- 
fully poured into the throat, after which the tongue is let go, 
but the head still kept up till it is all swallowed. Allowance 
should always be made for some waste in giving a drench. 

In managing horses while in physic, the horse should in 
all cases, if possible, be prepared by bran mash,es, given for 



196 ADMINISTERING MEDICINE. 

two or three nights, so as to make the bowels rather loose 
than otherwise, and thus allow the dose to act without undue 
forcing of the impacted foeces backward. If physic is given 
without this softening process, the stomach and bowels pour out 
a large secretion of fluid, which is forced back upon the rectum, 
and met by a solid obstacle which it takes a long time to 
overcome, and during that interval the irritating purge is 
acting upon the lining membrane, and often produces excessive 
inflammation of it. Purging physic should generally be given 
in the middle of the day, after which the horse should remain 
in the stable, and have chilled water as often as he will drink 
it, with bran mashes. By the next morning he will be in a 
condition to be walked out for an hour, which will set the 
bowels acting, if they have not already begun. It is usual to 
tie up the tail with a tape or string, so as to keep it clean. 
The horse should be warmly clothed, and if the physic does 
not act after an hour's walk, he may be gently trotted for a 
short distance, and then taken home ; and if still obstinate, 
he may be exercised again in the afternoon. As soon as the 
physic operates pretty freely, the horse is to be taken into his 
stable, and not stirred out again, under any pretense what- 
ever, for forty-eight hours after it has "set," or, in common 
language, stopped acting. When the purging has ceased, 
the mashes may be continued for twenty-four hours, with a 
little corn added to them, and a quantity of hay. The water, 
during the whole time, should be in small quantities, and 
chilled ; and the clothing should be rather warmer than usual, 
taking great care to avoid draughts of cold air. Every horse 
requires at least a three-day's rest for a dose of physic, in 
order to avoid risk of mischief. 



ADMINISTERING MEDICINE. 19T 

The mode of giving a clyster is now rendered simple 
enough, because a pump send tube are expressly made for the 
purpose ; and it is only necessary to pass the greased end of the 
tube carefully into the rectum, for about eight or nine inches, 
and then pump the liquid up until a sufficient quantity is given. 
From a gallon to six quarts is the average quantity, but in 
colic a much larger amount is required. 

Lotions are applied by means of cloth bandages, if used 
to the legs ; or -by a piece of cloth tied over the parts, if to 
any other surface. 

Fomentations are very serviceable to the horse in all recent 
external inflammations; and it is astonishing what may be 
done by a careful person, with warm water alone, and a good- 
sized sponge. Sometimes, by means of an elastic tube and 
stop-cock, warm water is conducted in a continuous stream 
over an inflamed part, as in severe wounds, etc., in which this 
plan is found wonderfully successful in allaying the irritation, 
which is so likely to occur in the nervous system of the horse. 
A vessel of warm water is placed above the level of the horse's 
back, and a small india-rubber tube leads from it to a sponge 
fixed above the parts, from which the water runs to the ground 
as fast as it is over-filled. This plan can be very easily carried 
out by any person of ordinary ingenuity. 




U}i\k^Hmsz^ 



The many excellent qualities of the horse 
are accompanied by some defects, which 
occasionally amount to vices. These may in 
1^1 part be attributed to natural temper; for man 
himself scarcely presents more peculiarities of temper and dis- 
position than does the horse. The majority of these disagree- 
able or dangerous habits in the animal now under consideration 
are without doubt attributable to a faulty education. The in- 
structor was ignorant and brutal, and the animal instructed 
becomes obstinate and vicious. It is proposed to mention 
some of the more glaring of these vices, suggesting in connec- 
tion with each whatever remedies or palliatives experience has 
suggested. 

C198) 



BAULKING OR JIBBING. 199 

HESTIVENESS. 

This stands in the front rank of all the vicious qualities of 
the horse, being at once the most annoying and the most dan- 
gerous of all. It is the direct and natural result of bad temper 
and worse education ; and, like all other habits based upon na- 
ture and engrained by education, it is inveterate. Whether 
it develop itself in the form of kicking, rearing, plunging, 
bolting, or in any way that threatens danger to the rider or 
horse, it rarely admits of a cure. The animal may, indeed, to 
a certain extent be subjugated by a determined rider ; or he may 
have his favorites, or form his attachments, and with some par- 
ticular person be comparatively or perfectly manageable ; but 
others cannot long depend upon him, and even his master ia 
not always sure of him. 



BAULKITTG OB JIBBING. 

This species of restiveness is one of the most provoking vices 
of the horse, and it can be successfully combated only by a man 
of the most imperturbable temper. The slightest sign of vexa- 
tion only increases the evil, and makes the animal more and more 
troublesome each time that he refuses his work. Many a thick- 
headed, quick-tempered driver flies into a passion, and beats or 
otherwise abuses his horse, on the least symptom of baulking, 
until the animal becomes utterly worthless from a confirmation 
of the habit. 

As a rule it may be stated, that horses baulk from nervous- 
ness, or unsteadiness of disposition ; if not, indeed, from an 
over-anxiety to perform their work. Nervous, well-bred horses 
are more susceptible to the influences which induce baulking, 



200 BAULKING OR JIBBING. 

than are colder blooded, more indolent ones. A high-mettled 
horse, when carelessly driven, will start suddenly against his 
collar, fail to start his load, draw back from the pain which the 
concussion causes, rush at it again, and again draw back, until 
it becomes impossible for his driver to steady him in his collar 
for a dead pull. If to all this be added a smart cut with the 
whip, and a fiercely spoken word, — with perhaps a blov*" over 
the nose, or a stone in the ear, — every fear or vicious feeling of 
the horse will be summoned into action, and the animal will 
become entirely unmanageable, requiring to be left for an hour 
or two in his position before he gets sufficiently calm to be in- 
duced to move. There may, occasionally, be a horse which 
cannot be made to draw steadily by the most careful treatment ; 
but the cases are exceedingly rare in which gentle treatment 
and firmness — a patient persistence in mild, authoritative com- 
mand, and judicious coaxing — would not either prevent the 
formation of the habit, or cure it when formed. 

The prevention of baulky habits lies with the driver. If 
he jump upon his load, gather up his reins carelessly, flourish 
his whip, or call out wildly to his horse, he will be quite likely 
to start him forward with a jerk which will be of no avail to 
move a heavily laden wagon. The horse thus commences to 
baulk at a heavy load, and after a certain amount of such treat- 
ment, will refuse to draw anything except under the most favor- 
able circumstances. Let any person driving a strange horse, 
"^ith a load that he is not perfectly sure he can start easily, 
proceed according to the following directions, and he may be 
certain that, if the animal be not already a "jibber," he will not 
make him so, and that if he is one he will have the best chance 
for getting him along without trouble : He should slowly ex- 



BAULKING OR JIBBING. 201 

amine the harness and wagon (partly to accustom the horse to 
his presence,) gather up the reins gently, speaking to the horse 
to prevent his starting, get quietly into his seat, and then, if 
possible, get control of the horse's mouth before allowing him 
to move, so that when he does step off it may be only at a slow 
walk. If by a forward movement of the hands he can be made 
to press very gradually against the collar, and if the whole ope- 
ration is performed in a cool and unexcited manner, there will 
be little difficulty in bringing him to a dead pull, from which 
he will recoil only if the load is a serious tax upon his strength. 

If the first attempt fail, wait until your horse hns become 
quiet, and until you have recovered from your own vexation, 
and then try again. It may be necessary to have the assis- 
tance of one or two persons, to start the wagon from behind ; 
but they should not push it until the horse is fairly against the 
collar. 

To cure the habit of baulking is not an easy matter, and it is 
possible only by the kindest treatment. If the horse show fear 
by his excited manner, or, by looking about him wildly, that he 
is expecting a blow, you may be sure that he has received hard 
usage under similar circumstances, and that he must be con- 
vinced by caresses and kind words that you will treat him 
gently. You must recollect that the horse cannot understand 
your language; and that, while he is confused, he will misin- 
terpret every sign which you may make to him. He has an 
idea of your superior power ; and, in his fear that you will 
exercise it, as bad drivers have done before, to his injury, he 
will not at once feel confidence in your kind intentions. He 
must feel this confidence, whether it take an hour or all day to 
convey it to him, before you can do anything to cure him of 



202 BAULKING OR JIBBING. 

his trick. If you have him harnessed to a light wagon on a 
smooth road where it will aflford but little resistance, you maj 
by repeated trials convince him that it is a simple, easy mattei 
to draw it ; and you should continue to exercise him from daj 
to day with the same light load, and afterward increase it 
gradually, until you have trained him to a quiet manner of 
starting, or of going up a hill or elsewhere where he has been 
accustomed to baulk. 

By the same gentle treatment you may start a horse or a 
team that have baulked under the driving of another person. 
Request the driver and all spectators to go to the side of the 
road, and then unfasten the check-reins, hang the reins where 
they will be easily accessible, but so that they may lie loosely 
upon the horses' backs, caress them, and allow them to look 
about and convince themselves that no harm is doing. When 
they have come properly quiet, go to their heads and stand 
directly in front of the worst jibber of the team, so that his nose 
may come against your breast if he start. Turn them gently 
to the right, without allowing them to tighten their traces, and 
after caressing them a little, draw them in the same way to the 
left. Presently turn them to the right, and as you do so, 
bring them slowly against their collars, and let them go. 

Sometimes a horse not often accustomed to baulk, betrays 
a reluctance to move, or a determination not to move. In 
such cases, the cause, if practicable, should always be ascer- 
tained. He may be overtaxed, his withers may be wrung, or 
he may be iusupportably galled or pained by the harness. 
Those accustomed to horses know what seemingly trivial cir- 
cumstances occasionally produce this vice. A horse, whose 
shoulders are raw, or have frequently been so, will not start 



BITING. 203 

TTith a cold collar ; but when the collar has acquired the warmth 
of the parts upon which it presses, he will go without reluc- 
tance. Some determined baulkers have been reformed by 
constantly wearing a false collar, or strip of cloth around the 
shoulders, so that the coldness of the usual collar should never 
be felt ; and others have been cured by keeping the collar on 
night and day, for the animal is not able to lie down completely 
at full length, which the tired horse is always glad to do. When 
a horse baulks, not at starting, but while doing his work, it has 
sometimes been found useful to line the collar with cloth in- 
stead of leather ; the perspiration is readily absorbed, the sub- 
stance pressing upon the shoulder is softer, and it may be far 
more accurately eased off at a tender place. 



BITING. 

This is either the consequence of natural ferocity, or a habit 
acquired from the fooHsh and teasing play of grooms and 
stable-boys. When a horse is tickled and pinched by thought- 
less and mischievous youths, he will at first pretend to bite his 
tormentors ; by degrees he will proceed further, and actually 
bite them, and very soon after that he will then be the first 
to challenge to the combat, and without provocation will seize 
the first opportunity to grip the careless teaser. At length, 
as the love of mischief is a propensity too easily acquired, this 
war, half playful and half in earnest, becomes habitual to hiq, 
and degenerates into absolute viciousness. 

It is seldom that any thing can be done in the way of cure. 
Kindness will aggravate the evil, and no degree of severity will 
correct it. Biters have been punished until they have trembled 
in every joint, and were ready to drop, but this treatment 



204 KICKING. 

scarcely ever cures them. The lash is forgotten in an hour, and 
the horse is as ready and determined to repeat the offense as 
before. He appears unable to resist the temptation, and in its 
worst form biting is a species of insanity. 

Prevention, however, is in the power of every proprietor of 
horses. While he insists upon gentle and humane treatment, 
he should systematically forbid this horse-play. 



KICKING. 

This, as a vice, is another consequence of the culpable habit 
of teasing the horse. That which is at first simply an indica- 
tion of annoyance at the 
pinching and tickling of 
the groom, and without 
any design to injure, gradually 
becomes the expression of auger, 
and the effort to do mischief 
The horse, also, too soon recog- 
nizes the least appearance 
of timidity, and 3;,^ ^_ 
takes advantage of ^ 

PAKTICCLARLT DANGEEOUS. 

the discovery. 

Some horses acquire, from mere irritability and fidgetiness, 
a habit of kicking at the stall or the bail, and particularly at 
night. The neighboring horses are disturbed, and the kicker 
gets swelled hocks, or some more serious injury. This is a 
habit very difficult to correct, if it is allowed to become estab- 
lished. Mares are much more subject to it than horses. 

Before the habit is inveterately established, a thorn -bush or 
a piece of furze fastened against the partition or post will some- 




KicKiNa. 205 

times effect a cure. When the horse finds that he is pretty 
severely pricked, he will not long continue to punish himself 
In confirmed cases it may be necessary to have recourse to the 
log, but the legs are often not a little bruised by it. A rather 
long and heavy piece of wood attached to a chain has been 
buckled above the hock, so as to reach about half-way down 
the leg. When the horse attempts to kick violently, his leg will 
receive a severe blow ; this, and the repetition of it, may after 
a time teach him tt) be quiet. 

Kicking in harness is a much more serious vice. From the 
least annoyance about the rump or quarters, some horses will kick 
at a most violent rate, and destroy the bottom of the chaise, and 
endanger the limbs of the driver. Those that are fidgety in 
the stable are most inclined to do this. If the reins chance to 
get under the tail, the violence of the kicker will often be most 
outrageous; and while the animal presses down his tail so 
tightly that it is almost impossible to extricate the reins, he 
continues to plunge until he has demolished every thing behind 
him. 

This is a vice standing foremost in point of danger, and one 
which no treatment will always conquer. It is altogether in 
vain to attempt coercion. If the shafts are very strong and 
without flaw, or if they are plated with iron underneath, and a 
stout kickiug-strap resorted to, which will barely allow the 
horse the proper use of his hind limbs in progression, but not 
permit him to raise them sufficiently for the purpose of kicking, 
he may be prevented from doing mischief. 



206 REARING. 

HBABING. 

This vice is not very common, at least in a dangerous foym, 
and can generally be prevented by the use of the martingale^ 

In the case of saddle-horses, another good prevention is, when 
the horse is about to rise, to touch him with the spur on one side 
only ; this will cause him to stop to lift the hind leg on that side, 
and if he persists in his attempt the spurs may be used vigor- 
ously, first on one side, and then on the other, but not so fast 
as to prevent the horse from raising his hind legs alternately, 
as he is spurred. The least touch of the curb-bit Avill cause 
some vicious and badly trained horses to rear, while those which 
have been thoroughly trained will rear slightly, to a great height, 
or not at all, as their rider may desire ; but it is obvious that 
horses «o delicately trained should not be ridden by unskillful 
persons, lest the awkwardness of the rider should cause unex: 
pected curveting. 

The remedy of some breakers, that of pulling the horse back- 
ward on a soft piece of ground should be practiced by reckless 
and brutal fellows alone. Many horses have been injured in the 
spine, and others have broken their necks, by being thus sud- 
denly pulled over ; while even the fellow who fears no danger, 
is not always able to extricate himself from the falling horse. 
If rearing proceeds from vice, and is unprovok'ed by the bruis- 
ing and laceration of the mouth, it fully partakes of the invete- 
racy which attends the other divisions of restiveness. 



PULLIN-Q BACK ON THE HALTER. 

This is a vice which has probably arisen from the horse 
having, at some time, broken a weak halter in a fit of impa- 



VICIOUS TO CLEAN. 207 

tience. The only safe cure for it,* and this is not always suc- 
cessful, iS to tie the horse with a very strong halter, which it 
will be impossible for him to break ; finding that his efforts 
are futile, he will, after a time, generally desist from pulling — 
though some incorrigible brutes will try every new halter as 
soon as they are fastened, and will break it if possible. 



BUNNING A^WAT. 

Some headstrong horses will occasionally endeavor to bolt 
with the best rider ; others, with their wonted sagacity, en- 
deavor thus to dislodge only the timid or unskillful one. 
Some are hard to hold, or bolt only during the excitement of 
a trial of speed, or the like ; others will run away, prompted 
by vicious propensity alone. There is no certain cure here. 
The only method which affords any probability of success is, to 
ride such a horse with a strong curb and sharp bit; to have 
him always firmly in hand ; and if he will run away, and the 
place will admit of it, to give him (sparing neither curb, whip, 
nor spur,) a great deal more running than he likes. 



VICIOUS TO CIiEAK". 

It would scarcely be credited to what an extent this exists 
in some horses that are otherwise perfectly quiet ; it is only at 
great hazard that they can be cleaned at all. The origin of 
this is probably some maltreatment. There is, however, a 
great difference in the sensitiveness of the skin in different 
horses. Some seem as if they could scarcely be made to feel 
the whip, while others cannot bear a fly to light upon them 
without an expression of annoyance. In young horses the 
skin is peculiarly delicate. If they have been curried with a. 



208 VICIOUS TO SHOE. 

broken comb, or hardly rubbed with fin uneven brush, the 
recollection of the torture they have felt makes them impa- 
tient and even vicious during every succeeding operation of 
the kind. Many grooms, likewise, seem to delight in pro- 
ducing these exhibitions of uneasiness and vice, although, when 
they are carried a little too far, and at the hazard of the limbs 
of the groom, the animals that have been almost tortured into 
these manifestations of irritation, are brutally kicked and 
punished. 

This, however is a vice that may be conquered. If the 
horse is dressed with a lighter hand, and wiped rather than 
brushed, and the places where the skin is most sensitive are 
avoided as inuch as thorough cleanliness will allow, he will 
gradually lose the recollection of former ill-treatment, and be- 
come tractable and quiet. 

In those instances where the skin is so irritable that the 
horse really endures a great deal of misery every time he is 
cleaned besides requiring needlessly the expenditure of a 
great amount of muscular exertion, the remedy is very simple ; 
instead of being curry-combed and wiped, the horse should be 
merely washed over with warm water on his coming in warm 
from a journey, then gently scraped and covered with a rug. 
The warmth of the body will very soon dry the skin. 



VICIOUS TO SHOE, 

The correction of this is more peculiarly the business of the 
smith ; yet the master should diligently concern himself with 
it, for it is more often the consequence of injudicious or bad 
usage, than of natural vice. The vice is certainly a bad one, 
ftnd it very materially diminishes the value of the horse ; for it 



VICIOUS TO SHOE. 209 

is a habit which generally gets worse at each time of snoeing. 
It is not SO much the kicking of the horse that is to be feared, 
but the animal will bear his whele weight on the foot requiring 
to be shod, so that the smith is unable to lift it up, or after- 
ward to support it ; beside which the animal will keep con- 
tinually kicking or endeavoring to get the foot away, to the 
imminent danger of the limbs of the unfortunate operative. 
This deplorable and vicious habit is greatly increased, if not 
altogether produced, by rough usage at the early shoeings, 
and it generally gets worse at each time of shoeing, so that 
the horse is often rendered at last completely worthless. 

It may be expected that there will be some difficulty in 
shoeing a horse for the first few times, as it is an operation 
that gives him a little uneasiness. The man to whom he is 
most accustomed should go with him to the forge ; and if 
another and steady horse is shod before him, he may be in- 
duced more readily to submit. It cannot be denied that, after 
the habit of resisting this necessary operation is formed, force 
may sometimes be required in order to reduce our rebellious 
servant to obedience ; but there can be no manner of question 
that the large majority of horses vicious to shoe are rendered 
so by harsh usage, and by the pain of correction being added 
to the uneasiness of shoeing. It should be a rule in every 
forge, that no smith should be permitted to strike a horse, 
much less to twitch or gag him, without the master-farrier's 
order ; and that a young horse should never be twitched or 
struck. There are few horses that may not gradually be ren- 
dered manageable for this purpose by mildness and firmness 
on the part of the operator ; they will soon understand that no 
harm is meant, and they will not forget their usual habit ot 
14 



210 



CRIB-BITING. 



obedience ; but if the remembi'ance of corporeal punishment 
is connected with shoeing, they will always be fidgety, and 
occasionally dangerous. 



CRIB-BITING. 

This is a very unpleasant habit, and a considerable defect, 
although not so serious as it is often repi-esented. The horse 
lays hold of the manger with his teeth, Violently extends his 
neck, and then, after some convulsive action of the throat, a 
slight grunting is heard, accompanied by a sucking or drawing 
in of air. It is not an effort at simple eructation, arising from 
indigestion ; it is the inhalation of air. It is that which takes 
place with all kinds of diet, and when the stomach is empty as 
well as when it is full. 

The effects of crib-biting are plainly perceptible. The teeth 
are injured and worn away, and that, in an old horse, to a very 
serious degree. A considerable quantity 
of grain is often lost, for the horse will 
frequently crib with his mouth full 
of it, and the greater part will fall 
over the edge of the manger. 
Much saliva escapes while 
the manger is thus forcibly 
J) held, the loss of which must 
■^ be of serious detriment in 
inrzzLE FOR A CRIB-BITER, impairing digestion The 
^ ^ crib-biting horse is notoriously more subject to 
colic than other horses, and that of a kind difficult of treatment 
and peculiarly dangerous, Although many a crib-biter is stout 
and strong, and capable of all ordinary work, these horses do 




CRIB-BITING. 211 

not generally carry as much flesh as others, and have not their 
endurance ; on these accounts, crib-biting has been, and very 
properly, decided by the highest authority to be unsound- 
ness. 

It is moreover one of those tricks which are exceedingly con- 
tagious. Every companion of a crib-biter in the same stable, 
is likely to acquire the habit, and it is the most inveterate of all 
habits. The edge of the manger will in vain be lined with iron, 
or with sheep-skin^ or with sheep-skin covered with tar or aloes, 
or any other unpleasant substance. In spite of the annoyance 
which these may occasion, the horse will persist in his attack 
on the manger. A strap buckled tightly round the neck, by 
compressing the windpipe, is the best means of preventing the 
possibility of this trick ; but the strap must be constantly worn, 
and its pressure is apt to produce a worse affection, viz., an 
irritation of the windpipe, which terminates in roaring. 

Some have recommended turning out for five or six months ; 
but this has never succeeded, except with a young horse, and 
then but rarely. The old crib-biter will employ the gate for 
the same purpose as the edge of his manger, and he will often 
gallop across a field for the mere purpose of having a bite at 
the rail. Medicine is altogether thrown away in such a case. 

The only remedy is a muzzle, with bars across the bottom ; 
.sufficiently wide to enable the animal to pick up his corn and 
to pull his hay, but not to grasp the edge of his manger. If 
this is worn for a considerable period, the horse may be tired 
of attempting that which he cannot accomplish, and for a 
while forget the habit ; but in a majority of cases the desire of 
crib-biting will return with the power of gratifying it. 

The causes of crib-biting are various, and some of them be- 



212 OVERREACHING, 

yond the control of the owner of the horse. It is often the 
result of imitation ; but it is more frequently the consequence 
of idleness. The high-fed and spirited horse must be in mis- 
chief, if he is not usefully employed. Sometimes, but not often, 
it is produced by partial starvation ; and another occasional 
cause is the frequent custom of dressing the horse, even when 
the weather is not severe, in the stable, — thus enabling the 
animal to catch at the edge of the manger, or at that of the 
partition on each side, if he has been turned. 



■WIND-SUCKING. 

This closely resembles crib-biting, and arises from the same 
causes ; the same purpose is accomplished, and the same results 
follow. The horse stands with his back bent, his head drawn 
inward, his lips alternately slightly opened and then closed, and 
a noise is heard as if he were sucking. It appears quite pro- 
bable, judging from the same comparative want of condition 
and the flatulence noted in connection with the last habit, that 
either some portion of wind enters the stomach, or there is an 
injurious loss of saliva. 

This vice diminishes the value of the animal nearly as much 
as crib-biting ; it is equally as contagious and inveterate. The 
only remedies — and they will seldom avail — are tying the -head 
up, except when the horse is feeding, or putting on a muzzle 
with sharp spikes toward the neck, which will prick him when- 
ever he attempts to rein his head in for the purpose of wind- 
sucking. 



OVEKEEACHING. 
This unpleasant noise known also by the name of " clicking," 
is occasioned by the toe of the hind foot, or the inner edge of 



NOT LYING DOWN. 213 

the inside of its shoe, striking upon the heel of the coronet of 
the fore foot. The preventive treatment is the beveling, or 
rounding off, of the inside rim or edge of the hind shoe. The 
cure is, the cutting away of the loose parts, the application of 
Friar's balsam, and protection from the dirt. 

Some horses, particularly young ones, overreach so as to 
strike the toes of the hind shoes against the fore ones, which is 
termed "[clinking. " Keeping up the head of the horse does some- 
thing to prevent this ; but the smith may do more by shortening 
the toe of the hind shoes and having the web broad. When 
they are too long, they are apt to be torn off; when too narrow, 
the hind foot may bruise the sole of the fore one, or may be 
locked fast between the branches of the fore shoe. 



NOT LYING DO-WN. 

It occasionally happens that a horse will seldom or never 
lie down in the stable. He sometimes continues in apparent 
good health, and feeds and works well ; but generally his legs 
swell, and he becomes fatigued sooner than another horse. If 
it is impossible to let him loose in the stable, or to put him 
into a spare box, nothing can be done to obviate the difficulty. 
No means, gentle or cruel, will force him to lie down. The 
secret is, that he is tied up, and either has never dared to lie 
down through fear of the confinement of the halter, or he has 
been cast in the night and severely injured. If he can be suf- 
fered to range the stable, or have a comfortable box in which 
he may be loose, he will usually lie down the first night. Some 
few horses, however, will lie down in a stable,-and not in a loose 
box. A fresh, well-made bed will generally tempt the tired 
horse to refresh himself with sleep. 



214 SHYING. 

It may be observed in this connection, that the basis of sup- 
port afforded by the four extremities is so considerable in the 
horse that he is able to sleep in a standing position, and some 
horses have even been known to preserve their health, strength, 
and condition, although they were never known to lie down 
At the same time, it is undeniable, that an animal that will 
quickly lie down and take his rest, as a general rule, preserves 
his condition, and is better fitted for exertion. 




SHYING. 

This most dangerous habit is sometimes the effect of fear, and 
sometimes is a downright vicious propensity; and there are 

many horses which commence the 
practice through fear and end by 
becoming viciously disposed to 
indulge in it, in consequence of 
sheer mismanage- 
ment. The young 
" colt is almost al- 
ways more or less 

5^ \ shy, especially if 

?^ I 

i,^ : - 1 he is brought at 

"''=^==^=^=^''=^^=:^ss£sss2t^a;^3^^ once from the re- 

DISAGREEABLE AND DANGEROUS. tlrcd ficldS lU WlUCll 

he was reared to the streets of a busy town. 

There are, however, numberless varietids of shyers, some 
being dreadfully alarmed by one kind of object, yi uich to another 
is not at all formidable. When a horse finds that he gains his 
object by turning around, he will often repeat the turning with- 
out cause, pretending to be alarmed, and looking out for ex- 



SHYING. 215 

cuses for it. This is not at all uncommon, and with timid 
riders leads to a discontinuance of the ride, by which the horse 
gains his end for the time, and repeats the trick upon the first 
occasion. In genuine shying from fear, the eyes are generally 
more or less defective ; but sometimes this is not the cause, 
which is founded upon a general irritability of the nervous 
system. Thus, there are many that never shy at meeting wagons, 
or other similar objects, but which almost drop with fear on a 
small bird flying out of a hedge, or any other startling sound. 
These are also worse, because they give no notice, whereas the 
ordinary shyer almost always shows by his ears that he is pre- 
pared to turn. 

For shyers the only remedy is, to take as little notice as 
possible^ to make light of the occurrence, speak encouragingly, 
yet rather severely, and to get them by the object in one way or 
another. If needful, the aid of the spur and whip may be called 
in, but not as a punishment. If the horse can be urged to go 
by the object at which he is shying without the whip or spur, 
so much the better ; but if not, he must be compelled to do so 
by their use. Wherever fear is the cause of shying, punishment 
only adds to that fear; but where vice has supplanted fear, 
severity should be used to correct it. 

As a general rule, the whip need never be used, unless the 
horse turns absolutely round, and not then unless there is reason 
to suspect that he is pretending feaf. If he will only go by the 
object, even with "a wide berth," as the sailors say, he may be 
suffered to go on his way unpunished ; and nothingigis so bad 
as the absurd severity which some horsemen exercise after the 
horse has conquered his reluctance, and passed the object. At 
this time he should be praised and petted, with all the en- 



216 PAwma. 

couragement which can be given ; and on no account should he 
be taught to make those rushes which are so commonly seen 
on the road, from the improper use of whip and spur. If pun- 
ishment is necessary at all, it must be used beforehand ; but it 
often happens that the rider cannot spare his whip-hand until 
the shying is over ; and then, in his passion, he does not reflect 
that the time has passed for its employment. 

Shying on coming out of the stable is a habit that can rarely 
or never be cured. It proceeds from the remembrance of some 
ill-usage or hurt which the animal has received in the act of 
proceeding from the stable, such as striking his head against a 
low door- way, or entangling the harness. 

When the cure, however, is early attempted, it may be so far 
overcome that it will be unattended with danger or difficulty. 
The horse should be bridled when led out or in. He should be 
held short and tight by the head, that he may feel that he has 
not liberty to make a leap, and this of itself is often sufficient 
to restrain him. Punishment, or a threat of it, will be highly 
improper. It is only timid or high-spirited horses that acquire 
the habit, and rough usage invariably increases their agitation 
and terror. 



PA^WING. 

Some hot and irritable horses are restless even in the stable, 
and paw frequently and violently. Their litter is destroyed, 
the floor of the stable broken up, the shoes worn out, the feet 
bruised, and the legs sometimes sprained. If this habit does 
not exist to any great extent, yet the stable never looks well. 
Shackles are the only remedy, with a chain sufficiently long to 
enable the horse to shift his posture, or move in his stall ; but 



SLIPPING THE COLLAR OR HALTER. glV 

these must be taken off at night, otherwise the animal wiLI 
seldom lie down. Unless, however, the horse possesses pecu- 
liar value, it will be better to dispose of him at once, than to 
submit to the danger and inconvenience that he may occasion. 



EOLLIJSrG. 

This is a very pleasant and perfectly safe amusement for a 
horse at grass, but cannot be indulged in the stable without the 
chance of his being dangerously entangled with the collar, rein, 
or halter, and being cast. Yet, although the horse is cast, and 
bruised, and half strangled, he will roll again on the following 
night and continue to do so as long as he lives. The only 
remedy is not a very pleasant one for the horse, -nor always 
quite safe ; yet recourse must be bad to it, if the habit of rolling 
is inveterate. The horse should be tied with length enough of 
halter to lie down, but not to illow of his head resting upon 
the ground ; because, in order to roll over, a horse is obliged 
to place his head quite down upon the ground. 



SLIPPING THE COLLAR OR HALTER. 

This is a trick in which many horses are so well accomplished, 
that scarcely a night passes without their getting loose. It is 
a very serious habit, for it enables the horse sometimes to gorge 
himself with food to the imminent danger of producing stag- 
gers ; or it exposes him, as he wanders about, to be kicked and 
injured by the other horses, .while his restlessness will often keep 
the whole team awake. If the web of the halter, being first 
accurately fitted to his neck, is suffered to slip only one way. 
or a strap is attached to the halter and buckled round the neck, 
but not sufficiently tight to be of serious inconvenience, the 
power of slipping the collar will be taken away. 



218 STUMBMNa. 

STUMBLIITG., 

That person must either be a skillful practitioner, or a mere 
pretender, who engages to remedy this habit. If it arise from 
a heavy forehand, and the fore legs, being too much under the 
horse, no one can alter the natural frame of the animal ; if it 
proceeds from tenderness of foot, grogginess, or old lameness, 
these ailments are seldom cured. Also, if it is to be traced to 
habitual carelessness and idleness, no whipping will rouse the 
drone. A known stumbler should never be ridden or driven 
by any one who values his safety or his life. A tight hand or 
a strong bracing-rein are precautions that should not be neg- 
lected, although they are generally of little avail ; for the in- 
veterate stumbler will rarely be able to save himself, and this 
tight rein may sooner and further precipitate the rider. If 
after stumbling the horse suddenly starts forward, and endea- 
vors to break into a short trot or canter, the rider may be 
assured that others before him have fruitlessly endeavored to 
remedy the nuisance. 

If the stumbler has the foot kept as short, and the toe pared 
as close as safety will permit, and the shoe is rounded at the 
toe, or has that shape given to it which it naturally acquires in 
a fortnight from the peculiar action of such a horse, the animal 
may not stumble quite so much ; or if the disease which pro- 
duced the habit can be alleviated, some trifling good may be 
done ; but in almost every case the stumbler should be got rid 
of, or put to slow and heavy work. If the latter alternative 
is adopted, he may stumble as much as he pleases, for the 
weight of the load and the motion of the other horses will keep 
him upon his legs. 



UNSTEADINESS WHILE BEING MOUNTED. 219 

UNSTEADINESS WHILE BEING MOUNTED. 

When this merely amounts to eagerness to start — very un- 
pleasant, indeed, at times, for many a rider has been thrown 
from his seat before he was fairly fixed in it— ^it may be reme- 
died by an active and good horseman. It oftentimes happens 
that while the elderly, inactive, and fearful man is engaged in 
making more than one ineffectual attempt to vault into the 
saddle, the horse is-4ancing about to his annoyance and danger ; 
but no sooner is the animal transferred to the management of a 
younger and more agile rider, than he becomes perfectly sub- 
dued. Severity will here, more decidedly than in any other 
case, do harm. The rider should be fearless ; he should care- 
lessly and confidentially approach the horse, mount at the first 
effort, and then restrain him for a while ; patting him, and 
not allowing him to proceed until he becomes perfectly quiet. 
Horses of this kind should not be too highly fed, and should 
have sufficient daily exercise. 

When the difficulty of mounting arises, not from eagerness 
to start, but from unwillingness to be ridden, the sooner that 
horse is disposed of the better. He may be conquered by a 
skillful and determined horseman ; but even he will not succeed 
without frequent and dangerous contests that will mar all the 
pleasures of the ride. 




nTllg^ASESSREMEDlES 




Under this head it is proposed to treat of 
the various diseases which horse-flesh is heir 
to, together with their symptoms, and to 
offer such remedies as personal experience, or the authority 
of others in whom implicit confidence may be placed, suggests 
as the most efficacious. For convenience of discussion, these 
diseases are arranged in the present work under the heads of 
diseases of the mouth ; of the respiratory organs ; of the 
stomach and intestines ; of the limbs ; of the urinary organs ; 
of the feet and legs; of the heart; of the head; and 
(220) 



LAMPAS. 221 

of the eye; — placing under the head of miscellaneous such 
as do not appropriately fall under either of the foregoing 
diseases. 



DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. 



liAMPAS. 

This term is used to designate a fullness or swelling of the 
bars or roof of the mouth, caused by the cutting of the teeth, 
Lampas will be found in all colts, although in many the slight 
inconvenience occasioned by it attracts little or no attention. 
In others, however, the great tenderness of the parts affected 
causes the animal to refuse his food, in consequence of which 
he is by many compelled to submit to an operation equally 
cruel and unnecessary — that is, no less than burning out the 
bars of the mouth with a red-hot iron, thereby destroying the 
functions of the part, and leaving the mouth sore for some 
time afterward. This mode of treatment has been practised 
for years, and is even at the present day almost the only one 
in vogue, although it is of no practical benefit whatever, but, 
on the contrary, is often very injurious. In the case of the 
child similarly affected, the humane practitioner seldom does 
more than to lance the gums. This, certainly, is a more 
rational mode of operating, and the author's experience con- 
vinces him that if the parts inflamed in the case of the horse 
be simply lanced, the swelling will soon subside, and the horse 
' partake of his food as usual, A common pocket-knife will 
answer the purpose quite well ; and after the lancing the 



222 ULCERS IN THE MOUTH. 

moutli should be washed with a solutioa of the tincture of 
myrrh, two ounces to a pint of water, or a solution of alum 
in water. This should be repeated twice a day for three or 
four days, during which time give bran mashes or flax-seed 
gruel, and, if procurable, a small quantity of new grass. No 
hay, corn, or oats, should be given for a week ; at the expira- 
tion of which period the teeth will be in a condition to masti- 
cate such food. 



INFLAMED GUMS. 

Occasionally the gums of very young horses, when cutting 
their teeth, become exceedingly tender, sore, and swollen. 
As this is principally confined to the yearling, it is generally 
overlooked by the owner. The treatment in such cases is to 
cut the gum through to the tooth immediately under it with 
a lancet or common pocket-knife. The gum being thus 
broken, the tooth comes through with little pain. 



BAGS OE WASHES. 

These are soft, puffy swellings of the membrane of the 
mouth, lining the lips, just within the corners of the mouth. 
This disease is generally caused by the bearing rein being too 
tight. They are cured by cutting off a portion of the swelling 
with a pair of scissors or a knife ; after which the parts should 
be dressed with a little salt, or powdered alum. This gener- 
ally proves successful. 



ULCERS IKT THE MOUTH. 

Horses, during the process of breaking, are frequently hurt i 
by the pressure of the bit upon the under jaw a little in front of 



SORE MOUTH. 223 

the first molar tooth ; in consequence of which the periosteum, 
or thin fibrous membrane covering the bone, often becomes 
involved in the inflammation, the bone itself not always escap- 
ing injury, a neglect of which occasionally causes the bone 
of the jaw to become carious or decayed ; sinuses, or pipe-like 
openings, are sometimes formed, which becoming filled with 
masticated food, become fetid and often occasion troublesome 
sores. Grooms on discovering this sore, generally attribute it 
to what is commonly called squirrel grass, or wild barley. If 
the sore is confined to the gum alone, it should be washed fre- 
quently, and dressed with a little tincture of myrrh ; but when 
the bone is affected, it must be examined carefully with a probe, 
and if found rough, or presenting small openings, the bone must 
be exposed, and all the diseased parts removed, after which the 
tincture of myrrh should be used for a dressing. Such opera- 
tions should be performed by a qualified veterinary surgeon, if 
one is to be had ; otherwise more injury may be done by the 
bungling operator than would be occasioned by the disease. 
If such services cannot be procured, caustic silver, or lunar 
caustic, should be applied to the diseased bone. If the caustic 
is not readily obtainable, the red-hot iron will answer the pur- 
pose as well, or even better. Butter of antimony, placed on a 
little cotton or tow, and packed in the sore, is an excellent 
application, as it hastens a separation or exfoliation of the 
diseased bone, thus enabling the parts soon to heul. 



SORE MOUTH. 



This is often caused by the bit's cutting or bruising the lips 
at the angles of the mouth. In carelessly balling horses, also, 
the under part of the tongue sometimes becomes injured, which 



224 UNEVEN TEETH. 

frequently escapes notice until the animal refuses his food, 
and the tongue becomes tender and swollen. In such cases, 
wash the mouth clean, and sprinkle a teaspoonful of table salt 
on the sore ; the tincture of myrrh occasionally applied will 
hasten the cure. 



CUT TONGUE. 

The tongue sometimes becomes bruised from the sudden 
jerking of the lines in the hands of a careless or obstinate 
driver, or it may happen from tight reining ; that portion of 
the tongue upon which the bit rests becoming bruised and 
ulcerated, and the frequent use of the bit keeping up the 
irritation, until the tongue, in some cases, becomes almost 
separated by ulceration before it is discovered. Alum water, 
saltpetre, and tincture of myrrh are the proper dressings. 



UNEVEN TEETH. 

The molar teeth frequently become very uneven upon their 
faces or grinding surfaces, in consequence of the crusta petrosa 
wearing away too rapidly and often leaving deep cavities in the 
teeth, which become filled with food and soon pi'ove a great 
source of annoyance by interfering with proper mastication. 
This occurs more particularly in old horses. The upper molar 
teeth being well protected on the outer surface with enamel, 
wear less rapidly than the lower ones which are protected upon 
the inner side. In consequence of this the upper teeth often 
become very sharp upon the outside, and when the reins are 
drawn up the cheeks are forced upon these sharp edges and 
become sore and often lacerated, while the lower ones becoming 
sharp on the inside edges, lacerate the tongue in a similaSL 



QUIDDING. 225 

manner. The horse from this cause often refuses his food, since 
mastication causes him severe pain. He soon begins to lose 
flesh, the digestive organs become deranged, the skin becomes 
tight, and the animal is perhaps doctored for bots, worms, and 
the like. 

In all these cases the tooth-rasp becomes necessary, which 
is an mstrument made concave, or hollow, upon one side, and 
convex, or rounding, on the other, with a long handle attached. 
The rasp is upon the hollow side, the round side and the edges 
being perfectly smooth so as not to wound the cheeks or tongue 
when used. With this instrument the sharp corners of the teeth 
are easily taken off, and the horse is enabled to feed again in 
the proper manner. If the teeth are in this condition, no 
medicine is of any avail ; all the condition powders in the world 
will not benefit in the slightest degree; the tooth-rasp is the 
only remedy that will prove serviceable. 



QUIDDING. 

This disease, if disease it may be called, is generally caused 
by the irregular wear of the teeth already mentioned ; or it may 
arise from caries of , the teeth, or from a diseased state of the 
muscles of deglutition. "I have seen," says White, "at the 
kennel the jaw of a horse which died literally from starvation 
in consequence of a disease of the grinding teeth, which ap- 
peared to have been brought on by feeding on coarse woody 
hay, containing the stocks of thistles, docks, &c. This animal 
was what dealers term a quidder, for the muscles of deglutition 
were at least so affected that he was incapable of swallowing ; 
and after fruitless attempts to chew his food it was thrown out 
•.rto the manger in a ball or quid, and a great deal of iraper- 
15 



226 WOLF TEETH. 

fectly chewed hay had been forced into the cavities formed at 
the roots of some of the grinding teeth." The tooth-rasp 
sometimes proves a perfect cure in such cases. 

■WOLF TEETH. 

Very erroneous opinions are entertained by horsemen, and 
even by veterinary surgeons, in reference to these teeth, and 
various theories have from time to time been set afloat regard- 
ing them, arising, for the most part, from a want of proper in- 
vestigation. 

These teeth are natural to all horses, and make their appear- 
ance between the first and fifth year. They are not supernu- 
merary teeth, as has been stated by some writers, but are 
natural teeth found in all colts. The germs of these teeth will 
be found in the foal at birth, and developed in the jaw of the 
yearling ready to make their way through the gums. In an 
examination of at least one hundred heads of colts that have 
died under eighteen months of age, the author has found in 
every instance either natural wolf teeth, or the germs from 
which they are developed. It is a mistaken idea, that these 
teeth exert any influence over the eyes. Nature never placed 
them in their position for the purpose of injury. In cases where 
the eye is supposed to be affected by them, it is simply neces- 
sary to treat the eye for inflammation, and allow the teeth to 
remain. As a general rule they do not remain in the jaw long 
after being cut ; having performed their function, whatever it 
may be, they fall out and are therefore seldom found. Their 
removal can do no harm but it is an entirely unnecessary 
operation. 



CARIES OF THE TEETH. 



22T 



CARIES OP THE TEETH 
The teeth of horses, as has already been stated, are made up» 
of three substances, the enamel, the bone, and the crusta petrosa; 
and in consequence of their peculiar arrangement 

[and the inability 
of the animal to 
inform us of his 
sufferings, this dis- 
ease frequently be- 
comes much more 
serious than in 
man. Its opera- 
tion, besides, is 
quite different 




THE BLOODED MARE FASHION AND FOAL. 



upon the teeth of horses from what it is upon the human teeth. 
In the human subject caries is found, in a large majority of 
cases, making its appearance as a dark spot between the teeth, 
on one side of the crown, gradually working inwards, destroy- 
ing the bone in its progress, and leaving the enamel a mere 
shell upon the outside of the tooth, while the roots generally 
remain in a comparatively sound condition during the progress 
of decay. In the horse, however, caries is a very different thing, 
as far as its effects are concerned. It makes its appearance 
upon some one or more of the indentations or depressions upon 
the face of the tooth, attacking the crusta petrosa, (a substance 
not found in the human tooth,) and extending from the face 
through the entire length of the tooth, splitting it uf) into 
several thin plates, in consequence of which abscesses often form 
at the roots of such teeth, which, being prevented from dis 



228 GABIES OF THE TEETH. 

charging into the mouth by the food that fills up the cavity, 
generally find an opening into the nose, discharging their fetid 
inatter through that channel. The animal while in this condi- 
tion is often treated for catarrh, commonly called distemper. 
The discharge still continuing, and becoming more and more 
fetid, the animal is at last supposed to be in a glandered con- 
dition and killed. 

The first 'case of this kind which came under the author's 
notice occurred in the year 1853. Having occasion to visit the 
yard where dead animals are boiled, the peculiar appearance of 
one horse lying upon the ground attracted his attention. Upon 
inquiry he learned that he had been killed as a glandered horse; 
but failing to recognize any such marks as might be expected 
in that disease, he made a very careful examination of the head 
and 'found the real cause of trouble to be, not glanders, but a 
carious tooth, of which but three small ribbon-like fragments 
remained. This horse was but seven years old. An abscess 
had formed at the root of the tooth, discharging itself into the 
nostril, whence it was ejected. Another horse, with similar 
symptoms, pronounced glandered by two eminent veterinary sur- 
geons, was destroyed at the same place in the year 1859. The 
author's examination disclosed the fact, that the first two molar 
teeth were almost entirely destroyed by caries, and that a large 
abscess had formed at their roots, which extended into and 
completely closed up one nostril, causing an immense tumor on 
the "right side of the head. 

The difiiculty of examining the molar teeth of the horse, to- 
gether with the silence of veterinary authors on this important 
subject, are the only assignable reasons for the little informa- 
tion given us relative to a disease of such common occurrence. 



CARIES OF THE TEETH. 229 

Indeed, the author has frequently been called upon to treat 
horses laboring under this disease, without a suspicion ever 
being entertained of its true nature. 

A case of this kind came under his notice in the winter of 
1858, while on a visit to Jackson, Michigan. He was called 
to see a bay mare kept for livery purposes, having a discharge 
from the right side of the face some two inches below the eye, 
which had existed for about two years. The discharge was of 
so fetid a character that the animal was rendered unfit for use, 
and she was consequently turned upon the common to die or 
get well, as the chances might be, all known modes of treatment 
having been previously adopted without any beneficial results. 
He discovered, upon examination, a carious tooth, which was 
removed, and in a short time the animal became well. During 
the winter of 1859, a brown mare, belonging to a gentleman in 
Germantown, Pennsylvania, was sent to the Clinic of the Phi- 
ladelphia Veterinary College, having been pronounced glandered 
by a veterinary surgeon and ordered to be killed. Upon ex- 
amination a large abscess was discovered opening into the nose, 
together with two carious teeth — th<i first and second molars of 
the right side. The mare was cast, and ten pieces of carious 
teeth removed ; the cavity was then well cleaned out, and tow 
saturated with tincture of myrrh filled in, removing and cleaning 
every day. Some four weeks subsequently, the animal was sold 
for one hundred and fifty dollars, sound as a bell ; though pre- 
viously to this operation she could not have been sold at any 
price. Many similar cases could be mentioned, but the fore- 
going will serve to show the necessity of making a thorough 
examination of an animal before pronouncing sentence of death 
upon it. 



23i) EXTRACTING TEETH. 

Acidity of the fluids of the mouth is generally — and, as tho 
author believes, correctly — assigned as the cause of caries of the 
teeth. The symptoms are fetid discharges from the nose, ob- 
structed respiration, improper mastication of the food, passing 
the oats or corn whole, quidding, drowsiness, loss of flesh, 
staring coat, hide-bound, tossing to and fro of the head, stop- 
ping short on the road, starting suddenly, and at times becoming 
almost frantic. All these symptoms, however, must not be 
expected to be found in the same case, as different horses are 
differently affected by the disease. One is drowsy, feeds daintily 
'at times, and again ravenously ; another is at times wild, so as 
to be almost unmanageable. Many of these symptoms occur in 
yther diseases besides those of the teeth ; but their presence 
mggests the necessity for an examination of the mouth, and 
|>articularly of the molar teeth, which may be done by passing 
Ihe hand along the upper molar teeth inside of the cheek, thus 
enabling the examiner to detect the presence of caries without 
difficulty. 



EXTRACTING TEETH. 

When a carious tooth, or one so unequally worn as to cause 
mischief, is discovered, its removal is necessary to the restora- 
tion of the animal's health. In order to accomplish this, the 
horse must be cast, and the age of the animal considered, in 
order to make choice of proper instruments. If he is young, 
say from four to six years, an instrument made similar to the 
key used by surgeon dentists, is the best adapted ; if he is old, 
a pair of forceps of large size, made in the same manner as the 
tooth-forceps of dentists, will answer, as the roots of the teeth 
in old horses are comparatively short, and therefore may be 
.easily extracted. 



INFLAMMATION. 231 



DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS 



INPIiAMMATION. 

The diseases of the respiratory organs and air passages are 
generally of an" inflammatory type. In order to fully under- 
stand the various diseases to which these important organs are 
subject, a few remarks regarding the nature of inflammation, its 
progress, &c., may not be out of place in a work like the 
present. 

Inflammation, then, is a state of altered nutrition, an increased 
vascularity and sensibility of the parts involved, together with 
a tendency to change of structure. The symptoms are swelling, 
pain, heat, and redness where the parts are not covered with 
hair. The redness is in consequence of a redundancy of blood 
in the inflamed part, which distends the small capillaries with 
red particles of blood. When the inflammation is acute, the 
parts present a bright red or crimson hue ; when it is chronic, 
they are of a dark or purplish red color. As the various terms 
employed by authors to indicate the various degrees are unin- 
teresting to the general reader, no attempt at detail is here 
made. 

The sensation of pain is mainly due to a stretching of the 
nerves by the distended blood-vessels. It diff'ers in its char- 
acter and intensity according to the parts involved, varying 
from a burning, throbbing, sharp, and lacerating pain to a 
mere sense of heat, soreness, and a dull sensation of pain. The 
heat in inflammation is supposed to arise from an increased 
quantity of blood in the inflamed part. The swelling in the 
early stage is due to the increased quantity of blood, and 



232 SORE THROAT. 

afterward to the effusion which takes place in all loose tissues. 
By inflammation all the various structures of the animal 
economy may be so altered as to interfere with the perform- 
ance of their natural functions ; in some cases by a permanent 
thickening of the parts, and in others by adhesion and the like. 
By the aid of auscultation, that is, the application of the 
ear to the parts to be examined, the slightest change in the 
normal and healthy condition of the respiratory organs may 
be detected, and the various parts involved in inflammatory 
action may be pointed out with a considerable degree of cer- 
tainty. With thus much of introduction we proceed to tha 
consideration of the various diseases naturally falling under ouy 
present division. 

SORE THROAT. 

Sore throat is a common attendant upon catarrhal affec- 
tions. When it is confined to that portion of the throat at 

the root of the 
tongue, which ia 
known to medical 
men as the larynx, 
it is called laryng. 
itis ; and this part 
is the conimot 
seat of this dis- 
ease, from whic), 
it extends down 
THE SADDLE HOESE. ^^^ trachca, o^^ 

windpipe, to the lungs. As long as the throat remains ver,' 
sore, it is a jjretty good evidence that the lungs urp not affeetec*- 




SORE THROAT. 233 

This disease may exist either in an acute, sub-acnte, or chronic 
foi-m. When acute, its management is simple and usually suc- 
cessful ; but if it is neglected in this early stage, it not unfre- 
quently proves troublesome, and in some cases leaves the 
animal permanently unsound, terminating in wheezing, whist- 
ling, roaring, or broken-windedness. 

The symptoms of sore throat are easily detected by the or- 
dinary observer. According to the intensity of the disease 
there is an accumulation of saliva in the mouth, clear, thick, 
and stringy, more particularly when the tongue is swollen ; a 
stiffness of the head, the horse coughing upon the slightest 
pressure on the larynx ; difficulty in swallowing, more par- 
ticularly hard grain or hay, and a consequent refusal of food 
altogether ; a short, hard oough ; more or less copious dis- 
charges from the nose, as the disease advances ; an accelerated 
pulse, frequently rising to ninety or one hundred pulsations in 
a minute ; mouth hot, with considerable fever accompanying. 

For treatment, apply strong mustard, mixed with water to 
the thickness of cream, to the throat, rub it well in, and 
repeat as often as may be necessary ; or poultice the part with 
flaxseed meal for several days, and sprinkle on the tongue a 
teaspoonful of common table salt three or four times a day, 
which in ordinary cases is all the treatment which will be 
necessary for the acute type of the disease. 

The attention of the veterinary surgeon is more frequently 
called to chronic forms of this disease, in which, though no 
swelling of the parts is usually perceptible, a pressure upon 
the larynx at once excites a hard cough. In this stage of the 
disease much relief will be obtained by the application of a 
blister, prepared as follows • Pulverized cantharides (Spanish 



234 STRANGLES. 

flies) half an ounce ; of lard, one and a half ounces ; mixed 
well, and as thin as may be desired with spirits of turpentine. 
This must be well rubbed in, and after it has acted thoroughly, 
dress with sweet oil or lard. 

STRANGLES. 

This is but another form or stage of laryngitis. The throat 
becomes enormously swollen, the swelling extending under the 
jaws and up to the very ears, threatening suffocation ; then 
respiration becomes much disturbed ; the flanks heave violently, 
and the breathing can be heard at a considerable distance ; 
the animal begins to sweat from his frequently convulsive 
efforts to breathe, and, if not speedily relieved, dies a most 
violent death. 

Life may be saved by the veterinary surgeon at this crisis 
by the operation of bronchotomy, that is, by opening the 
windpipe, and inserting a tube through which the animal may 
breathe instead of through the nose. This operation affords 
instant relief, and gives an opportunity to apply remedies to 
the diseased throat, which in a few days usually effect a cure, 
when the tube may be removed. The author has never lost 
a case where he has resorted to this operation. 

The early treatment of this disease is to poultice the throat 
well with flaxseed meal, commonly called cake-meal or oil-cake, 
using salt upon the tongue as before. Mustard plasters are 
also very effective, and steaming the nostrils frequently affords 
relief. As soon as the swelling permits, it should be lanced ; 
and when it has once discharged freely, the animal may be 
considered out of danger, provided proper care be taken to 
guard against a relapse. A seton applied between the jaws 



CHRONIC COUGH. 235 

often relieves ; but these cases are safer in the hands of a com- 
petent surgeon. Under no circumstances of this disease should 
the animal be bled. 

Malignant or putrid sore throat, is fortunately but little 
known in the Unitead States, the author not being aware of 
its existence in any portion. Cases presenting somewhat 
similar symptoms have been found upon examination to differ 
in a marked degree from those which accompany this form 
of disease as they are laid down in the works of foreign 
authors. A detailed description of this type of the disease is 
therefore deemed unnecessary in the present treatise. 



CHRONIC COUGH. 

This arises from various causes, and is present in a number 
of diseases. It is often symptomatic of some affection of the 
lungs and air passages ; and it sometimes exists apparently as 
an independent affection, the animal thriving well, and retain- 
ing unimpaired his appetite and spirits. 

If it arises from irritation of the larynx, or upper part of 
the throat, a few applications of mustard will be beneficial; 
if from worms in the stomach or intestines, treat as directed 
under the head of " Worms." If it exists without any appar- 
ent connection, or as the termination of disease previously 
existing, give every night in a bran mash one of these pow- 
ders : of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), digitalis (fox-glove), 
pulverized squills, nitre, and camphor, each one ounce ; to 
be made into ten powders. Green food, as carrots, potatoes, 
turnips, or parsnips, should be given when procurable. 



23G CATARRH. 

OATAREH. 

This disease, commonly called a cold, is confiaed in ordinary 
cases to the lining membrane of the nose and neighboring parts; 
but in severe cases the inflammation sometimes extends down 
the air passages to the lungs, frequently resulting fatally. In 
the spring of the year this disease frequently appears in an epi- 
zootic form, when the symptoms are more alarming and the 
termination more generally fatal. 

If the inflammation is confined to the nostrils, tlie membrane 
lining those cavities is reddened, a thin watery or mucous dis- 
charge from the nostrils takes place, accompanied with frequent 
sneezing ; if the larynx is involved, there are cough, swellings 
underneath the jaws, etc. 

Some authors recommend bleeding in this affection ; but such 
an abuse of the lancet can do no good, and is often productive 
of much harm. If the symptoms are slight, one of the follow- 
ing powders given night and morning will be all that is re- 
quired : of saltpetre two ounces ; of pulverized Jamaica ginger 
one ounce ; mixed, and divided into eight powders. If there is 
swelling under the jaws, poultice the throat with flaxseed meal ; 
if much discharge from the nostrils, steam them well with boil- 
ing' water poured upon bran. If the inflammation exhibits any 
tendency to extend down the windpipe, apply a blister all along 
the neck over the windpipe from the throat to the breast, giving 
one of the following balls night and morning ; of niti'ate of 
potassa and pulverized gentian root, each one ounce ; Jamaica 
ginger and caraway seeds, each half an ounce ; mix with 
molasses and divide into six balls. If the discharge from the 
nose continues, the animal losing flesh, and the appetite being 



INFLUENZA. 



2?T 



impaired, give one of the following powders in the feed night 
and morning : sulphate of copper one ounce ; pulverized gentian 
root one and a half ounces ; pulverized ginger six drachnks ; 
mix and divide into eight powders. Good wholesome food only 
should be given. 



DISTEMPEE, 
All catarrhal affections are classed by horse-owners under 
the common head of distemper. Common catarrh, epizootic or 
epidemic catarrh, laryngitis, bronchitis, and all other diseases 
accompanied by nasal discharges, are regarded by horsemen 
generally as one and the same disease. 



INFIiUE]SrZA. 

For several years past a disease has been more or less preva- 
lent in various sections of the United States, known to the 

veterinary profession as 
epizootic (epidemic) ca- 
tarrh, or influ- 
enza . The 
symptoms of 
this disease 
are so various 

HKiiiiiiiiiiin different 
illliM'llli"" 
animals, no two 

,^ being precisely 
'alike, that a vari- 
ety of opinions are current 
concerning it and its nature, and, as a consequence, various 
other diseases are often confounded with it. 




QUIET E.^'.JOY.ME^•T. 



— ) 



238 INFLUENZA. 

In the year 1855, this disease made its appearance in the 
stables of one of the largest omnibus proprietors in Philadel- 
phia, and some nine horses died in about two weeks. These 
were supposed to have been foundered, and were treated for 
thajt disease. A careful examination, however, by a competent 
practitioner revealed the true nature of the disease, and under 
proper treatment the balance of the stock was saved. Shortly 
after the demand for veterinary surgeons was very great, and 
while they saved forty-eight out of every fifty cases, the farrier 
lost almost every case he attempted to treat, principally from 
his too common practice of bleeding and purging ; thus reducing 
the system so low that nature became exhausted. 

This disease is called by horsemen pink-eye distemper, and is 
by many regarded incurable, though the author knows of no 
disease that more readily yields to proper treatment, and in his 
own practice he has been eminently successful in accomplishing 
a cure. It commences with slight watery or thin mucous dis- 
charges from the nostrils ; matter collecting in the inner corner 
of the eyes ; eye-lid on the inner side of a very slight or yellow- 
ish red color ; pulse feeble, with occasional paralysis of the 
hind extremities ; sore throat ; excessive debility ; membrane 
of the nose much reddened ; hard cough ; heart sometimes vio- 
lently agitated ; flanks heaving ; and feet sometimes hot ; thus 
producing all the symptoms of founder. 

For treatment, never bleed, as in nine cases out of ten, the 
animal dies. If inflammation runs high, as it sometimes does, 
use for several days the following : of tartar emetic and nitrate 
of potash, each two drachms, made into a ball with molasses 
and given at night. Give also in a pail of water one ounce of 
spirits of nitre twice a day ; or, if more convenient, tw^o drachms 



INFLUENZA. 239 

of the extract of belladonna (nightshade) dissolved in the water. 
When the inflammation is reduced, give one of the following 
balls night and morning : of pulverized gentian root and nitrate 
of potassa, each an ounce ; pulverized Jamaica ginger, half an 
ounce ; ground fenugreek seeds six drachms ; mix with molasses, 
and divide into eight balls. In pure cases of debility (this 
being one of the serious symptoms of the disease), or in the 
early stages, previous to extensive inflammation being established, 
one of the following should be given twice a day : — sulphate of 
iron (green vitriol) two ounces ; pulverized ginger one ounce ; 
pulverized gentian i-oot two ounces ; mix with molasses, and 
divide into eight balls. In cases where the lungs are affected, 
give theTollowing ball twice a day : of tartar emetic and pulver- 
ized digitalis (foxglove) each one scruple ; nitrate of potash three 
drachms; mix with molasses. Linseed tea, or oat-meal gruel 
should be given frequently. No hay should be given, unless 
the bowels are in good condition. If the liver is afiented — 
which may be known by the yellow tinge of the mucous mem- 
brane, dung small and hard, horse lying on his side, and occa- 
sionally looking at his side as if in pain, with occasional fits of 
uneasiness — the following may be given, but must not be re- 
peated ; of Barbadoes aloes three drachms, calomel and pulver- 
ized digitalis each half a drachm ; make into a ball with molasses. 
In all these cases where there is soreness or swelling of the 
throat, the parts should be freely blistered ; and the sides also,^ 
if the lungs are involved. This mode of treatment has proved 
very successful in the author's practice. 



240 BRONCHITIS. 

BRONCHITIS. 

The larynx (upper part of the windpipe), the trachea (wind- 
pipe), and the bronchial tubes (branches from the trachea into 
the lungs for the passage of air), are lined by one continuous 
membrane, called the mucous membrane, which secretes a thin 
mucous substance that always keeps the parts soft and moist. 
When this membrane becomes inflamed, the disease is named 
according to its location. If it is confined to the larynx (as 
has been before observed), it is termed laryngitis ; if to the 
windpipe, trachitis ; and if to the bronchial tubes, bronchitis. 
The trachea and bronchia are rarely diseased separately, the 
inflammation generally extending from one to the other. We 
shall therefore treat of bronchitis as embracing trachitis like- 
wise. Even this disease rarely exists unmixed with others, in 
consequences of which it is often overlooked, or confounded 
with other diseases of a pulmonary character. 

Bronchitis is generally preceded by a shivering fit ; mouth 
hot, with more or less saliva; discharge from the nose; cough; 
sore throat ; fever ; short breathing ; loss of appetite ; accele- 
rated pulse ; and membrane of nose and eyelids reddened. 

In treating this disease it is much safer to call in the veteri- 
nary surgeon, in consequence of the difBculty which the ordi- 
nary observer will experience in distinguishing it from other 
pulmonary diseases, and from the fact that the treatment 
varies with the changes that take place in the progress of the 
disease. It is not necessarily fatal ; yet the most trifling neg- 
lect or mistake in treatment may make it so. The average loss, 
if proper treatment is pursued, is not more than five per cent. 
Resort should never be had to bleeding in any form which the 



NASAL GLEET. 241 

disease may assume, although such treatment has been recom- 
mended by the highest authorities. 

If much fever is present, give the following ball : of nitre 
two drachms ; pulverized digitalis and tartar emetic each half 
a drachm ; solution of gum arable sufficient to make the ball 
This may be repeated if the desired effect is not produced in 
twelve hours. Apply to the throat, sides, and along the 
spine, strong mustard mixed with water to the consistence of 
cream, which may be repeated as often as necessary. The fly 
blister is also recommended ; but the author prefers mustard, 
as being so much quicker in its action. After the inflamma- 
tion has subsided, give one of the following powders twice a 
day : of pulverized gentian root and nitre, each one ounce ; 
pulverized Jamaica ginger, half an ounce ; caraway seeds six 
drachms. This course of treatment is perfectly safe in the 
hands of any horseman, though it will not reach all stages of 
the disease ; nor can any general directions be given better 
calculated to warrant a successful issue in these cases. 



NASAL GIiEET. 

"Nasal gleet is the name here given to those discharges from 
the nose, which are commonly preceded by some inflammatory 
or catarrhal attack of the air passages, in particular those of 
the head ; though there occur examples of their appearing 
without any such detectible precursors, originating, indeed, 
without any visible or apparent cause whatever ; in most cases 
they are apt to continue long after all signs of inflammation have 
died away. Gleet is more likely to supervene after a chronic, 
than after an acute, attack of catarrh, and to show itself in an 
i5 



242 NASAL GLEET. 

adult or aged liorse rather than in the young subject. Sonie- 
times the discharge comes from one nostril alone ; more usually 
from both. Sometimes the submaxillary glands (glands under 
the jaws), remain tumefied, and sometimes they are not. The 
Schneiderian membrane (membrane of the nose) discolored by 
inflammatory action, has become pallid and leaden-hued, but 
is free from all pustular or ulcerative indications. The dis- 
charged matter varies in quantity and quality in different in- 
dividuals, and even in the same horse at difi'erent stages of 
this disease. The ordinary gleet consists of a matter more 
mucous than purulent, remarkable for its whiteness, about the 
thickness of cream, and in some cases is smooth and uniform, 
in others clotty or lumpy ; in other cases it is yellow, and 
appears to contain in its composition more pus than mucus. 
At one time it will collect about the nostrils, and become 
ejected in flakes or masses in pretty regular succession ; at 
another time there is a good deal of irregularity in this re- 
spect, the running from the nose ceasing altogether for a 
while, as though the animal were cured, and then returning 
with double or treble force. Sometimes fetor is an off'ensive 
accompaniment of the discharge ; at other times no fetor is 
perceptible. The health does not suffer in the least; on the 
contrary, it is one of the indications of this disease, that the 
horse eats and drinks, and has his spirits, as well as though 
he were quite free from complaint. 

Formerly, these cases were considered to be evidences of 
glanders, and were called chronic glanders ; many a horse 
having been destroyed under this mistaken impression. That 
a case of the kind might not turn to glanders, is, perhaps, 
more than can be asserted with certainty ; but that, so long as 



PNEUMONIA. 243 

it continues gleet, it is not glanders, I am fully persuaded ; 
and to show that it is not, I have been in more than one in- 
stance successful in bringing the case to a favorable issue." 
[PercivaPs Hippopathology.] 

The treatment recommended by veterinary writers has not 
been found successful in the author's practice ; nor, indeed, do 
they themselves appear to have encountered any better for- 
tune. That which has proved efiBcacious has, in all cases, been 
strictly tonic. Give the following powder night and morning 
for a month : of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), half a 
drachm; pulverized gentian root, two drachms; pulverized 
ginger, one drachm ; mix for one dose : or, give night and 
morning, mixed in the feed, half-drachm doses of powdered nux 
vomica (commonly called Quaker button). There ,is no 
danger in giving this preparation to a horse, provided he does 
not have water for some tjme afterward, say half an hour j and 
it very rarely fails. 



PNEUMONIA. 

By pneumonia, or inflammation of the lungs, is meant either 
a highly congested or an inflammatory condition of the lungs, 
arising from various causes, as high feeding, blanketing, close 
or badly ventilated stables, violent or extraordinary exercise, 
or sudden changes from heat to cold. Cold applied to the 
external surface of a heated animal drives the blood from the 
skin to the internal organs, often causing congestion of the 
lungs. Pulmonary diseases are more prevalent in the spring 
and fall, particularly if the weather be cold and damp. 

This disease is generally ushered in by a shivering fit ; the 
horse is sometimes attacked very suddenly ; he refuses his food j 



244 



PNEUMONIA. 



the respiration becomes disturbed, sometimes suddenly, at 
other times more slowly ; legs, ears, and muzzle cold ; cough 
sometimes present ; staring coat ; membrane of nose reddened 
or leadened-hued ; the animal hangs his head in or under the 
manger, stands with his feet wide apart, remaining in one 
position with no inclination to move. The pulse varies very 
much ; it is sometimes full and quick, at other times weak and 
scarcely perceptible. 

In these cases auscultation is found of the 
greatest advantage in enabling one to --^ 
detect to a certainty the true condi- 
tion of the parts ^^ 

affected. If ^^^^m^^mj 
attack is sudden, ^ 
coming on after ^ 
any violent exer-^lW- 
cise, and the pulse is fi^^^^S 
quick, weak, and scarce- 
ly perceptible ; by the the kunnikq hokse Lexington. 

application of the ear to the animal's side the case is 
decided, in the absence of all sounds, to be one of conges- 
tive pneumonia. In all these cases the less medicine which 
is used the better; they require the free use of the lancet, 
which must be promptly applied, or the animal dies. Blood 
must be taken until the animal begins to show symptoms 
of weakness ; after which place him in a cool box with a 
pail of water, but nothing else, before him, the fresh air 
being all the medicine required. He will either speedily re- 
cover,, or inflammation of the lungs will ensue. A second 
bleeding, notwithstanding the inflammatory action, is positively 




PLEURISY. 245 

injurious. As the disease assumes an inflammatory character, 
the breathing becomes more disturbed, the mouth hot, flanlis 
heaving, and the nostrils expand and contract violently. 
Blisters must now be applied to the sides and breast, and 
those which will act quickly. The author prefers the follow- 
ing : of pulverized cantharides half an ounce ; lard one ounce ; 
croton oil twenty drops ; linseed oil suffieient to make it 
liquid. Divide the following into five parts, and give one 
part internally eVery two hours : liquor ammonia acetatis 
twelve ounces ; extract of belladonna one ounce ; water one 
pint. If there is no improvement in twelve hours, give one 
scruple of white hellebore with three drachms of nitre every 
four hours until its action is manifest. This remedy, however, 
is a dangerous one in the hands of any but the qualified prac- 
titioner. Instead of it, the tincture of aconite may be used — 
indeed, it is one of the very best remedies. Take of tincture 
of aconite half an ounce to an ounce of water ; give twenty 
drops on the tongue every three hours. Active purgatives 
should not be given ; injections, however, are very useful. 
The horse should be kept on a low diet for a few days, as 
bran mashes, carrots, or green food ; but no hay should be 
allowed, and a pail of water should be kept before him. This 
is regarded by the author in all inflammatory diseases as one 
of our best medicines. 



PLEUKISY. 

By pleurisy is meant an inflammation of the pleura, or mem- 
brane covering the lungs and internal walls of the chest, without 
the lungs being involved in the inflammation ; when, however, 
they partake of its inflammatory action, it is styled pleuro- 



246 PLEURISY. 

pneumonia. The former disease rarely exists in a pure form ; 
and as in a work like the present it is unnecessary to consider 
the delicately drawn distinctions between the two types, both 
will be treated as if they constituted in reality but one disease. 

Pleurisy may exist in an acute or chronic form. The attack 
may be sudden, or gradual, the animal manifesting indisposi- 
tion several days previous. A bard drive, over-exertion, 
exposure to cold, washing in cold water when warm, a fall, 
fracture of a rib, a punctured wound, &c., are all causes of 
pleurisy. 

The horse manifests uneasiness ; there is a violent heaving of 
the flanks, a looking round at his sides, with an anxious expres- 
sion of the face ; pulae quick and wiry ; body, mouth, and breath 
hot ; sweating in different parts of the body ; a high state of 
nervous irritation, the animal pawing, lying down but rising 
immediately ; a pressure against the side causes pain. A pecu- 
liar symptom is observable in this disease ; the right fore-leg 
differs in temperature from the left, and such is the case with 
the hind ones ; if the right fore-leg is warm, the left hind one 
will also be warm, and the others cold. 

Experience pi'oves that blood-letting in this disease is only 
opening the vein to let life escape ; for if by this means we suc- 
ceed in relieving the inflammatory action, the loss of blood so 
prostrates the system that the animal from pure debility becomes 
the victim of hydrothorax, or dropsy of the chest, living a mis- 
erable life for several weeks, perhaps months, to die at last from 
the accumulation of fluid in the chest. Bleeding, therefore, is 
uncalled for, and in fact is positively injurious. The early ap- 
plication of blisters to the sides is very important ; and for this 
purpose the same preparation will be found serviceable as has 



HYDROTHORAX. 24t 

been recommended in the case of inflammation of the lungs. 
The application of blankets saturated with hot water and kept 
round the body for several hours is very beneficial. Give one 
of the following powders on the tongue every hour : — of calomel 
one drachm ; lactucarium (the juice of the common garden 
lettuce) two drachms ; divide into three powders. In two hours 
after giving the last powder, give the following drench : liquor 
ammonia acetatis four ounces ; sulphuric ether one ounce ; 
tincture of aconitet .ten drops ; water one pint. If no improve- 
ment takes place within six hours, give half a drachm of the 
extract of belladonna in a pail of water every three hours ; con- 
tinue this until the pupils of the eye dilate, or a favorable 
change otherwise takes place. If the pulse is weak, give two 
ounces of nitrous ether; one ounce tincture of opium ; and half 
a pint of tepid water ; but do not repeat the dose. The ani- 
mal must be kept upon a low diet ; no hay or corn should be 
given ; carrots and green food may be used sparingly ; give 
water frequently ; injections of soap and water are necessary 
from the first attack. After the animal becomes convalescent, 
strong tonics must be given, as the case may even then terminate 
in dropsy of the chest. Nux vomica should be given in half- 
drachm doses in the feed at night ; or half-drachm doses of the 
iodide of potassa dissolved in a pail of water may be given three 
times a da v. 



HYDKOTHORAX. 

Dropsy of the chest, or hydrothorax, is usually the termina- 
tion of pleurisy in cases where bleeding or long-continued seda- 
tive medication has been practised. The fluid contained within 
the chest, if following an acute attack of pleurisy, is a beauti- 



248 THICK WIND. 

fully clear, bright yellow fluid. In sub-acute cases there is 
considerable lymph floating in it, thus rendering it turbid. The 
quantity varies in different cases, from a quart or two to several 
gallons. 

In this disease the animal stands with legs straddling ; the 
breathing is short and quick, and as the water accumulates the 
respiration becomes more labored ; pulse small and quick ; stag- 
gering gait; breast, belly, and sheath swelled, leaving after 
pressure the impression of the fingers ; if the ear is applied to 
the side, no sounds are heard. 

No course of treatment can be suggested which would be 
likely to succeed in the hands of the amateur; this disease far 
too often proving fatal in the most skillful hands. 



THICK WIND. 
This disease differs in its action and effects from broken wind 
or heaves, though they are frequently confounded. It is cha- 
racterized by a quickened respiration, in consequence of the 
obstruction existing in the air passages as the termination of 
inflammatory action. The capacity of the lungs is often very 
considerably diminished ; the air-cells become filled up or obli- 
terated ; and the bronchial tubes become thickened ; so that the 
same amount of atmospheric air cannot be admitted, thus giving 
rise to the quick, blowing action witnessed in this disease. "It 
is astonishing," says Mr. Spooner, "what great alteration of 
the structure of the lungs may exist, and the horse be still able 
to perform his accustomed work. I remember a horse that foi 
some months worked in a fast coach, doing a stage of twelve 
miles daily in about an hour and a quarter. He was seized 
with inflammation of the lungs, and died in about sixteen hours. 



BROKEN WIND. 249 

On examining the body after death, it appeared that one half of 
the lungs for a long time past must have been perfectly useless, 
for the purposes of respiration, being so completely hepatized 
as to be heavier than water." 

But little can be done in the way of treatment for a thick- 
winded horse. It is important to keep the bowels regular; and 
by feeding with good sweet provender some relief is usually 
afforded. 



KOABING AND WHISTLING. 

There are different stages of the same disease, arising from q 
thickening of the windpipe, or of the membranes of thie larynx, 
rendering the passages smaller at the diseased parts. Thesg 
diseases are generally the termination of neglected bronchitis, 
laryngitis, and all diseases of a pulmonary or catarrhal cha. 
racter ; ulceration of the glottis (a portion of the larynx) is also 
a cause of roaring. 

If these diseases are caused by tight reining, the bearing rein 
should be left off; if they arise from other causes, there is but 
little prospect of benefiting the animal, except in cases where 
the thickened parts are in an inflammatory condition, when 
relief will be afforded by the application of mustard plasters or 
fly blisters to the parts affected. 



BBOKEN -WIND. 
The cause of broken wind, or heaves, has never been satis- 
factorily ascertained ; some writers attributing it to functional 
derangement of the digestive organs, others to rupture of the 
air-cells of the lungs, while yet a third class to a spasmodic 
action of the diaphragm, a muscle dividing the chest from the 



250 



BROKEN WIND. 




TEE ATTACK AKD DfiFENSE. 



abdomen. In this disease there is a short dry cough, which is 
characteristic, and familiar to all practised ears, 

^ - It is a singular fact, well known to all 

y Western horse-owners, that this disease has 

no existence on the prairies of 
Indiana, Illinois, and other 
zM Western States ; and broken- 
Sx=, winded horses that have 
been taken to those sec- 
tions soon get well, and re- 
main so. 

The symptoms of this dis- 
ease are, a peculiar, double- 
bellows motion of the flanks ; respiration quicker than natural ; 
a short peculiar cough ; and frequent passing of wind. 

In its treatment the digestive organs should be kept in as 
healthy a condition as possible. The throat should be ex- 
amined ; and if by merely rubbing the sides of the throat a 
cough is excited, the chances for a cure are favorable ; but if 
the windpipe requires a squeeze in order to produce the cough, 
there is little use in attempting a cure. Use upon the throat 
three times a week for five or six weeks the following salve well 
rubbed in : iodine ointment two ounces ; blue (mercurial) oint- 
ment one ounce ; mix well together, and make thin with oil. 
Give internally every night one of the following powders : of 
sulphate of copper and pulverized ginger, each one ounce; pul- 
verized gentian root two ounces; divide into sixteen powders. 
The benefits of this course of treatment have been very marked 
in the author's practice. In all cases no hay should be allowed, 
but wheat or oat straw will be found of great advantage. 



liNi'LAMMATION OF THE STOMACH. 251 

DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES. 



INPLAMMATIOM" OF THE STOMACH. 

Inflammation of the stomach, or gastritis, is usually the result, 
of swallowing poisons, or powerful stimulants. Mr., James 
Clark relates a case of death occurring from inflammation of 
the stomach in a horse in consequence of being drenched with 
a pint of vinegar ;~ and another case where death was caused by 
giving a drench which contained half an ounce of spirits of 
hartshorn. A correspondent writing to the Turf Register in 
1855, recommends the use of nux vomica, to destroy worms ; 
to which the editor appends the following remarks : — " We 
must caution those not acquainted with the deleterious proper- 
ties of nux vomica against giving that drug in large doses. 
Three nuts or buttons weigh eighty grains, and we have re- 
corded evidence that sixty grains of the powder have killed a 
horse in a short time. Hoffman mentions that two doses, of 
fifteen grains each, proved fatal to the patient." The cause of 
these fatal terminations was doubtless some morbid condition 
of the stomach at the time the medicine was given. " I have 
known," says Vfhite, "a horse quickly destroyed by being 
drencheci with a quart of beer in which one or two ounces of 
tobacco had been infused, and have seen other horses take 
much larger doses without any ill effects." The author has 
known cases where bots were supposed to have given rise to 
inflammation of the stomach. 

The symptoms from poisoning are extreme distress and rest- 
lessness, with a perfect loathing of all food ; the animal breaks 
out in cold sweats, lies down but rises quickly, and becomes 



252 INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. 

quickly prostrated in strength ; the pulse is quick and oppressed ; 
purging may, or may not, exist. 

The treatment will depend upon the cause of the attack, and 
should in all cases be intrusted to the hands of a competent 
practitioner, if one can be obtained. Where poison is sus- 
pected, it is better to give plenty of gruel, linseed tea, starch 
water, chalk water, with a couple of ounces of tincture of opium. 
The lancet should not be used, as the animal is already in a 
debilitated coixiition, which bleeding would only increase, 
thereby preventing the possibility of a speedy recovery. 



INFLAMMATION OP THE BO"WELS. 

Enteritis, or inflammation of the bowels, called by farriers 
red colic, admits of three divisions : enteritis, or inflammation 
of the muscular coat of the intestines ; peritonitis, or inflamma- 
tion of the outer coat of the intestines and the membrane lining 
the cavity of the abdomen ; and dysentery, or inflammation of 
the inner or mucous coat of the intestines. 

The muscular and peritoneal coats are those usually involved 
in inflammation of the bowels ; but the muscular is more fre- 
quently involved than the peritoneal coat. The causes of this 
disease are washing when warm, or swimming in a river, drink- 
ing cold water when in a heated condition, over exertion, cos- 
tiveness, dry food such as hay with little water, worms, calcareous 
concretions, and metastasis. 

The disease is sometimes preceded by a shivering fit ; there is 
loss of appetite ; hot skin ; continued restlessness ; mouth hot and 
dry ; membranes of nose and eyes very much reddened ; pawing ; 
the animal lies down and gets up frequently, kicks at his belly, 
looks frequently at his sides ; no cessation of pain ; pulse hard. 



INFLAMMATION OP THE BOWELS. 253 

email, and wiry, often beating one hundred times or more a 
minute ; respiration quickened ; bowels constipated ; dung small, 
hard, and dry ; extremities cold ; and the urine highly colored 
and passed with difficulty. As the disease progresses, the in- 
tensity of the symptoms very much increases. The animal is 
now covered with perspiration, which is succeeded by a chilly 
state; the pulse becomes quicker; the belly begins to swell ; tlie 
entire system becomes prostrated, and the animal dies, frequently 
in the most violent manner. 

These cases require prompt and active treatment, for the 
disease runs its course very rapidly, often terminating in the 
course of ten or twelve hours. If the costiveness yields early, 
the pulse becomes less frequent, soft, and full ; the extremities 
regain a moderate temperature, attended with remission of 
pain, and the case will be likely to have a favorable termina- 
tion. It is important that this disease should be distinguished 
from an attack of colic, since the symptoms of one very much 
resemble those of the other ; the pulse, however, is the surest 
guide in distinguisliing these diseases. The ordinary mode of 
treating colic would be highly injurious in the treatment of 
inflammation of the bowels. 

In this disease copious bleedings are necessary. A large 
opening should be made in the jugular vein, and from six to 
eight quarts of blood taken, the quantity varying with the 
size and condition of the animal ; the hardened dung should 
be removed by back-raking, after which tobacco-smoke injec- 
tions are of great service ; where these are not convenient, 
injections of soap and water may be used, or, what is better, 
an injection of two gallons of water with six ounces of tincture 
of arnica. One pint of linseed oil may now be given ; and if the 



— 1 



254 INFLAMMATION OF THE BOAVELS. 

case be a very severe one, and likely to terminate in death 
unless relief be afforded, ten drops of croton oil may be added 
to the drench ; but this last preparation should not be given 
except in very desperate cases, as of life or death. Aloes 
should not be given unless combined with opium ; and even 
then this treatment is not advisable. 

Blankets well saturated with hot water should be applied 
to the abdomen, and kept up for two or three hours ; the legs 
should be well rubbed with cayenne pepper or strong mus- 
tard, and bandaged with strips of flannel ; if there is' no im- 
provement in the course of four or five hours, give one drachm 
of chloroform in one pint of linseed oil, which may, if neces- 
sary, be followed in two hours by the following ball, mixed 
• with molasses : one drachm of pulverized opium ; half a drachm 
of calomel ; and two drachms of linseed meal. The injections 
should be continued throughout ; give linseed tea to drink, 
instead of water ; soft mashes and new grass, if obtainable, may 
be given sparingly, but no hay, until the bowels are opened. 
The animal should not be worked for some days after recovery, 
as this disease is apt to return if he is put to work or exposed 
too soon. An attack of this character does not necessarily 
render the animal less useful or valuable after his restoration 
to health. 

Peritonitis differs but little from enteritis. The horse is 
more affected with pain ; the pawing, rolling, and kicking at 
the belly are most violent; the eye is wild in appearance; 
tenderness is evinced on pressing the abdomen ; the pulse is 
full and throbbing ; the dung is small and hard, and covered 
with a slimy substance. The same course of treatment should 
be pursued as is recommended for enteritis. 



DIARRHCEA. 255 

Dysentery (molten grease, or inflammation of the intestines), 
is often confounded with diarrhoea. It is sometimes accom- 
panied with purging, but this is by no means an invariable 
symptom. The most common causes are irritation, translation 
or obstructed perspiration, and the administration of improper 
purging medicines, causing undue irritation, which terminates 
in inflammation. The animal usually evinces but little pain ; 
the pulse is quick and small ; there is sometimes purging, 
with great prostration of strength. 

The belly should be well rubbed with the following wash : 
half a pound of strong mustard; four ounces of spirits of 
ammonia ; and one pint of water. The following drink may 
be given every three hours until some improvement is ob- 
served, when it should be discontinued at once : of prepared 
chalk and tincture of ginger each one ounce ; powdered ppium 
one drachm ; tincture of catechu half an ounce ; tincture of 
red pepper two drachms ; and one pint of water. Throw up 
injections of two ounces of laudanum in half a pint of water, 
frequently, and give thin gruel to drink. No blood should 
be taken under any circumstances. 



DIAREHCEA. 

This disease often arises in the absence of any inflammatory 
action upon the mucous surface of the intestines ; and hence 
the distinction cannot be made by the ordinary observer be- 
tween It and dysentery, if purging should be present. In 
order to obviate this difficulty we recommend only such reme- 
dies as are calculated to answer either case, without the poa- 
«ibility of doing injury by the administration of medicines 



256 



INORDINATE APPETITE. 



The causes of diarrhcea are over-exertion, exposure to cold, 
drinking freely of pump or spring water, and over doses of 
physic. 

For treatment, give in one pint 

of thin gruel, one ounce of pre- 

pared 




opium, 
ounce of tincture of 
starch, or arrow- 
s' root should be freely given ; good 



OMAR PASHA, THE TDRKISH CHIEFTAIN. 



sweet hay is very advantageous, 
but no grass or bran mashes should be allowed. 



IJSrOEDIlSrATE APPETITE. 

Loss of appetite is soon observed aud complained of by the 
horse-owner, and in too many instances gives occasion for im- 
proper medication. Some horses are particularly choice in 
the selection of their food, refusing that which is poor, or 
daintily and languidly picking it over. Horses sometimes eat 
blowly and daintily in consequence of weakness of the diges- 



PALSY OF THE STOMACH. 25 T 

tive organs ; in such cases a handful of camomile flowers occa- 
sionally mixed in the food will be of great benefit. Boiled 
potatoes and the like will also be found beneficial in such 
cases. 

The disease (for it is no less) of a voracious or depraved 
appetite arises from a morbid condition of the digestive 
organs, and is generally regarded by horsemen as a very desir- 
able feature. The owner is greatly surprised, under such cir- 
cumstances, that his animal does not thrive. A distinction 
must be made between a healthy and a morbid appetite. The 
former is indicated by the animal being ready for his food as 
soon as he comes in from work, and eating his allowance, if 
good sweet provender, with evident relish ; but the latter is 
indicated by a constant craving for food and water, without 
regard to the quality of either, the animal oftentimes in addi- 
tion to his usual allowance eating up the litter from under 
him, which is frequently in a very filthy condition. He is 
almost constantly craving water, and will drink even from a 
stagnant pool. We find him tucked up in the flanks, or carry- 
ing a big belly ; his dung is often soft, slimy, and fetid ; he 
stales largely, and his urine is often very foul ; he is dull, lazy, 
and stupid, performing his woi*k languidly or unwillingly. 
Such horses are move than any others subject to the disease 
next mentioned. 



PALST OF THE STOMACH. 

In this disease, arising from a voracious appetite, the 
stomach becomes overloaded with food, and distended beyond 
its natural capacity. This is seldom observed until the symp- 
toms are so plainly marked as not to be mistaken, developing 

n 



258 RUPTURE OF THE STOMACH. 

in many instances the disease known as stomach staggers, 
which has been already mentioned. There are rarely any 
symptoms of acute pain ; the pulse remaining in nearly its 
natural condition ; respiration is but slightly disturbed ; there 
is great heaviness of the head ; the horse stands with . the 
fore feet well under him, and appears to be weak in the knees ; 
the membranes of the mouth and eyes present a yellow or 
orange appearance, indicating the liver as involved in the 
disease ; the urine is highly colored ; and in some cas^s there 
is paralysis of the eye, and often of the extremities. 

The treatment required is much the same as in stomach 
staggers ; in fact, this disease is the origin of the last named. 
Attention should be directed in the first place to opening the 
bowels, which requires a strong cathartic, made in the follow- 
ing manner : of Barbadoes aloes one ounce ; of pulverized 
gentian root two drachms ; pulverized ginger one d*rachni ; 
mix with molasses. Give no food for at least forty-eight 
hours; a little water may be occasionally given. In twelve 
^ours after the ball, give one scruple of calomel on the 
tongue, which may be repeated at intervals of twelve hours for 
two or three days. 



HUPTUKE OF THE STOMACH. 
Rupture of the stomach or diaphragm Is caused l\v the 
stomach and bowels being distended with food far beyond 
their natural capacity, or by an accumulation of gas in the 
stomach, as in flatulent colic. The diaphragm, or midriff, is 
often ruptured in cases of flatulence, as is the case also with 
the intestines. As nothing in the way of treatment can be 
ofi'ered in these cases, all speculation upon them is superfluous. 



CALCULUS, OR STONY CONCRETIONS. 259 

CALCULUS, OE STONY CONCHETIONS. 

Calculous deposits are not unfrequently found in the stomach, 
intestines, bladder, kidneys, liver, brain, and in the glands, 
more particularly in the salivary glands ; often giving rise to 
much difficulty, particularly when situated in the brain, salivary 
glands, or bladder. 

Stones in the stomach and intestines of the horse are quite 
common. The author has seen several weighing from one to 
three or four pounds ; and Mr. Spooner mentions one in his 
possession weighing little less than six pounds. There were 
found by the author in the stomach of a horse which died of 
colic, one hundred and fifty-one barrel nails, two buttons, and 
three small calculi. This horse belonged to a baker, and had 
been fed with the scrapings of the shop. The nails presented a 
very singular appearance, many of them being entirely covered 
with calculous deposits, and others covered with the same 
deposits on the heads and points, presenting a body with two 
heads. 

The presence of these foreign bodies in the stomach and 
intestines occasions frequent attacks of colic, and sometimes 
produces inflammation of the bowels. Miller's horses are 
supposed to be most subject to these accumulations. These 
abdominal calculi generally have a metallic nucleus, are com- 
posed of the triple phosphates, and are generally round and 
smooth. When first taken from the intestines, they are of a 
brown or greenish color, but they soon become white. When 
a horse is subject to frequent attacks of colic, not occasioned 
by feeding upon corn, these accumulations may reasonably be 
guspected to be the cause. 



260 STRANGULATION OF THE INTESTINES. 

HAIR BALL. 

Hair balls are occasionally found in the stomach and intes- 
tines of a horse, generally accumulating around a metallic nu^ 
cleus. There are several in the possession of the author where 
a piece of iron is the nucleus, and one where a piece of coal 
afforded the same basis. These balls occasion the same disor- 
ders, preceded by the same symptoms, and followed by the same 
results as the calculus. The animal may recover from a number 
of attacks of colic, and die at last from the same cause. 



STRANGULATION OF THE INTESTINES. 

On examining horses after death from an attack of colic, the 
small intestines are occasionally found tangled in a knot so as 
to cause a complete obstruction in the passages. Thi^ gives 
rise to colic pains, terminating in inflammation of theabowels 
and death. The small intestines being but loosely attached by 
the peritoneum, their outer covering, have free play in all direc- 
tions, whence the tendency arises to these accidents ; for the 
author believes them to spring from accidental rather than 
natural causes. There may be a simple twisting, or the intes- 
tine may be firmly tied into a knot. 

There is another species, called intro-susception, or intra-sus- 
ception, which is a slipping of one portion of the intestines into, 
or inside of, another portion, thus completely blocking up the 
passage. There are no symptoms by which either of these 
conditions may be known ; and such cases are therefore treated 
as cases of ordinary colic, or of inflammation of the bowels, as 
the case may be. Where, however, such a condition of the 
parts exists, all treatment will be useless. 



SPASMODIC COLIC. 261 

SPASMODIC COLIC. 

This disease, called by farriers gripes, cramp, fret, &c., is a 
cramp or spasm of the muscular structure of the intestines, most 
generally of the small ones. The most common causes are the 
application of cold water to the surface of the body, drinking 
cold water when in a heated condition, costiveness, stones in 
the intestines, hair ball, strictures of the intestines, unwholesome 
food, &c. 

The premonitory symptoms are sudden in their nature. The 
animal is first observed pawing violently, showing evident symp- 
toms of great distress, shifting his position almost constantly, 
and manifesting a desire to lie down. In a few minutes these 
symptoms disappear, and the animal is again easy. But the 
same uneasiness again returns, increasing in severity until the 
animal cannot be kept upon his feet; the pulse is full, but 
scarcely altered from the normal standard. As the disease ad- 
vances, the symptoms become more severe, the animal at times 
throwing himself with great force upon the ground as though 
he were shot, looking anxiously at his sides, sometimes snap- 
ping at them with his teeth, and striking his belly with his hind 
feet. The symptoms vary but little from those of inflammation 
of the bowels, the condition of the pulse and the remission of 
pain being the distinguishing features. The extremities are of 
a natural temperature ; there are frequent but ineffectual efforts 
to stale, and a cold sweat bedews the body. 

In this disease it is necessary to back-rake, and throw up the 
fundament injections of castile soap and water. Give internally 
two ounces of nitrous ether, one ounce of tincture of opium, and 
half a pint of water mixed, which may be repeated in twenty 



262 



FLATULENT COLIC. 



minutes with the addition of one ounce of tincture of aloe*. 
Rub the belly well with mustard and water ; if in half an hour 
there is no improvement, and no symptoms of inflammation are 
present, give of lactucarium half an ounce, of Jamaica ginger 
half an ounce, and one pint of the best rum or gin ;• shake well 
together, and give one-third with twice the quantity of water 
every hour until relief is obtained. 



FLATULENT COLIC 

This is an accumulation of gas in the stomach and intestines, 
occurring more often in the spring and fall than at any other 
season. Horses fed on corn are most sub- 
ject to these attacks, in consequence of this 
kind of food ferment- 
ing readily in the '^^ 
stomach, more par- 
ticularly when green. 
If the accumulation 
of gas thereby occa- ^^ 
sioned is not arrested, =s^ ji 
it soon swells the ^S!!,' 4r^ ^^^^^ ^, 
Stomach and intes- 

SIR ABCHY, THE GODOLPHIN OF AMERICA. 

tines to such an extent as to cause the diaphragm, or walls of 
the stomach to give way, and the death of the animal ensues. 
The author has known cases to terminate in death in less than 
half an hour from the observation of the first symptoms, so 
rapid is the course of this disease. The symptoms are the same 
in spasmodic colic, with the exception of the swelling of the 
abdomen. The same medicines are to be used, with the addi- 
tion of from one to two drachms of chloride of lime in each dose, 







4 WORMS. 263 

according to the urgency of the symptoms. This, if given in 
time, will generally prove efficacious. Tincture of hartshorn 
and spirits of turpentine are recommended by some veterinary 
authors, and are excellent remedies ; but as much injury has 
been caused by their use by inexperienced persons, the author 
would not advise their use since the animal may be killed by an 
improper administration of them. 



WOEMS. 

Four kinds of worms are found in the horse, viz : the lumbrici, 
which very much resemble the common earth-worm in form ; 
ascarides, so called from their supposed resemblance to a thread ; 
taenia, or tape-worm, of which variety but little is known, as it 
is very rare ; and, lastly, the persecuted bots, considered by 
farmers and horsemen the greatest of pests and the most dan- 
gerous of all the species. 

The lumbrici are most generally found in the small intestines, 
where they sometimes do much mischief by their irritating effects. 
The author was recently shown a very remarkable specimen of 
these worms by his friend, W. W. Fraley, Y. S. This specimen 
was some two yards long, consisting of a portion o£ the small 
intestines so completely filled with these worms as apparently 
to render it almost impossible for anything to pass through it, 
the worms having accumulated in thousands. These worms are 
from eight to ten inches in length, round and perfectly white. 
There appear to be two varieties of the lumbrici. The other 
variety is similar in form and length, but has numerous brown 
transverse lines, at about equal distances from each other, along 
its entire length. 

The ascarides are found in the large intestines, and are white 



264 WORMS. * 

worms from one to three inches in length. It is a somewhat 
singular fact, that although these worms are usually found in 
the large intestines, their origin, apparently, is in the stomach 
of the horse. On opening horses after death, tumors are often 
found in the stomach, which upon being cut open will be found 
to contain either a thick whitish matter, or knots of small 
worms, from half an inch to an inch in length, of precisely the 
same appearance as that of the ascarides, and believed by the 
author to be identical with them. 

The symptoms of worms are a rough, harsh, staring coat ; 
frregular or depraved appetite ; a whitish, or yellowish white, 
shining substance sometimes observable about the fundament, 
accompanied by a disposition on the part of the animal to rub 
the tail ; breath occasionally hot and fetid ; and in some cases 
a dry, short cough. The animal becomes poor in flesh and 
spirits. 

Various modes of treatment have been adopted with but little 
benefit. The remedies which have become most popular are 
tartar emetic, calomel, turpentine, an infusion of Indian pink, 
arsenic, green vitriol, &c. That which has usually been found 
most successful in the author's practice is to give one of the fol- 
lowing powders for three successive nights ; of calomel tlu'ce 
drachms ; of tartar emetic one drachm ; mix and divide into 
three powders. Twenty -four hours after, give the following 
purgative ball : of Barbadoes aloes six drachms ; pulverized 
ginger two drachms ; and pulverized gentian root one drachm. 
Oil of turpentine in doses of two ounces has been very highly 
recommended by some authors ; but this the author regards as 
a dangerous remedy, from its tendency to produce inflammation 



BOTs. 265 

of the stomach dr bowels. Too many horses have been killed 
by its destructive agency to render its use advisable. 




BOTS. 

These are the larvas of the gad-fly. During the summer 
months, when the horse is at grass, the parent fly is seen busily 
engaged in depositing its eggs upon the 
hairs of the animal in such places as are 
easily reached by his mouth. This seems 
to be an instinctive feature in this insect. 
The legs, shoulders, and body are the parts 
selected for this purpose. The gad-fly is 
seen hovering in an upright position when common oad-flt oe bot. 
about to deposit her egg ; she then darts upon the horse, fixing 
the egg to the hairs by means of a glutinous substance ; she 
again prepares another, which is deposited in like manner, until 
many hundreds are observed covering the hairs of the animal. 
The rapidity with which these eggs are prepared and deposited 
is astonishing. They are taken into the mouth by the animal 
biting or licking himself or his mate, and are hatched upon the 
tongue, or taken into the stomach and there hatched. If the 
eggs are recently produced, they pass into the stomach before 
they are hatched ; but if they remain for a considerable time 
upon the hairs, they are hatched by the warmth of the tongue, 
and they pass into the stomach, wliere they are developed. 
This fact may be easily and satisfactorily proven by taking the 
newly deposited egg in the hand, and then applying a warm 
fluid ; when it will be observed that the egg is softened or dis- 
solved, but does not produce the bot ; whereas, if the egg be 



266 



BOTS. 



old, it will hatch in the hand. The investigations of Mr. Bracy 
Clark, Y. S., have thrown much additional light upon the 
natural history of these parasites. 

The dread entertained of this species of worms by farmers 
and horsemen arises from the fact that so many useless books 
[have been published, purporting to be guides to the 
farmer and horseman, many of which attribute the 
death of a majority of horses to ravages of the bot, 
and give as symptoms of their presence those which 
characterize inflammation of the bowels, kidneys, blad- 
der, and the like. To this circumstance is to be 
attributed the vast distruction of life by drenching and 
physicking the animal for bots. Now, a rational view 
of the subject leads us but to one conclusion, viz., that 
Eoos OS tijg stomach of the horse is the natural habita- 
tion of the bot, and that it cannot be, or is not, 
developed anywhere else. This being the case, it is reasonable 
to suppose that inasmuch as the animal apparently suffers 
no inconvenience from their presence in his stomach, they 
were intended to serve some good purpose, rather than to do 
mischief. Indeed, without going to the extreme of asserting, 
as does Mr. Clarke, that bots are "always harmless," it may 
be safely asserted as the unanimous opinion of vetei'inary sur- 
geons (farriers ai'e not included), the world over, that they are 
comparatively harmless, and that when they do become injurious, 
it is almost always preceded by some morbid condition of the 
digestive organs. This may either arise from disease, or from 
enormous accumulations of bots, which are sometimes so great 
as to completely block up the pyloric orifice, or opening from 
the stomach into the intestines. 



E0G3 
MAUXIFIEa 



BOTS. 



267 



There are no symptoms by which the existence of bots is in- 
dicated, except it be iu the spring, when they pass from the 
horse by the fundament, assuming again the form of a chrysa- 
g' lis to re-produce the parent fly. As has already been 
^^y. stated, the symptoms of other diseases, as inflara 
t^'WiTlilE) ^^^^^'^ ^f ^^^ bowels, &c., are often assigned as indicat- 
llii ing the presence of bots, but although bots may some- 

^f times give rise to these conditions, it is worse than 
'MP 

folly to jump at the probable cause in such cases and 

CATERPILLAR, gay tjjat [^ jg a case of bots because a horse looks at 

FCLL SIZE. 

his sides and the like. When such an instance is 
encountered, no matter whether it arise from bots or not, the 
animal must be treated for the inflammation which is present. 
If we succeed in controlling it, and restoring the stomach to 
healthy action, the bots are no longer troublesome ; but if, on 
the contrary, we commence drenching the animal for bots, the 
chances are that we shall kill him. Morbid conditions of the 

stomach will sometimes so incom- 
mode these little creatures as to 
cause them to escape from their un- 
pleasant situation, which is com- 
monly effected by perforating the 
walls of the stomach and allowing 
the fluids to escape into the abdo- 
men, in which case no medical agent 
will save the animal's life. Fortu- 
nately, however, these cases but 
rarely occur. The author has met 
with but a solitary case in an experience of ten years where 
death could be attributed to the action of bots. 

We know, moreover, from frequent experiments that the 




CATERPILLAR OR LARV;E ADHERING 
TO THE LINING OF THE STOMACH. 



268 DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 

horse bot is more tenacious of life than even the cat, which ia 

.-.-^-.-^r=!--:-ff»?>=^ popularly endowed with nine lives. The 

^" . live bot has been immersed in spirits of tur- 

■^ \^^^ pentine, alcohol, nitric and muriatic acid, and 

THH BED GAD-FLY. mauy othcr equally powerful fluids, and yet 

he still adhered to life with marvelous tenacity. If, then, it 

§were possible to detect the presence of bots by any 
marked symptoms, the attempt to remove them would 
certainly be hazardous to the life of the animal. The 
author has known cases of flatulent colic to be treated 
for bots, when, upon opening the stomach after the 
death which inevitably ensued, not a solitary bot was 

CATERPILLAR OF ^^ ^^ ^^^^^ j^ ^jjj |^g y^^^^^ J^^ ^^^^ ^J^j^j. |^ 

THE RED QAD-FLT. 

large cities, where horses are not indulged in a run at grass it 
is no unusual occurrence to find their stomachs entirely free 
from bots. 



DISEASES OP THE LITER. 

Diseases of the liver are of very common occurrence in the 
horse, although the singularity of the internal structure of that 
animal renders it less liable to jaundice than the human being. 
The horse possesses no gall-bladder ; instead of such a reservoir 
it has simply a gall-duct, called the hepatic duct, which enters 
that portion of the intestines called, the duodenum about six 
inches from the stomach, so that the gall is emptied into the 
bowels as fast as it is secreted. Various opinions have been ex- 
pressed touching this singular arrangement in the liver of the 
horse, any examination of which would be out of place in the 
present work. We proceed therefore to the mention of such 
diseases as come apparently under the above head. 



INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER. 269 

INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER. 

Hepatitis, or inflammation of the liver, does not generally 
exist as a primary affection, though it is frequently found as a 
sympathetic one, being not uncommonly connected with epi- 
demics, or epizootic diseases, particularly in that which is known 
to horsemen as pink-eye distemper. 

The most common cause of this disease is a fullness of blood, 
or a plethoric condition of the system, in consequence of which 
too much blood is sent to the liver ; want of exercise, and too 
high feeding, particularly with corn, are also causes of inflam- 
mation of this important organ. 

The symptoms of this disease are more obscure than those 
of any other part, and the difficulty is materially enhanced by 
the inability of the animal to assist us with his tongue. Still, 
by close observation we can trace the symptoms with such a 
degree of accuracy as to render our treatment almost a cer- 
tainty. The mouth and breath are hot ; the extremities cold ; 
the membrane lining the eyelids highly injected, presenting an 
orange-red appearance ; the pulse rises from seventy to one 
hundred or more a minute, and is soft and full ; the appetite 
lost ; the animal looks wistfully and deploringly at his sides ; 
lies down, but gets up again directly ; the respiration at times 
'is perfectly tranquil, at other times slightly disturbed, and at 
others again very much disturbed, and distressing to the ani- 
mal — so that, in fact, the amateur cannot be governed by this 
symptom, — there is usually much tenderness of the right side ; 
and the dung small, hard, and generally dark-colored. 

In the acute stage the animal is generally in a state of 
plethora^ in consequence of which a small quantity of blood 



270 JAUNDICE. 

may be taken to good advantage ; but in the absence of 
plethora he must not be bled ; a blister may be applied to the 
sides, or the application of creosote will be found serviceable. 
Injections of castile soap and water should be used occasion- 
ally until the bowels are opened. Give every four hours one 
of the following balls : of Barbadoes aloes six drachms •, 
calomel three drachms ; mix with molasses, and divide into 
twelve parts. Keep the body warm, and bandage the legs 
with flannel ; turn into a loose box stall, where the atmosphere 
is pure. When convalescent, give one of the following balls 
night and morning : of sulphate of iron two ounces ; pulver- 
ized gentian root one and a half ounces ; pulverized Jamaica 
ginger one ounce ; and pulverized anise seed one ounce : mix 
with molasses, and divide into sixteen parts. 



JAUNDICE. 

This disease depends upon an obstruction of the biliary ex- 
cretions, causing a yellow discoloration of the mucous mem- 
brane, fat, ligaments, and other tissues of the body ; it will 
oftener be found in connection with other diseases than dis- 
tinct and independent of them, although it does occasionally 
exist in a pure or unmixed form, the symptoms of which are 
not at first observed by the horseman on account of their 
obscurity. 

The lining membranes of the eyelids and lips are of a yellow 
or orange color, extending even to the white of the eye ; the 
dung pale, small, and bally; bowels generally constipated; 
appetite lost or languid ; the animal hangs his head, is dull 
and mopy, and becomes very poor in flesh. 



HEPATIRRHCEA. 2TI 

In the treatment of this disease the principal reliance is 
upon calomel ; two drachms of which made into a bolus with 
flaxseed meal and molasses should be given, followed in 
twenty-four hours by a purging ball. The animal should have 
moderate exercise daily ; his body should be kept warm ; and 
if there be pain in the right side, apply a blister ; if necessary, 
the calomel may be repeated in scruple doses once a week. 



HEPATIRRHCEA. 

This is a rupture of the peritoneal coat of the liver, and 
hemorrhage from it. It occurs most generally in aged horses, 
and is always preceded by structural derangement, or disorgani- 
zation which, from the obscurity of the symptoms escapes 
notice until it is too late for medical aid. The animal gener- 
ally does his work as usual until within a few hours of his 
death, keeping in full condition, and presenting to the eye of 
his owner no appearance of disease. The symptoms are so 
gradual in their development as to escape observation until 
the peritoneum, or covei'ing of the liver, gives way, or becomes 
ruptured, from the great distension of the liver, when the 
blood flows freely into the abdominal cavity, giving rise to the 
most alarming symptoms, and the horse often dies within an 
hour after he is first discovered to be ill. 

The symptoms which are noticeable are suddenly developed, 
and generally appear immediately after eating or drinking. 
The animal will sometimes fall suddenly, and die in a few 
minutes, without having shown any previous indisposition ; at 
other times the respiration becomes hurried, the belly begins 
to swell, the pulse becomes gradually diminished and very 
feeble, partial or general sweating takes place, the animal 



272 DECAYED STRUCTURE OF THE LIVER, 

walks with a tottering gait, the membranes lining the eyelids, 
lips, and nose, become blanched, indicating internal hemor- 
rhage, there is a vacant stare in the eye, with great prostra- 
tion of strength, which soon terminates in death. Upon 
opening the abdomen, it is found filled with dark venous 
blood in a fluid state, and the liver is several times its 
natural size, and exceedingly tender. Where it is possible to 
detect the existence of the disease in its incipient stages, 
calomel would be the appropriate remedy, as it is as justly 
entitled to rank as a specific for the diseases of the liver of 
the horse, as it is for those of his master — man. 



DECAYED STEUCTUEE OP THE LIVER. 

This also is a disease of common occurrence, though like 
the other diseases of this organ, the symptoms, from their 
obscurity, are not well understood by the veterinary practi- 
tioner, but little attention having as yet been paid to its in- 
vestigation. 

The first symptoms noticed are loss of appetite ; surfeit ; 
the being hide-bound ; rough, staring coat ; food passing un- 
digested ; stools of a clay color ; prostration of strength ; 
readiness to sweat ; pulse quick but feeble ; respiration hur- 
ried ; sometimes violent purging, after which the animal 
usually dies. 

Caution is necessary in the treatment of this variety of dis- 
eased liver. Bleeding must not be resorted to upon any con- 
sideration. In the absence of purging, give one of the fol- 
lowing balls every other day : of calomel half an ounce ; Bar- 
badoes aloes one ounce ; resin three ounces ; mix with molasses, 



INFLAMMATION OP THE BLADDER. 213 

and divide into six balls. Upon the intermediate days give 
of sulphate of potash one and a half ounces ; carbonate of 
potash one ounce ; pulverized Jamaica ginger half an ounce ; 
Unseed meal two ounces : mix with molasses, and divide into 
six balls. 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORaANS. 

IWFIiAMMATION OF THE BLADDER. 

Inflammation of the bladder, or cystitis, is a disease of com- 
paratively rare occurrence in the horse, and generally is found 
in connection with other diseases. It is commonly supposed 
to occur more frequently in mares ; although the author's ex- 
perience has not confirmed this supposition. 

The symptoms are con- 
tinual emission of urine in ^ 
small quantities ; the moment 
it snters the bladder it is 2' 
again expelled, but voided ji^: 
with much straining ; pulse \ 
accelerated ; pawing ; the # 
animal looks imploringly at fe„„.:.^; 
his flanks ; and upon passing 
the hand into the rectum, the bladder will be found contracted, 
and hard as a ball, being also hot and tender. 

For treatment, back-rake the animal in the first place, and 
then throw up injections of water, adding to every gallon three 
ounces of tincture of opium. Give internally one and a half 
18 




VIRGINIA MILL BOYS ON A RACE. 



2'74 KETENTION OP URINE. 

pints of linseed oil, to whieh may be advantageously added 
one drachm of chloroform. Bathe the loins with the follow- 
ing mixture -: of strong mustard, a quarter of a pound ; water, 
half a pint ; hartshorn, tv.'o ounces : mix thoroughly together, 
,and rub it well in. Give half a drachm of lactucarium three 
times a day ; or, if more convenient, the extract of belladonna 
may be substituted. Give plenty of flaxseed tea ; if the animal 
refuses to drink it, drench him with it. 'No hay must be 
given until twenty-four hours after he becomes convalescent. 
This is one of the most dangerous diseases to which the horse 
is subject. 

EETEM-TION OF XTBIWE. 

This disease, technically known as spasm of the neck of the 
bladder, is found more frequently as an attendant upon other 
diseases than as an independent affection. It frequently occurs 
in colics as an accompanying symptom, thus misleading the 
ordinary observer in his judgment of the disorder. 

The most common symptom is frequent but unsuccessful 
efforts to stale. This, however, must not be depended upon 
too strongly ; as it will sometimes be observed in horses that 
are comparatively sound in these organs, particularly in those 
that have been well cared for. In such cases this temporary 
retention of urine arises from a dislike on the part of the 
dnimal of splattering his legs in voiding his water ; hence he 
arill often retain it in the bladder, though painful to him, until 
ihe litter is placed under him, when he at once stretches him- 
self, and the urine flows freely and copiously. This fact has 
given rise to a superstitious notion among horsemen, that 
there is some peculiar virtue in the straw to cause this sudden » 



PROFUSE STALING. 275 

cure ; as a consequence, we frequently hear the remark, " Put 
some straw under him — that will cure him," etc. 

If, however, retention of urine arises from disease, the straw 
possesses no magic charm to afford relief. In such instances 
the animal manifests but little pain, and rarely lies down. On 
passing the hand up the rectum or fundament, the bladder, 
whigh is easily felt, will be found very much distended with 
urine. 

The services of a regular veterinary practitioner will be re- 
quired in the treatment of this disease, as the bladder must be 
at once evacuated, which can in most cases be accomplished 
by means of an instrument called the catheter, which is not 
commonly found in the hands of any but the qualified sur- 
geon. This desired evacuation can in some instances be pro- 
duced by careful manipulation. Back-raking is very necessary 
in these cases, and injections of soap and water should be freely 
used. Unless the bladder is speedily emptied, it swells and 
bursts, causing a fatal termination. Fomentations of hot 
water to the abdomen, and pressure of the hand upon the 
bladder will be of assistance in enabling the animal to void 
the urine. 



PKOFUSE STALING. 

This disorder,'called also diabetes, is of frequent occurrence 
in the horse, and is attended with debility, impaired appetite, 
and sometimes loss of flesh. The causes are the improper use 
of nitre, saltpetre, and other powerful diuretics, as also un< 
wholesome food, and the like. 

The treatment is simple and effective ; a great variety of 
medicinal substances being used in its abatement — as catechu. 



216 BLOODY URINE. 

oak bark, gum kino, opium, chalk, etc. Either of these in 
moderate doses will. usually check the copious flow of urine. 
Either of the following will be found sufficient : uva ursi (bear'3 
whortleberry), powdered, two ounces ; oak bark pulverized, four 
ounces; catechu pulverized, one ounce ; opium pulverized, two 
drachms : mix either with molasses or honey, and divide into 
six balls, giving one every day. Or, the following may be 
used with equal advantage : opium pulverized, half an ounce ; 
sulphate of iron, one ounce ; gentian root pulverized, one 
ounce : mix with molasses, and divide into six balls — one to be 
given every day. 



BLOODY UEITfE. 

This disease, known also as hematura, frequently arises from 
strains across the loins, violent exercise, unwholesome food, 
calculous concretions in the kidneys, etc. It is not attended 
by symptoms of general derangement; the appetite is not 
usually impaired, nor is any marked degree of fever present. 
The color of the urine first calls attention, in voiding which 
the animal appears to strain slightly. 

If the bowels are at all costive, injections should at once be 
thrown up the rectum ; linseed tea should be given as a drink ; 
mustard applications to the loins. Give internally one of the 
following once a day : of sugar of lead, one ounce ; linseed 
meal, two ounces ; mix with molasses or honey, and divide 
into eight pills ; follow this for ten or twelve days, with one 
drachm of sulphuric acid in a pail of water to drink. Catechu, 
logwood, dragon's blood, oak bark, etc., have been used with 
advantage. 



STONES IN THE KIDNEYS. BTt 

STONES IN THE KIDNEYS. 

These concretions, which are quite common in the horse, 
are of a pale, dirty yellow color, elongated or conical in form, 
and much softer than any of the other varieties heretofore 
mentioned. " We have better evidence," says Mr. Blain, " than 
mere supposition ; for urinary calculi (or stones in the kid- 
neys), have been found in horses which have died with symp- 
toms which might have been mistaken for very acute enter^ 
itis, or inflammation of the bowels. We may also suppose 
that the early accumulations would occasion irregular and di- 
minished secretion of urine, followed at length by a bloody 
purulent mixture with the water, until more active symptoms 
should arise, and carry off the horse. Concretions within the 
kidneys might be removed in their early state by remedies 
tending to decompose them in the urinary pelvis. For this 
purpose we have miperal acids, of which the hydrochloric^ as 
holding the silicious matter in solution, is to be preferred. 
The mineral acids pass through the body unchanged, being 
emitted with the urine in a state of purity." 

A better opportunity is afforded us of discovering calculus 
in the urinary organs, than in any other parts ; for an examina- 
tion of the urine, when placed under the microscope, will enable 
us to detect its presence. When these deposits are ascer- 
tained, give in every pail of water which the animal drinks, 
two drachms of hydrochloric (muriatic) acid, which will in a 
short time be drunk with a relish by him. 



•2T8 TONES IN THE BLADDER. 

STOWES IN THE BLADDER. 

These differ from stones in the kidneys in form and exter- 
nal appearance; presenting, in consequence of the constant 
washings of the calculus by the urine an uneven, or what is 
called a mulberry appearance ; externally, it is of a reddish 
brown color. When these stones are quite large, very great 
inconvenience is occasioned to the animal. 

Stones in the bladder may exist a long time before any per- 
ceptible symptoms of their existence are manifested. The 
urine is generally thick and of a whitish color, with frequent 
desire to void the urine, accompanied with difficulty and pain ; 
the urine occasionally presents a bloody appearance ; in some 
cases all the symptoms of colic are present, rendering it diffi- 
cult to distinguish between the two disorders. If the pain is 
severe, the animal paws violently, kicks at his sheath, lies down, 
rolls, and gets up again quickly, sweats in various parts of the 
body, giving off the odor of urine. 

For treatment, we should first attempt the dissolution of the 
stones, as recommended for stones in the kidneys, or we should 
remove them by the operation of lithotomy, which will be de- 
scribed under the head of surgical operations. If they are 
small, they may sometimes be extracted through the urethra, a 
process which is very easy in the case of mares. 



CONTRACTION OP THE HOOP. 



279 



DISEASES OF THE FEET AND LEGS. 




CONTEACTION" OF THE HOOP. 

To horses that are kept in cities, or in stony sections of the' 
country, this disease is one of the most common occurrence. In 
the middle and southern portions of New Jersey, 
other sections where the 
shoeing of the horse is 
not called for except in 
frosty weather, contrac- 
tion of the hoof is com- 
paratively rare, in con- 
sequence of the feet 
being unfettered by that 
iron band, the shoe. 

THE FAST-TR0TTIN3 STALLION, GEORGE M. PATCHEN. ' 

This trouble is gradual in its approach ; the first indication 
being a dry, brittle, unyielding hoof; the heels gradually be- 
coming narrower, until they are painful. The hoof no longer 
accommodates itself to the soft structure within its limits, and, 
in consequence, the concussion is greater and the elasticity 
very much less. The parts therefore become bruised, and fever 
ensues, which still further facilitates the contraction of the hoof 
by absorbing its moisture ; lameness follows as the natural and 
inevitable result. Upon an examination of the animal sweenie 
is decided upon by the horseman as the disease to which he 
is subject ; a disease, by the way, which, we beg to say, the 
veterinary surgeon never yet has met. 

The primary cause of this trouble is, undoubtedly bad shoeing, 
the preventives of which have already been fully unfolded. 



280 CORNS. 

Standing upon plank-floors has also a tendency to produce it, 
as it absorbs the moisture of the hoof, and renders it brittle and 
liable to crack. Traveling upon hard stony roads, with shoes 
that are beveled inwards, also predisposes the feet to this dis- 
order. 

The treatment must, necessarily, be slow in its operation ; yet 
by careful management it is sure. The shoes must, in the first 
place, be removed, and the feet well poulticed for several days 
until the hoof and frogs become perfectly soft. The animal 
should then be carefully shod, as heretofore directed; apply 
daily, until the heels are fully spread, the following ointment ; 
of rosin, four ounces ; beeswax, four ounces ; lard, two pounds ; 
tallow, one pound ; melt together, and, when cool, stir in four 
ounces of oil of turpentine. 



CORNS. , 

The first effect of contraction of the hoof is to bruise- the sen- 
sitive parts within their horny limits at that part of the foot 
formed by the crust and bar, causing lameness, which may be 
acute or chronic. These bruises are commonly called corns. 
The reason why this portion of the foot should be so severely 
bruised is obvious. The crust and bar forming a triangular space 
between which a considerable portion of the sensitive laminae lie, 
this bar by its resistance of the encroachments of the crust, causes 
a twofold pressure upon the sensitive parts, acting much as 
a vice, and thereby diminishing the triangular space. Upon 
examination of the foot the horn is found hard, dry, and brittle, 
with a strong tendency to crack on very slight concussion. On 
removing a portion of the horn at the part of the foot indicated, 
the parts are found to be contused, sometimes slightly, and at 



CORNS. 281 

others severely. In the latter case the feet are in such a con- 
dition as to require prompt attention, or a sloughing, or dis- 
charge of matter, may take place, forming a sinus, or pipe-like 
opening, through the quarter, sometimes passing through the 
coronet, and producing a condition, or disease, known as 
Quitter, which often terminates in permanent lameness and 
deformity. 

When the lameness is of a chronic character, the poor beast, 
owing to his deprivation of speed, is compelled to suffer all 
kinds of barbarous treatment, such as roweling, setoning, etc., 
etc. As few believe corns to be of so serious a nature, the 
most are ready to attribute the lameness to a disease, or a sup- 
posed disease, which exists only in their disordered imagina- 
tions. 

As symptomatic indications, it may be remarked that the 
horse extends one foot in advance of the other, and rests upon 
the toe, which causes a bending of the knee, with a hard, dry, 
brittle, and contracted hoof. 

By way of treatment, the hoof, around the corn should be 
cut away so as to prevent pressure from the shoe ; the corn 
should be well cut out, and burnt with a hot iron, butter of an- 
timony, muriatic acid, caustic silver, or the permanganate of 
potash. He should then be carefully shod, and, if the frog is 
elastic, a bar shoe nicely fitted, with a perfectly level bearing, 
would be best ; if, however, the frog is hard and unyielding, such 
a shoe may prove injurious. Flaxseed poultices frequently ap- 
plied to the feet, together with the use of hoof ointment, will 
be found effectual ; a run at grass without shoes will also prove 
^)eneficial. 



282 THRUSH. 

QUITTER. 

This is an ulceration, or formation of pus, between the sen- 
sitive and insensible laminae, or inner parts of the wall of the 
hoof, generally situated on the inside quarter, forming sinuses, or 
pipe-like openings. Neglected corns often produce this disease, 
as also caulking or bruises from any cause. 

The first appearance upon the foot on the approach of this 
disease is a hard conical tumor, hot, red, and smooth, which 
soon becomes soft, breaks, and discharges pus. A probe should 
first be introduced by way of treatment, pointing out the direc- 
tion of the sinuses ; an injection of sulphate of zinc, one drachm 
dissolved in a pint of water, should be thrown into the opening 
in the foot by the means of a small syringe, once daily, and the 
foot should be occasionally washed with castile soap and water. 
The early treatment should consist in poulticing with flaxseed 
meal for several days. If the case is very slow, use two drachms 
of the chloride of zinc to a pint of water ; inject in the same 
manner ; cut away all loose parts of the horn, which will facili- 
tate the cure. Glycerine has also been used by the author with 
marked benefit. 



THRUSH. 

This is a discharge of a matter from the cleft or division of 
the frog, which occasionally produces lameness. It originates 
from a filthy condition of the stable, the animal being allowed 
to stand in his dung, or upon foul litter. Horses that are well 
cared for are rarely troubled with it. The symptoms are a rot- 
tenness of the frog, accompanied by a discharge of fetid matter. 
Lameness may, or may not, be present. 



CANKER. 283 

For treatmeut, wash the feet well with soap and water ; fill 
the cleft with powdered sulphate of copper, and pack over it a 
little tow ; remove the filth from the stall, and the animal soon 
recovers. An ointment may also be used, made of equal parts 
of pine-tar and lard, melted over a slow fire ; when cool, add 
sulphuric acid until ebullition ceases, and it is then fit for riPc. 



CANKEB. 

This arises from neglected thrush, often proving very difficult 
to manage. It extends from the horny frog to the sensitive frog, 
and sometimes to the navicular joint, involving the surrounding 
parts, and causing much alteration or destruction of the structures 
affected. It is by no means always a local disease, but is influ- 
enced by a morbid or unhealthy condition of the blood. The au- 
thor's attention was once called to a case of four years' standing, 
in which all the feet were involved, and the value of the animal 
thereby so depreciated that he was sold to a shoeing-smith of 
Philadelphia for the sum of twenty-five dollars, hi^ cost being 
some two hundred and fifty dollars. All treatment had failed 
up to that time ; yet, notwithstanding the long resistance of 
the disease, it gradually yielded to constitutional treatment. 

For treatment, all loose horn should be removed, that the 
parts may be properly dressed. If taken early, the following 
wash may be used with success ; of nitrate of silver, half an 
ounce ; water, one pint ; shake well together, and use once a 
day. Or, the ointment of tar, lard, and sulphuric acid, recom- 
mended in cases of thrush, may be usefully applied. Should 
this fail, apply once a day the following ; of castor oil, one part; 
collodion, two parts ; mix well together. Give internally half 
a drachm of powdered nux vomica mixed in the feed, which 



284 GREASE HEELS. 

should consist of green food, mashes, and a little hay. Corro- 
sive sublimate in solution has been used with decided advantage; 
as also chloride of zinc, Chloride of lime, butter of antimony, 
tincture of myrrh, sulphate of copper, glycerine, and many 
other preparations. 

SCRATCHES. 

This disease, called also cracked heels, generally arises from 
neglect, such as allowing the horse to stand in a filthy stall. 
It is generally confined to the hind feet, and consists in a 
swelling of the skin, causing in it one or more transverse 
cracks, which discharge a sanious (thin, serous, and reddish) 
matter at times ; while in other cases the parts are almost dry 
but scurfy. 

For treatment, wash well with soap and water ; take a shav- 
ing, or other soft, brush, and make a lather of soap and water, 
with which mix a small quantity of powdered charcoal ; rub this 
well in the fetlock, and let it dry, after which it can be rubbed 
off. Two or three applications are generally successful. Tlie 
collodion and castor oil will also answer a good purpose j a 
physic ball should first be given. 



GREASE HEELS. 

This is the result of weakness in the capillary vesseis or tlie 
feet and legs, and is often preceded by dropsical effusions, which 
frequently exist upon the leg as far as the hock or knee. Com- 
mon-bred horses are supposed to be more liable to this disease, 
while thorough-bred are comparatively free from its attacks. 

The principal causes are, doubtless, over-feeding and want 
of exercise ; since we generally find the disease associated with 



GREASE HEELS. 



285 




a ^r>lethoric condition of the animal. As symptomatic, the skin 
at first is hot, red, swollen, and tender, and discharges a white 

rz • -^ ofifensive matter of a greasy feeling. As the 

g=^ disease advances, this discharge thickens into 
^the form of tears, and becomes 
hard, presenting a grapy 
appearance. Abscesses 
are sometimes formed 
i about the heels, causing 
'^ the sloughing away of a 
large portion of them. 
f^P This disease requires 
constitutional, as well as 
local, treatment. Give 
internally for four days one of the following balls : of Barbadoes 
aloes, one ounce ; pulverized gentian root, half an ounce ; pul- 
verized ginger, two drachms ; mix with molasses, and divide into 
four balls. Follow this with half- drachm doses of nux vomica 
powdered ; wash the parts well with soap and water, and apply 
flaxseed poultices, mixed with a solution of sulphate of zinc, 
until the inflammation is considerably reduced ; then bathe care- 
fully either with glycerine, or a solution of sulphate of zinc, or 
the castor oil and collodion wash. If the discharge is very 
offensive, use powdered charcoal and soap suds, allowing it to 
dry upon the legs ; a solution of the chloride of lime may als9 
be used ; or a weak solution of corrosive sublimate is bene- 
^oial. 



THE CHILDREN S PET. 



286 WATER FARCY. 

WATER FARCY. 

This disease, together with anasarca and oedema may be classed 
under a common head, as they are but modifications of the same 
disease, which depends upon general debility for its existence. 
Two stages are, however, said to exist ; one with inflammation, 
and the other without ; one occurring in old horses, and the 
other in young ones. One important difiference should be noted ; 
the term anasarca is too extensive in its application to be 
properly associated with this disease, the term oedema being 
preferable to it, as having a local meaning and being more cir- 
cumscribed in its limits. 

•As symptoms, the legs, belly, sheath, and other parts become 
swollen, and leave the impression of the fingers behind after 
pressure. In old horses such pressure rarely causes pain, in- 
flammation being absent ; but in young horses the legs particu- 
larly are hot and painful to the touch. 

In this disease we must depend upon tonic and diuretic me- 
dicines ; tonic, for the purpose of building up the system ; and 
diuretic, to increase the secretions. The two should be com- 
bined as follows : of sulphate of iron, two ounces ; pulverized 
gentian root, one ounce ; pulverized ginger, half an ounce ; 
nitrate of potash, one ounce ; mix, and divide into eight powders, 
giving one night and morning, with good nourishing food, and 
allowing no corn. Or, the following will be found very useful : 
of sulphate of copper, one ounce ; pulverized gentian root, one 
and a half ounces ; pulverized ginger, half an ounce ; nitre, one 
ounce ; ground anise seed, six drachms ; mix, and divide into 
eight powders, giving one night and morning. Hand-rubbing 
and daily exercise will be necessary. 



CRACKED HOOP. 281 

WEED. 

This is a disease similar to cedema, but makes its appearance 
above the hock, and extends downward. The skin is hot, and 
extremely sensitive to the touch ; so much so that the animal 
throws the leg upward and outward as though to escape tor- 
ture. The veins of the leg. are full and corded. 

For treatment, apply warm fomentations to the parts affected, 
and give a purging ball, followed by the powders recommended 
in the last disease: 



CRACKED HOOF, 

This disease, also called sand-crack, occurs only in the hoof 
that is dry, hard, brittle, and contracted. The hoof in a 
natural, elastic condition can be bruised, but not split up if 
double the force that splits the dry, contracted hoof is applied. 
This crack occurs most generally at the quarters, and almost al- 
ways in the fore feet, they being almost alone subject to con- 
traction. If the crack extends through the hoof it causes very 
painful lameness. 

For treatment, the foot must first be carefully examined to 
see that no dirt has worked in under the hoof ; the loose parts 
of the horn must be cut away ; a pledget of tow, saturated with 
sulphate or chloride of zinc, or tincture of myrrh, should be ap- 
plied, and a bandage carefully put on to keep it in place and 
keep out the dirt. As soon as the new horn has grown down 
a little, draw a line across the top of the crack with a draw- 
ing-knife or firing-iron, and apply a little tar or hoof ointment. 
If the crack is at the toe, a shoe with a band running across 
from the heels to a little below the coronet in front, and united 



288 PRICKINQ. 

by two screws, will often be all that is required, and the horse 
may be kept at work ; but in quarter-crack it is unsafe to use 
the animal, particularly if it extends through to the soft parts. 
If the frog is in a healthy condition, which is rarely the case, 
a bar shoe, eased at the quarter, will be found beneficial. 



SOIiS BRUISE AND GKAVSL. 

Accidents frequently occur to the feet of horses from their 
striking them forcibly upon stones and other hard substances. 
Pressure of the shoe upon the sole is the occasional cause of 
bruises of that part of the foot ; and tender heels more fre- 
quently arise from bruises than from any other cause. 

For treatment, if pus is secreted within the hoof — which 
may be discovered by the acute pain caused by a light tap of 
a hammer on that part of the hoof under which the matter is 
situated — the hoof must be cut through, that the matter may 
escape, as it will gradually work its way upward and make its 
appearance at the top of the hoof, thus rendering the treat- 
ment more difficult. After the matter escapes through the 
opening so made, throw in an injection of sulphate of zinc in 
solution, one drachm to a pint of water. For the treatment 
will be the same as recommended in quitter. Gravel some- 
times works into these wounds, which must always be removed, 
and the parts carefully washed. 



PRICKING. 

This is an accident of too frequent occurrence, and happens 
in various ways, as by treading upon sharp bodies, such as 
broken glass, nails, etc., etc. It occurs more frequently, how- 



FALSE QUARTER, 289 

ever, in shoeing, owing to the nail not being properly pointed^ 
or, in some eases, from the iron not being good splits, one 
part turning inward and the other outward. These acci- 
dents are not always the fault of the smith, and he should not 
be unjustly censured for what he could not obviate. If such 
punctures are properly attended to, serious consequences rarely 
ensue. The practice of closing up the wound after removing 
the nail, glass, or other sharp substance cannot be too strongly 
condemned. It is doubtless in consequence of this senseless 
practice that so many horses are lost from lock-jaw, which 
does not generally make its appearance until the animal has 
apparently recovered from the wound ; though upon an exami- 
nation of the foot pus will often be found secreted within the 
hoof. 

When a horse picks up a nail, or is pricked by the smith, a 
poultice should at once be applied to the foot, and kept on 
for several days ; a cathartic ball should also be given, that the 
bowels may be in good order ; after the removal of the poul- 
tice, apply the tar ointment, and no further trouble may be 
anticipated. 

FALSE QUARTER. 

This is an imperfect formation of horn at the quarter, which 
is generally of a lighter color than the other part of the hoof, 
and is divided by a seam from the top to the bottom. It is 
the result of injury from quitter and other diseases, rendering 
the heels weak, and requires the protection of a bar shoe, 
which should never bear upon it, as it may occasion lameness. 
19. 



290 FOUNDEr., 

FOUNDER. 

Founder, or laminitis, is an inflammatory condition of the 
laminoe of the feet, which are the most sensitive parts of these 
important appendages. Founder is said to te produced by 
various causes, such as hard driving, watering when warm, 
standing in a draught of air, or upon plank floors, and many 
others. 

The author, however, views it in a different light, attributing 
its existence principally to one general cause, namely, contrac- 
tion of the hoof, the causes before named being the immediate 
or exciting causes. This view is sustained by many facts. 
Founder does not occur in one case out of fifty in a healthy, 
open foot ; nor are the hind feet often involved, as they are 
rarely in a contracted condition. 

The symptoms are a full, quick pulse, from sixty upwards ; 
accelerated respiration ; the fore feet are hot and tender, the 
animal for relief throwing his body back upon the hind legs, 
extending the fore legs until he rests upon the heels, and 
sometimes lying down, particularly if the hind feet are involved; 
the animal also manifests much pain. 

If the animal is in full condition, two quarts of blood 
should be taken from each of the fore feet ; an active purging 
ball should be given, followed by one-drachm doses of bella- 
donna made into pills every four hours ; poultices of flaxseed 
meal should be applied to the feet for several days ; injections 
of soap and water, also ought not to be neglected. By this 
treatment the animal is usually well again in a week, or even 
less ; but if the disease is neglected until it becomes chronic, 
the animal will ever after remain unsound, though he may be 



, CORINITIS. 291 

rendered useful. From the alteration or disorganization of 
structure that takes place, there can little be done in the 
chronic stage except careful shoeing, which the smith should 
understand. 



PUMICED FOOT. 

This is called by horsemen a falling of the sole. It is pre- 
ceded by founder, and is, in reality, one of the terminations 
of that disease, ai'ising from the slow, continued inflammation 
of chronic founder, which causes absorption of the outer edge 
of the coffin bone, the latter thereby gradually losing its con- 
cave surface, and becoming convex. The sole, yielding to 
this gradual change, becomes flat, or, in some instances, con- 
vex. Very little can be done in such cases by way of treat- 
ment ; yet by careful shoeing the animal may be rendered use- 
ful, although never sound. 



CORINITIS. 

This is an inflammation of the coronary ligament, situated 
within the upper part of the hoof and between the hoof and the 
hair. This ligament secretes the horn forming the wall or 
crust of the hoof, and when diseased ceases to perform its 
function, or performs it very imperfectly ; as a consequence, 
the coronet, or upper margin of the hoof, is contracted, which 
causes the soft parts to bulge out in such a manner that it has 
often been mistaken for ring-bone. This conti*action often 
causes lameness. The most frequent causes are, standing upon 
plank floors, hard driving, and the neglect to apply softening 
applications to the hoof. 

For treatment, apply a flaxseed poultice for several days, and 



292 NAVICULARTHRITIS. 

then a fly blister well rubbed in around the upper margin of the 
hoof; afterward use the hoof ointment once a day, until the 
coronet comes up full. 

WAVICULARTHEITIS. 

CofBn-joint lameness, as it is generally termed, is a dis- 
ease of very common occurrence, and often troublesome to 
manao-e. This joint is formed by the union of three bones: 
the OS pedis, or coffin-bone, situated immediately within 
the hoof; the coronary, or small pastern bone, the lower 
half of which is situated within the upper part ©f the hoof. 
,^====e:^^fg==, called the coronet, and uniting with the 
OS pedis; and the navicular, situated be- 
"tween and behind 
v*^v'\, - the two, unitmg 
with both, and 
rir ^^^^^^^A':'''€^W^^i hYming the navi- 

cular joint. This 
; joint is protected 

THE FAMOUS TEOTTINa MARE, FLORA TEMPLE. agaiUSt IDJUry irOm 

concussion by the fatty frog, the sensible frog, and the horny 
frog, situated beneath it, and forming a soft elastic cushion on 
which it may rest. So long as the foot remains in a healthy 
condition, there is little danger of the occurrence of this dis- 
ease. Even though the foot be strained very considerably, 
and a high degree of inflammatory action be produced, this 
disease will hardly arise, unless the inflammation becomes 
chronic. The author regards its origin as mainly due to a 
contracted condition of the feet, which, in fact, is the predis- 
posing cause. 




OSSIFICATION OF THE LATERAL CARTILAGES, 293 

Rarely, indeed, is navicular-joint lameness found existing in 
feet that have open heels and elastic frogs. If from any cause 
these frogs lose their moisture, they also lose their elasticity, 
and the foot therefore strikes the ground with a jar ; inflamma- 
tion of a chronic character sets in ; the synovia (joint-oil) be- 
comes absorbed ; and caries of the bones is established, which 
destroys their articular surfaces and causes excessive lameness. 
Occasionally, owing to some new injury, acute inflammation 
sets in, causing new depositions of bone to be thrown out, and 
uniting the three bones together ; which union is called anchy- 
losis. This condition may be known by stifi'ness, and the 
animal walking upon the toe. 

The symptoms of this disease have been confounded with 
those of another disease of the foot, which has been discovered 
by recent investigations. The horse is found to go lame upon 
coming out of the stable, which wears off after traveling some 
distance; one foot is observed iu advance of the other when 
the animal is at rest ; as the disease advances, the lameness 
becomes more frequent, until at last it is permanent. Various 
kinds of treatment have been resorted to, but with little 
success, such as blistering, firing, etc. Of late years, the frog 
seton has been introduced with very decided benefit. Should 
this, too, fail, there is no hope but in the operation of nerving, 
which should only be performed in certain cases mentioned 
under the head of neurotomy. 



OSSIFICATIOTiT OF THE LATERAL CARTILAGES. 

This is a transformation to bone of two projections of car- 
tilage, or gristle, springing from each side of the coffin bone 
posteriorly, and known as the lateral cartilages. This disease 



294 SPRUNG OR BROKEN KNEES. 

was at one time called ring-bone, but the ring-bone of the 
present day is quite a different disease. It arises from con- 
cussion, and will rarely be found in any but contracted feet. 

The treatment in these cases is only palliative, as the dis- 
ease cannot be eradicated by any course of medical treatment. 
The first endeavor should be to expand the heels by applying 
poultices to the feet, together with the hoof ointment. 



WIND GALLS. 

Wind galls are puffy swellings about the joints, found above 
the fetlock on both the hind and fore legs. They are techni- 
cally known as bursal enlargements, that is, a distended con- 
dition of the hursce or synovial sacs, which contain tho 
synovia, or joint oil. The animal suffers no inconvenience, 
apparently, from their presence upon his limbs, they evidently ■ 
causing no pain. 

It is seldom that any treatment is resorted to, except in the 
case of a very valuable animal. Blisters are commonly ap- 
plied, but they are not attended with any permanent benefit. 
The application of cold water and compresses, secured by 
means of bandaging the legs, has proven the most eSicacious. 



SPRUNG OR BROKEN KNEES. 

This trouble does not always result from an injury of the 
leg, or strain of the tendons ; it is more often found in horses 
that have bad corns in the feet, or troubled with navicular 
disease, than in any others. The animal raising his heels to 
prevent pressure upon the tender parts, bends the knee, which 
bending becomes finally, from the altered position of the limb, 



STRAINS OF THE KNEES. 295 

a permanent deformity. Horses with sprung knees are unsafe 
for saddle purposes, owing to their consequent liability to 
stumble. 

Respecting the treatment, it may be said that six out of 
every ten sprung-kneed horses will be found to have corns. 
If these be of recent growth, there is a fair prospect of 
straightening the limbs by removing the corns as directed 
under the head of that disease ; by the removal of these the 
heels are brought to the ground, and the limb becomes straight. 
Under any other circumstances all treatment proves useless. 



BREAKING DOWN". 
This accident occurs in running, jumping, racing, etc. It 
is sometimes called a strain of the back sinews, and lets the 
animal down upon the fetlock, in consequence of a rupture of 
the ligament of the pastern. Horses meeting with this acci- 
dent are of little value ever after, as they always remain weak 
in the fetlock. Unless the animal is quite young and valuable, 
the treatment would cost more than the animal's value. The 
French treat these cases very successfully by the application 
of instruments which keep the limb in its proper position until, 
the parts have again healed and become strong. This is the 
only course to be pursued with any possible chance of a suc« 
cessful termination of the case. 



STRAINS OF THE KNEES. 

Strains of this joint occur in young horses while being 
broken into harness more often, probably, than at any other 
period of the animal's life. This results from the tenderness 



296 SHOULDER STRAIN. 

of the parts at that time, not one in twenty having them having 
arrived at maturity. These strains often prove troublesome 
to manage, and occasionally leave a stiff knee as the result. 

Treatment — Bleeding from the plantar, or plate vein ; warm 
fomentations to the part ; when the inflammation is reduced, 
apply once a day for several days the following ointment ; 
iodine ointment, one ounce ; blue, or mercurial ointment, half 
an ounce ; mix well together. 



STRAIN" OF THE HIP JOINT. 

This occurs in falling, slipping, getting up, etc. The symp- 
toms are a dragging motion of the limb ; the lameness passing 
off after the animal gets warmed up, and returning upon his 
becoming again cool, the horse being then even more stiff 
and lame than before leaving the stable. 

For treatment, apply cold water ; a purging ball and rest 
are all that are requisite to effect a cure. Careful usage foi* 
some time after will be very necessary. 



SHOULDER STRAIN. 

This, which is of rare occurrence, arises from severe blows, 
or concussions ; slipping so as to throw the legs apart forcibly ; 
falling in the shafts of a heavily laden cart, etc. The symp- 
toms are usually well marked ; the horse is quite lame, both 
when walking and trotting ; the leg drags with the toe on the 
ground, having an outward or circular motion. 

Local bleeding is generally useful by way of treatment; 
three or four quarts may be taken from the plate vein, which 
runs down the inside of the leg. If, however, the animal is in 
a debilitated condition, bleeding should not be practised. 



SWEENIE. 297 

Foment the shoulder well with hot water frequently ; a seton 
will often be found beneficial. After fomenting two or three 
days, use the following liniment : laudanum, one ounce ; spirits 
of camphor, one ounce ; tincture of myrrh, one ounce ; castile 
soap, one ounce ; alcohol, one pint. Or, sweet oil, one pint ; 
spirits of hartshorn, three ounces ; shake well together. 



OPEN JOINTS. 

Tiicse are generaUy the result of a punctured wound ; the 
capsular ligament that surrounds the joint and confines the 
joint oil within its proper limits being thereby penetrated. 
These accidents are often attended with serious results, from 
the inflammation that is likely to arise from such an injury. 

For treatment, efforts should first be made to close the 
wound, that the escape of the oil which lubricates the joint 
may be prevented. If the wound is small, it may be closed 
by means of a hot iron ; if large, shave off" all the hair around 
the opening, apply a piece of linen cloth well saturated with 
collodion, and bandage the part. Care must be taken to have 
the skin around the wound perfectly dry, or the collodion will 
not adhere. Shoemaker's wax, or common glue, appjied in 
the same way, will frequently answer the purpose. The 
animal must be kept perfectly quiet, his bowels opened, and he 
be kept upon his feet for several days ; if, however, the collo- 
dion adheres well, this is not of so much importance. 



SWEENIE. 

This imaginary disease has been the occasion of the infliction 
of much cruelty and unnecessary torture upon the horse. No 



298 



OSTITIS. 



respectable veterinary author recognizes any such disease. 
The symptoms which accompany its supposed existence are 
but sympathetic effects, or atrophy of the muscles of the 
shoulder. The attention of the horse-owner is directed to a 
wasting away or lessening of these muscles, which from want 
of action naturally become smaller or contracted ; upon the 



animal's regaining the natu 

cles are again developed, as 

arm by the constant 

mer. Cases called 

the result of injury 

as the knee, 

When the " 

the foot 

ground, it 

ed upon 

is not in the eq:testr,k.ke. the shouldcr ; if 

however, the leg drags with the toe on the ground, the injury 

may be looked for in that locality. It is, however, more easy 

to decide a case of shoulder lameness than any other to which 

the limb is liable. 




ral use of the limb, the mus- 
the muscles of the smith's 
use of the sledge ham- 
sweenie are invariably 
in some remote parts, 
the foot, etc. — 
animal picks up 
^clear from the 
may be depend- 
that the injury 



OSTITIS. 

This is an inflammation of the bone, occasioning lameness 
of an obscure nature, and is one of the most difficult of all 
cases of lameness to detect. Where it occurs in the cannon 
bone, it is often mistaken for a thickening of the integuments. 

Treatment — Cold bandages, lead water, rest, with daily 
half-drachm doses of iodide of potassa dissolved in a pail of 



CAPULET AND CAPPED HOCK. 299 

water, will usually prove successful if the treatment be per*- 
Beveriugly adopted. 

CAPULET AND CAPPED HOCK. 

There are generally serous abscesses, produced by blow?, 
bruises, strains, or injuries from any cause. Capulet is an en- 
largement at the point of the elbow, and is generally caused by 
lying on the heels of the shoe, which bruise the part. Capped 
hock is found at the point of the hock joint, and is usually 
caused by kicking against the sides of the stall. 

By way of treatment, first open the part ; if it contains fluid, 
which will be known by the soft elastic feeling, throw in with 
a syringe an injection of the tincture of iodine diluted with 
alcohol ; a solution of the sulphate of zinc may in incipient cases 
answer the purpose. If fluid is not formed, blisters will often 
succeed. In cases of capulet, have the heels of the slices 
shortened, or bind the feet at night to prevent injury. 



CARIES OP THE BONES. 

This is, perhaps, the most common of all the diseases to 
which the horse is subject, and its frequency can only be ac- 
counted for, by the abuses to which he is subjected. It gene- 
rally arises from a low, inflammatory condition of the joints,, 
these parts being principally affected ; an ulceration of the heada 
of the bones is established, generally in young horses, which is 
called, from the destruction which it occasions, caries, or decay. 
It will usually be found preceding spavin, ring-bone, stiff back, 
and other anchylosed conditions of the bones, and can best be 
illustrated under the heads of Spavin and Ring-bone. 



300 BONE SPAVIN. 

BOM"E SPAVIN". 

This is a disease of such common occurrence that almost all 
horsemen think they fully understand its nature, pathological 
condition, and treatment. It is generally regarded by veteri- 
nary authors as a very serious injury, destructive to the utility 
of the animal, and very frequently reducing his value essentially 
in consequence of the blemishes. Where, however, there are 
no outward blemishes, as is the case in four out of every five 
spavined horses, the price of the animal is not affected, unless 
he is lame, since the disease is not discovered. There are, at 
this day, thousands of spavined horses traveling our roads, in 
not one of whom would the most experienced horsemen the 
world ever produced be able to determine the fact so long as 
the animal lives. In all such cases no external enlargement is 
found, but, on the contrary, the limb is clean and smooth. In 
the absence of enlargement, or spavin-bunch, as it is sometimes 
called, on the inside of the hock-joint, horsemen are unwilling 
to believe that spavin exists. The books, indeed, teach us to 
look there, and there only, for it; but the author's experience 
teaches him that the enlargement, where any exists, appears 
almost as often upon the front part of the hock as it does upon 
the inside. 

Spavin generally arises from a strain, jar, or blow upon the 
hock-joint, causing an inflammatory condition of the cartilagi- 
nous cushions which cover the articular surfaces, or points of 
union, of each bone, or of the ligaments which surround the 
joints and bind the bones together ; sometimes, indeed, both 
are involved. As this inflammatory condition is the exciting 
cause, spavin, or ulceration of the parts, speedily follows the 



BONE SPAVIN. SOI 

neglect to remove it. When the inflammation is acute, the 
synovial flnid, or joint-oil, is soon absorbed; the cartilages of 
the joint are turned to bone, and uniting, one with the other, 
form one solid mass, destroying the elasticity as well as the mo- 
bility of the parts involved, and constituting what is called 
anchylosis of the hock-joint. This anchylosis, or union of bone, 
is not always general, there being in many cases but two, three, 
or four of the bones involved. When these changes are con- 
fined to the cartilage^ external enlargement, or spavin-bunch, is 
never found. This the author calls spavin without any external 
indication. 

When, however, the ligaments surrounding the joint are con- 
verted into bony substance, external enlargement in all cases 
exists. When a low, inflammatory action is found going on 
within the joint, it is an evidence of ulceration, in which, in- 
stead of new bone being thrown out, as in the acute stage, the 
natural bone is gradually decaying or rotting away. Hence 
arises the difficulty often experienced in the treatment of this 
disease. 

As symptoms, the horse is very lame on leaving the stable, 
but when he is warmed up the lameness passes off; the leg is 
drawn up quickly with a kind of jerk ; and there is a peculiar 
hard tread, which can only be distinguished by close observa- 
tion. Where the bones are all united together, whether there 
is external enlargement or not, there is a peculiar twist of the 
heel outwards, which is more readily observed in the walk, and 
which the author has always found an infallible symptom of 
complete anchylosis. 

Both spavin and ring-bone are incurable diseases. The 
lameness may be removed, but the disease, when once estab- 



— 1 



302 



BONE SPAVIN. 




THE HIOH-BRED PACINQ MARE POCAHONTAS. 



lished, cannot, because the elasticity, mobility, and function 
of the joint are all destroyed in proportion to the extent of 
the disease. The spavined animal, therefore, comes down with 
a hard, jarring tread. The removal of the lameness depends 
upon perfect union or solidifying of the diseased bones. In 
the acute inflammatory cases, nature 
herself unaided 
works this change, 
and the animal re- 
covers from the 
lameness with a 
stiff joint ; but in 
the second, or ul- 
cerative stage, assistance is required. We, therefore, en- 
deavor to excite an active inflammation in the joint in order 
to overcome this ulcerative process, and induce new deposits 
of bone to be thrown out. Many modes have been adopted to 
secure the desired end, some of which are of a most barbarous 
character. Sharp instruments have been struck with con- 
siderable force into the joint, creating a tremendous fire, 
which soon checks the ulceration. This practice, although 
often successful, is unnecessarily severe, and cruel in the ex- 
treme. All kinds of caustic applications have been used, 
many of which have destroyed both the disease and the animal. 
Blistering the parts, the action being kept up for three or four 
weeks, often proves successful ; firing is also practised ; setons 
in the hock are frequently used with advantage. The follow- 
ing ointment is recommended ; bin-iodide of mercury, one 
drachm ; lard, two ounces ; mix well together. Shave off the 



SPLINT. 393 

hair, and rub the part once a day for six or eight days ; then 
wash the parts well with proof spirits. If the desired effect 
is not produced, repeat it. 

Hirra-BONE, 
This is a disease of the same nature as spavin, its locality 
alone giving it a different name ; the same alterations of struc- 
ture takes place ; the same termination follows, and the same 
treatment is indicated. Contraction of the coronary ligaments 
is sometimes mistaken for ring-bone, and the poor beast is 
severely tortured in consequence. Contraction of this liga- 
ment produces a bulging of the soft parts around the coroner, 
causing the hair to turn downward and inward upon the hoof, 
giving it much the appearance of ring-bone. As in all such 
cases the heels are pressed close and painfully together, there 
is great necessity of distinguishing between the two before 
any application is made. 



SPLINT. 

This is an exostosis, or bony enlargement, arising from blows 
ijpon, or strains of, the splint bones, which are situated one on 
each side of the cannon bones and posterior to them. Splints 
are so common that few horses reach the age of eight years 
without having them, although they are not always visible to 
the eye at that period, having perhaps spread over a large 
surface of bone, or become flattened ; which circumstance has 
given rise to the opinion among horsemen that old horses are 
not affected with splints. This, however, is a mistake ; since 
a splint once formed is never afterward removed during the 
life of the animal. The nature of a splint is very similar to 



304 CURB. 

that of a spavin, but its course is somewhat different. When 
the injury is first received, the enlargement becomes quite 
prominent ; but, as time advances, it generally disappears from 
view, even without the aid of man, spreading itself between 
the cannon and splint bones, thus lessening its size externally. 
Splints are not regarded as unsoundness, unless they cause 
lameness, which rarely occurs, particularly if they are situated 
near the middle of the bone ; but if they are situated either at 
the upper or lower portions, or heads, lameness is almost always 
the result. This is easily explained ; the bone, it will be ob- 
served, curves from above downward and outward, so that 
the lower extremity sets off from the body of the cannon bone; 
the upper heads, where it unites with the bones of the knee 
and hock, slant or bevel inward, and as the weight of the 
animal is thrown upon them, the upper heads are forced out- 
ward, while the lower ones are thrown inward. By this 
simple arrangement a rocking motion of these bones takes 
place, so that at the centre there is very little mobility, and 
if the injury is above, it causes lameness in consequence of 
tension ; if below, from pressure ; but, if it is in the centre, it 
seldom causes lameness at all, though the injury is greater. 

When lameness occurs, the union of the bones should be 
hastened by increasing the inflammatory action ; this is best 
done by active blistering, which soon removes the lameness. 



CURB. 

This is a swelling on the back part of the bock joint below 
the cap, generally arising from a strain, or breaking down of 
the hock. Some horses naturally have what are called curb- 



BLOOD SPAVIN, ETC. 305 

hocks, though they are not always attended with any serions 
disadvantages. There is a predisposition to weakness, which 
renders them suspicious. 

If the curb arises from recent injury, a little blood fliay with 
advantage be taken from the sephena vein running up the inside 
of the thigh ; cold water applications should be kept upon the 
parts ; cloths wet with tincture of arnica, half a pint to a gallon 
of water, are very useful ; or, the following ointment will be 
found of service : dry iodine, one drachm ; iodide of potassa, 
one drachm ; lard, one ounce j mix well together, and use once 
fl day. 



STBING HALT. 

This disease has never been very satisfactorily accounted for 
by veterinary authors. It consists in a sudden, spasmodic 
raising of the hind limbs, though it is said to have occurred in 
the fore legs. The author has found, upon an examination after 
death of the hock-joint of several animals affected with this 
disease, that a little roughness from exostosis existed on the 
OS calcis, or bone forming the cap of the hock, where the 
per/orans tendon plays over ; in other cases the tendon has been 
found almost entirely surrounded with a bony case, which inter- 
fered very materially with its action. He is inclined, therefore, 
to regard these as the general causes of the disease. 

No treatment as yet practised has proved successful ; though 
there are recorded isolated cases of spontaneous cure. 



BLOOD SPAVIN, BOG SPAVIN", AND THOEOUGHPIN. 

These constitute one disease, occasioned by an over secretion 
'^ joint oil in the hock joint, which causes a distention of the 
20 



306 FRACTURES. 

capsular ligament, or bursa, presenting soft puffy swellings about 
the joint. Blood and bog spavin appear on the front and inside 
of the joint ; while thoroughpin extends through from one side 
of the jbint to the other. These diseases are so common and 
so well marked as not to be easily mistaken. The causes are 
violent exercise, throwing the animal upon his haunches, run- 
ning, jumping, etc. 

As it seldom causes lameness, treatment is rarely needed ; if 
requisite, blistering, bandaging with compresses, and rest are 
the most successful. 



FRACTURES. 

Experience has established the fallacy of destroying every 
horse that meets with a fractured limb. Fractures may occur 
in any bone of the body, and yet a perfect union of the parts 
may take place, provided the fracture is a simple one ; com- 
pound fractures, even, are occasionally united. 

For treatment, the animal should first be placed in the most 
comfortable position, and the parts adjusted as nearly as pos- 
sible, retaining them by proper bandages, splints, etc. Should 
the fracture be in the small or lower part of the leg, sole leather, 
softened in water and moulded to the limb, retaining it in place 
by bandages, forms a very good splint. 

Fractures of the skull sometimes require the operation of 
trephining, (explained under the head of Surgical Cases,) in 
order to replace the parts perfectly ; after which the bowels 
should be opened, and the animal kept on moderate diet. 

Fractures of the pelvis, or haunch bones, will, in nine cases 
out of ten, become united by proper management, no matter 
how bad the crushing, and the animal may again be rendered 



DISEASES OP THE HEART. 307 

serviceable. The author never hesitates to treat fractures of 
these bones in horses that are of sufficient value to warrant it. 
Indeed, union of the parts in such fractures will often take 
place, even if the animal be turned into a field without any 
treatment ; though, perhaps, more deformity will be left than 
if proper care had been exercised. The horse, if active and 
high-strung, should be kept upon his feet by tying up the head 
short for several days, and then the slings may be placed under 
him ; if this is done at first, the animal being full of fire throws 
himself off his feet, and all efforts to remedy the fracture will 
prove a failure. From six to eight weeks, according to the 
age of the animal, are necessary to complete the union of the 
parts. 

Some practical knowledge is requisite, in order to discrimi- 
nate cases of fracture of the limbs that are likely to be success- 
fully treated ; but fractures of the haunch bones rarely fail to 
unite, with proper management. The animal should be kept 
on bran mashes, gruel, and green food during the treatment. 



DISEASES OF THE HEART. 

Diseases of the heart are less understood by the members of 
'the veterinary profession generally than any other class of dis- 
eases (with, perhaps, one or two exceptions,) to which horses 
are subject. This want of information in this country, is attri- 
butable to the comparative infancy of veterinary science, the 
obscurity of the symptoms by which these diseases are charac- 
terized, the consequent confounding of them with other diseases, 



308 PERICARDITIS. 

and to the comparative silence of veterinary authors upon this 
important subject. 

Diseases of the heart in this animal are not suspected by the 
farrier, (shoeing-smith) or horseman ; yet they are by no means 
of uufrequent occurrence. During the session of the Veterinary 
College of Philadelphia for 1859-60, the author had then op- 
portunities of presenting to the class well-marked cases of disease 
of this organ, as also one very interesting case of rupture of the 
heart, or rather of the aorta, or great artery leading from the 
heart, at the point where it leaves that important organ. The 
latter case was that of a bay mare which had been used in an 
oyster cart; she ate her feed at night as usual, in apparent good 
health, and was found dead in her stall the next morning. 



PERICARDITIS. 

This disease, as its name implies, is an inflammation of the 
pericardium, the bag or sac which surrounds the heart, and 
known to butchers as the heart-bag. After death arising from 
pleuritic affections effusions are quite commonly found within 
this sac, which are attributed to the sympathy existing between 
the pericardium and the pleura. The fluid is sometimes of a 
bright yellow color, while at others it is of a turbid character 
with considerable lymph floating in it, which collects in a mass 
forming a thick layer upon the internal surface of the sac, 
causing considerable thickening of its walls, and extending over 
the heart in like manner ; adhesions between the two sometimes 
take place. Percival mentions an' instance in which this col- 
lection was converted into a substance of the nature of gristle 
of considerable thickness. This disease rarely exists alone, but 
is of a secondary character. 



PERICARDITIS. 



309 



The attendant symptoms are palpitation of the heart, quick- 
ened respiration, sometimes accompanied with a dry cough, 
with a pulse quick, rising to sixty or seventy a minute, full, 
hard, and strong. "Mr. Pritchard, V. S., Wolverton," says 
Mr. Percival, " with laudable zeal for the promotion of our art, 
so long ago as the year 1833, furnished the veterinarian with 
some practical communications on this subject, which we shall 
find it advantageous to revive upon the present occasion. His 
observations relate, particularly to the type termed Hydrops 
Pericardii, which implies the stage of pericarditis when efifu- 
^ — sion is likely, or has taken place, 

" ^ and the membranous sac is sup- 

^fe posed to contain watery 
fluid, and probably 
lymph as well. The 
symptoms of this af- 
fection, apart from 
pleurisy and pneu- 

THE EMD OF PEEICAEDITIS. mOula, Mr. Prlt- 

chard informs us, are well-marked. They are palpitation of 
the heart, the carotid arteries (passing up the neck) beating 
forcibly and being readily recognized in applying the finger to 
their course in the neck. There is a good flow of blood through 
the jugulars ; a copious return of blood through the neck, when 
the state of the pulse is considered ; the surface of the body 
and the extremities are warm ; and these latter symptoms con- 
tinue within one or two hours of the horse's death. * * * In 
addition to the above symptoms, there is such an expression of 
alarm and anxiety in the countenance of the animal as no other 
malady produces." 




310 ENDOCARDITIS. 

There is no treatment as yet known by which this disease can 
be reached. 



CAHDITIS. 

This is an inflammation of the muscular structure of the heart 
comparatively rare, or at least supposed to be so. 

In this afl"ection the animal will be found lame, generally in 
the off fore-leg, but upon examination no cause will be found 
sufficient to account for it. This lameness may appear and 
disappear several times previous to the attack's manifesting 
itself in a more positive form, leaving the impression that the 
lameness was rheumatic. We next find the animal refusing his 
feed ; his heart palpitates violently ; he occasionally gasps, and 
gnashes his teeth ; pulse full, hard, and quick ; there is a wild 
expression of the eyes ; respiration quickened ; mouth hot and 
dry ; and the temperature of the legs varies from moderate to 
cold. 

For treatment cold water should be frequently given ; take 
one drachm of white hellebore, and divide it into five powders ; 
give one of these on the tongue every three or four hours. 
Bleeding has been recommended ; but the author has not wit- 
nessed any advantages from it, and therefore would on no ac- 
count advise it. 



ENDOCARDITIS. 

This disease, called also palpitation of the heart, or, more 
commonly, thumps, is an inflammation of the lining membrane 
of the heart, and is generally associated with pericarditis ; the 
inflammation readily extending itself from one part to the other 
in consequence of ^their proximity. 

The symptoms are a violent palpitation of the heart, which 



OSTEO -SARCOMA. 311 

can often be observed at the distance of several yards from the 
animal ; pulse full and hard, but not quickened. Although 
this disease is regarded as incurable, we can still palliate the 
symptoms so as to allow of the animal's return to work the 
next day. 

For treatment, give one of the following powders every three 
hours ; of nitrate of potassa one ounce ; pulverized digitalis two 
drachms ; mix, and divide into five powders. Subsequent attacks 
may be warded off by keeping the bowels regular. 



< • < • » 



DISEASES OF THE HEAD. 



OSTEO-SAECOMA. 

This disease, called commonly Big Head, is not mentioned 
by veterinary authors in Europe, and so far as the author can 
learn, seems to be peculiar to the Western and Southern States. 
It appears, from the rather unsatisfactory accounts at the 
author's command, to originate in the osseous, or bony, struc- 
ture of the face. The bones become much swollen, and are 
represented as presenting a soft, spongy, or cellular appearance, 
the cells being filled with a substance like jelly. This appear- 
ance, however, does not correspond externally with several 
specimens in the author's possession, in which the external sur- 
face of the bones appears to be perfect, but very thin, and very 
much enlarged. 

The symptoms are a swelling of the bones of the face from 
the eye to the nose ; puffy swelling about the limbs ; stiffness 



312 INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. 

about the joints ; pulse slightly accelerated, and soft ; coat 
rough and staring, with considerable debility. 

The treatment usually practised has been to make an incision 
through the skin and insert a small quantity of arsenic into the 
wound ; or else to score the face with a red-hot iron ; which latter 
mode is said to have effected a perfect cure in many cases. 
Neither of these operations, however, strikes us as being very sci- 
entific. The author's friend, G. W. Bowler, of Cincinnati, Ohio, 
has had some experience in the treatment of this disease, and has 
been very successful. The course pursued by him is to rub the 
swollen parts well once a day with the following ointment : of 
mercurial ointment one ounce, and of iodine ointment two 
ounces ; mix well together for use. Give internally at the same 
time one of the following powders night and morning : calomel 
one ounce ; iodide of potassa two ounces ; pulverized gentian 
root one and a half ounces ; to be made into twenty powders. 
The animal must be kept in a dry, well ventilated stable, and 
the body kept warm so long as this medicine is given. 



INFLAMMATION" OP THE BRAIN. 

This disease, known also as phrenitis, or, more generally, 
mad staggers, arises from various causes, such as blows, over- 
feeding and little exercise, too tight a collar, etc., etc., 

A heaviness of the head is first noticed ; an unwilling- 
ness to move about ; the lining membrane of the eyelids much 
reddened ; appetite indifferent or lost ; a peculiar dullness of 
the eyes ; and finally, delirium or madness. The animal be, 
comes Unmanageable; beslavers all that comes within his reach, 
whether man, horse, or anything else ; and plunges violently 
about the stall, or wherever he may chance to be. 



MEGRIMS. 313 

As this disease is occasioned by a determination of blood to 
the head, it is necessary to use the lancet ; this should be done 
freely, and that too before the delirious stage comes on, other- 
wise it cannot be done properly or beneficially. Cloths wet in 
cold water should be applied to the head ; or, what is better, 
bags of broken ice. Open the bowels with the following, made 
iffto a ball : Barbadoes aloes one ounce ; pulverized ginger one 
drachm ; pulverized gentian root two drachms ; mix with mo- 
lasses sufficient to form the ball. Give also injections of castile 
soap and water. Give no food for twenty-four hours ; but small 
quantities of water may be frequently given. After the recovery 
of the animal he should be fed very sparingly, and not exposed 
to the hot noonday sun. 

If the occasion of the attack be a tight collar, the remedy is 
simple and easy ; if from over-feeding, the quantity of food 
should be lessened ; but little is to be expected by way of 
treatment. 



MEGRIMS. 

This is a sudden determination of blood to the head, generally 
attacking horses while at work, or in harness upon the road. 
Those of a plethoric character are most subject to these attacks. 

The horse suddenly stops in the road, shakes his head, and 
sometimes goes on again ; at other times he falls in a state of 
unconsciousness, the whole system appears convulsed, with the 
eyes wild in appearance and constantly rolling. 

Bleeding upon the appearance of the first symptoms gives 
almost Immediate relief; after which the bowels must be opened, 
for which purpose give one and a half pints of linseed oil, or 
the aloes ball will answer ; bran mashes should be given for a 



314 EPILEPSY. 

few days. These attacks may be prevented in the case of horses 
subject to them by moderate feeding and driving, and in warm 
weather by keeping the forehead shaded by a canvas or cloth 
hood elevated on a wire framework about two inches from the 
forehead so as to protect the brain, and admit a free passage of 
air between the two. The author believes that he was the first 
to introduce this hood, which can be attached to the bridle, and 
made as ornamental as may be desired. The use of hoods of 
this kind in very hot weather would prevent the frequent falling 
of horses in our streets from over-heating ; as the heat of the 
sun principally affects the brain in all these cases. 



VEKTIGO. 

This disease generally arises from water in the cranial case, 
causing pressure upon the brain. The animal is generally 
attacked in harness, as in the preceding disease ; this arises from 
the fact that the exercise causes the vessels of the brain to be- 
come more active, fuller, and more distended with blood, and 
consequently there is greater pressure upon this sensitive organ. 

The symptoms are similar to those of megrims, with, perhaps, 
the addition of rearing, dropping suddenly as tliough struck 
with death, and rising in a few moments as i£ nothing had hap- 
pened, etc. 

The treatment mainly consists in keeping the bowels in good 
order j working moderately ; giving no corn, and but little hay. 



EPILEPSY. 

This disease takes its name from the suddenness of its attack. 
The animal is apparently in a perfect state of health, when sud- 
denly he falls to the ground, generally (as in the two preceding 



STOMACH STAGGERS. 315 

cases), while in harness, without any manifest cause. He re- 
mains in this condition for a short time, and then appears as 
well as ever ; although occasionally a considerable degree of 
stupor is manifested for some time after. 

It may be occasioned by blows, wounds, and other injuries 
about the head ; water in the brain ; tumors ; violent derange- 
ment of the nervous system j worms ; constipation of the bowels ; 
plethora, etc. 

The same course of treatment should be pursued as in vertigo ; 
these diseases in their symptoms, causes, etc., being so intimately 
connected as scarcely to be distinguishable from each other. 



STOMACH STAGGERS. 

This disease arises principally from over-feeding. The animal 
appears dull and sleepy, with a disposition to pitch forward ; 
stands with his head resting against a wall, manger, or the like, 
or, if at pasture, against a tree ; if he is led out of the stable, this 
will be observed as an involuntary action, in consequence of 
which the head is often much cut and bruised by coming in 
contact with hard or rough substances ; there is constipation 
of the bowels ; pulse scarcely changed from the usual standard ; 
as the attack is severe, the breathing becomes more and more 
labored. 

Blaine regards these symptoms as the first stage of mad stag- 
gers ; but this the author deems a mistake, as animals that aie 
from this disease, having presented the above symptoms, scarcely 
have any very marked change in the cerebral region, or the 
brain. 

From the mode of treatment recommended by European 
authors of high repute, the author infers that the attacks are 



316 



STOMACH STAGGERS* 



less severe in this country than in Europe, or else that the 
severe treatment there practised is more injurious than the 
disease itself. The whole cause of the disease being apparently 

in the distended condition of 
the stomach from the presence 
of undigested food, all food 
should be removed from the 
manger, and none given for 
forty-eight hours. Give in- 
_ ternally the following ball : 
Barbadoes aloes one ounce ; 
pulverized ginger two 
drachms ; croton oil six drops ; 
I mix with molasses, and give 
£in the usual manner. Injec- 
tions of soap and water should 
be given, until the bowels are opened ; or, what is far preferable 
when convenient, tobacco-smoke injections. Two drachms of 
the extract of belladonna dissolved in a pail of water, given to, 
drink once a day for a week, will prove beneficial. Bleeding 
in these cases is, as a general rule, unnecessary and uncalled 
for. Food should now be given very sparingly ; and no corn 
should be given at any time to the animal after such an attack, 
in consequence of its tendency to heat the blood, and produce 
a plethoric condition of the system. 




HATING SCENE. 



AMAUROSIS. 317 



DISEASES OF THE EYE. 



AMAUROSIS. 

In this disease, called also Gutta Serena, or, more generally* 
Glass Eye, we find the eyes bright and clear, with a peculiar 
glassy appearance about them not observed in an eye where 
vision is perfect ; although no alteration in the structure of the 
eye has taken place, yet the horse is partially or totally blind. 
A mere examination of such eyes would not enable us to pro- 
nounce upon the blindness of the animal ; but if he be taken 
from a dark stable to a strong light, it will readily be detected, 
as the light causes no change to take place in the pupil. 

This disease is regarded as paralysis of the optic nerve ; in 
some cases yielding readily to medical treatment, and in others 
proving incurable. Horses are often sold with this disease 
upon them as perfectly sound, and the first intimation which 
the purchaser receives of his horse's being blind is bis running 
against a wall-fence, post, or any thing that may chance to be 
in his way. It sometimes makes its appearance very suddenly ; 
occasionally it exists in a temporary form as a sympathetic 
affection, as in apoplexy, it also at times occurs during the 
period of gestation, etc. 

Constitutional treatment only is likely to succeed in these cases. 
A physic ball shduld be given to open the bowels, composed of 
Barbadoes aloes six drachms ; pulverized ginger one drachm ; 
pulverized gentian root two drachms ; mix with molasses. After 
the ball has operated (which should be in twenty-four hours, if 
the aloes are good), give morning and evening half a drachm 



318 MEMBRANA NICTITANS. 

of nux vomica mixed in the feed. The author has never wit- 
nessed any beneficial results from bleeding, although it is re- 
commended by some writers. 



INFLAMMATION" OF THE MEMBKANA NICTITANS. 

This affection is commonly called the haw, or hooks. The 
membrane affected is somewhat triangular in form, concave on 
the inner side, and convex externally. It is mainly composed 
of cartilage, or gristle, and is situated between the eye ball and 
the side of the orbit, at the inner corner of the eye. In a per- 
fectly healthy condition but a very small portion of this mem- 
brane is visible ; but when in a state of inflammation it bulges 
out very considerably. A portion of the membrane covering 
it becoming, as it were, folded upon itself presents a hook- 
like appearance, which has been regarded by farriers as a 
foreign substance, to which the name of "hooks" has been 
given, and its removal with the knife recommended by them. 
It so happens, however, that this membrane is placed in the 
eye, or attached thereto, to serve a useful purpose : that of 
cleansing the eye from dirt, or any foreign substance that may 
chance to get into it, which is accomplished by throwing it 
over the ball of the eye, and removing any obstruction. In- 
jury must result from cutting away any portion of this mem- 
brane, as its function is in part destroyed ; since the animal 
can no longer throw it over the ball of the eye with the same 
facility as before the operation was performed. In point of 
fact, wherever the hooks, as they are called, are cut out, it will 
be observed that whenever any foreign substance gets into the 
eye, the animal makes a spasmodic efifort to throw this mem- 



SIMPLE OPHTHALMIA. 319 

brane over the eye ball, often failing to accomplish it ; and 
thus the eye is rendered more liable to injury ever after. 

Whenever this membrane becomes tumefied, instead of cut- 
ting it out, open the bowels, and apply cold water to the eye 
several times a day. If much inflammation exists, bleed from 
the small vein just below the eye, the course of which vein in 
all thin-skinned animals is quite distinctly marked. 



Simple ophthalmia. 

This disease arises sometimes from a blow inflicted by a pas- 
sionate groom, or from some other external injury, or from a 
foreign body entering the eye, causing such an irritation in 
that delicate organ as sometimes to terminate in blindness. 

The symptoms are considerable swelling and inflammation 
of the eye lids, their under surfaces being very much reddened, 
and the vessels highly injected with blood ; there is also a 
cloudy appearance over the cornea, or transparent part of 
the eye. 

For treatment, if the animal is in a plethoric condition, take 
six or eight quarts of blood from the jugular vein, regulating 
the quantity by the action on the pulse ; otherwise general 
bleeding should not be undertaken. The bowels should be 
freely opened with Barbadoes aloes, six drachms ; pulverized 
ginger root, one drachm ; and pulverized gentian root, one 
drachm, made into a ball. Bathe the eye freely with cold 
water ; after which apply with a syringe either of the following 
washes : laudanum, six drachms ; rain, or distilled water, one 
pint ; mix the two, and shake well before using : — or, take 
half ao ounce of the extract of belladonna dissolved in one 



320 SPECIFIC OPHTHALMIA. 

pint of raia water. Give internally one drachm of powdered 
colchicum morning and evening, in a bran mash ; no grain 
should be given during the treatment ; corn should be especially 
avoided. 



SPECIFIC OPHTHALMIA. 

Inflammation of the eye, or specific ophthalmia, is known to 
horsemen as moon-blindness, from the influence which the 
moon is supposed to exert upon it. This, however, is one of 
the many popular delusions which fill the pages of many use- 
less works on farriery. When a horse is once attacked with 
this disease, he is ever after liable to subsequent attacks, at 
intervals varying from one to six months, and generally ter- 
minating .in blindness. This termination may, however, be 
warded off for a long time by proper management ; each sub- 
sequent attack rendering such a termination more and more 
certain, from the increased alteration in the structures of 
the eye. 

The hQrse may appear perfectly well, and the eyes clear and 
bright one day, and the next morning usually one eye will be 
found closed, more particularly if it is exposed to a strong 
light ; little or no swelling will be observed ; the lining mem- 
brane of the eye lid is quite red, and the eye exceedingly 
watery and tender. 

The causes of this disease are mainly attributable to heredi- 
tary predisposition, or to confinement in dark stables, and 
sudden exposure to strong light. Badly ventilated stables, in 
consequence of which the eyes are continually exposed to the 
strong fumes of ammonia arising from the urine, as also hard 
work in a small collar, are supposed to be exciting causes. 



CATARACT. 321 

These cases require prompt attention, in order to ward off 
the serious consequences which otherwise are in store for the un- 
fortunate animal. The bowels should first be opened with the 
purging ball recommended in simple ophthalmia. Give bran 
mashes only, and when the bowels are opened, give one of 
the following powders night and morning on the tongue : — 
pulverized colchicum, one and a half ounces ; saltpetre, two 
ounces ; divide into twelve powders. These will last one 
week, and by that time the eye will usually become clear and 
bright. Use as an injection for the eye, tincture of opium, 
one ounce ; rain, or distilled water, one pint : — or, if more con- 
venient, mix half an ounce of the extract of belladonna in 
one pint of water, and use in the same manner. If the animal 
is in a plethoric condition, bleeding will be found advan- 
tageous ; the quantity to be regulated by the condition of the 
pulse. Place the animal in a cool, well-ventilated location, 
free from any ammoniacal gases. 



CATABACT. 

This disease, which is one of the terminations of specific 
ophthalmia, is an opacity of the crystalline lens, situated 
directly behind the pupil, through which it is visible. The 
first indications of cataract noticed are one or more white 
spots making their appearance within the eye, gradually en- 
larging, and at last blending with each other until the animal 
becomes totally blind. Not much can be done in such cases 
by way of treatment. Its removal by the operation practised 
upon the human eye, and known as "couching," is hardly ad- 
visable, as the horse is forever after unsafe, being very apt to 
21 



322 POLL EVIL. 

shy at almost every object which he encounters, in consequence 
of his sight being but partially restored by the operation. 



WALL EYE. 

This peculiar appearance of the iris in some horses is not the 
result of disease, but is occasioned by the absence of what is 
called the pigment, which gives color to the eye. This pigment 
is secreted upon the inside of the iris, and where it does not 
exist, the iris, or* that part of the eye which surrounds the 
pupil (so called from its brilliancy) remains white. Percival 
says : " It is a remarkable fact that this variety of hue in the 
iris corresponds with the color of the hair ; bay and chestnut 
horses have hazel eyes ; brown horses have brownish eyes ; and 
very dark brown or black horses, eyes of a still darker, dusky 
brown shade. This curious relation is still more observable 
in human beings ; the diversity of colors and hues in their 
irides being infinitely greater than any thing we behold among 
any one species of animals. Cream-colored and milk-white 
horses have wall eyes, and albinos have red eyes ; in both which 
instances the iris is said to be destitute of any coloring matter 
whatever." 



MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES. 



POLL EVIL. 

This disease arises from blows inflicted upon the poll, or 
back part of the head, of animals whose blood is impure, or in 
a morbid condition. Horses going in or out of stables with 



POLL EVIL. 323 

low doorways frequently strike their polls; pulling back upon 
the halter, and blows iiiflicted by passionate grooms, are 
among the exciting causes of this much dreaded complaint. 
The same injuries inflicted upon an animal in perfect health 
seldom cause any essential trouble ; but when the blood is in 
a morbid condition, fistulous abscesses are formed, which are 
seldom curable by merely local treatment, even when the dis- 
ease is treated in its earliest stages. 

The author has no ftiith in the seton, so highly recommended 
in such cases, but depends principally upon constitutional 
treatment, which consists in first changing the condition of the 
blood from an unhealthy standard to a healthy one. This may 
be done by the proper use of alterative medicines, given in 
either of the following forms : Socotrine aloes pulverized, four 
ounces ; soft soap, four ounces ; linseed meal, one and a half 
pounds ; mix with molasses so as to form a mass ; dose, one 
ounce twice a day : — or, Socotrine aloes, eight ounces ; soft 
soap, eight ounces ; linseed meal, one and a half pounds ; mix 
and dose as before : — or, the following powder may be used ; 
sublimed sulphur, two i---- 1==^^- — ^=^=5=.^ .5--^— ._ 
pounds ; sesqui-sulphuret 
of antimony in powder, 
one pound : dose, a table- 
spoonful twice a day in 
the feed. The sesqui- 
sulphuret of antimony 
should never be pur- 

hj . T , THE KUNNIKG STALLION AMERICAN ECLIFS2. 

ased m a powdered 

form, as it is often adulterated with lead, arsenic, rrsagnesia 

or iron j but should always be procured in conical masses. 




324 MELANOTIC TUMORS. 

If the abscess is soft and pointing, it should be opened, and a 
solution of zinc, two drachms to a quart of water, injected 
into the opening once or twice a day. A saturated solution 
of corrosive sublimate is sometimes used advantageously; 
though the zinc is much safer in the hands of inexperienced 
persons. The nux vomica, in half-drachm doses, is also used 
as an internal remedy with good effect. 



FISTULA OF THE WITHEBS. 

This is precisely the same as poll evil, its location alone 
giving it a different name, and requires the same course of 
treatment. Its location is upon the raised part along the 
back, and over the shoulders, known as the withers, and it is 
caused by bruises from the forepart of the saddle, and other 
causes. 



MELANOTIC TUMORS. 

Swellings are generally termed tumors ; but tumors proper 
are swellings in any part of the animal not attended by in- 
flammation, comprehending bony, fatty, fibrous, melanotic, 
etc. For their removal an operation is generally requisite, 
which should be left to the veterinary surgeon. Melanotic, 
or black tumors are, however, peculiar to gray horses, and 
operations upon this class would be of little use, as the entire 
system is usually filled with them ; where one is seen, many 
more may be suspected. The author presented to the Boston 
Veterinary Institute, some years ago, a large cluster, fifty or 
sixty in number, taken from the abdominal cavity of a gray 
nofse, aii united together by membranous attachments; and 



GLANDERS. 325 

there could riot have been less than ten thousand of these 
tumors in the animal from which this specimen was taken. 
They will frequently be found about the tail of gray horses, 
not being found in horses of any other color. 



GLANDERS. 

This fatal and much dreaded disease has baffled the efforts 
of veterinary surgeons in all ages of the world, and still 
continues so to do. It is decidedly contagious ; yet as dif- 
ferent diseases are often confounded with it, which may be 
detected by the competent practitioner, no animal should be 
condemned until the symptoms peculiar to glanders, which 
cannot well be mistaken if the disease is fully developed, have 
manifested themselves. The suspected animal should be re- 
moved and kept from all possible contact with any others. 
The author has deposited in the museum of the Veterinary 
College of Philadelphia the heads of a number of horses that 
were killed as glandered animals, and yet not one of them 
was so ; the suspicious symptoms in each case arising from 
carious teeth. Animals afflicted with ozena have also fre- 
quently been killed as glandered ; and in one case which re- 
cently came under the author's notice, where the animal was 
killed as glandered, the cause of all the difficulty was the 
filling up of the frontal sinuses by bony deposits. 

It is necessary for the attendant to use the utmost caution 
when about a glandered horse, as the disease is freely com- 
municated from the animal to man by inoculation. Of some 
sixty-seven cases reported in the Veterinarian of London as 
occurring in man, but three recovered, notwithstanding the 



326 GLANDERS. 

utmost exertions of the ablest physicians that could be pro 
cured. 

The most common cause of this disease is the impure air of 
close, ill-ventilated, and filthy stq,bles, which acts injuriously 
upon the organs of respiration, destroys the constitution, de- 
bilitates the system, and renders it susceptible to the attacks 
of disease. Neglected catarrh, also, sometimes terminates in 
glanders ; hard work and bad provender, together with sudden 
changes from exposure to cold and wet weather to hot stables, 
are likewise reckoned among the causes. 

The symptoms are, discharges from one or both nostrils, of 
a glossy, thick, gluey nature, frequently sticking about the 
nostrils in considerable masses. This is a peculiarity which 
other discharges do not possess. This discharge is not always 
copious, as is generally supposed. The Schneiderian membrane 
of the nose changes to a dusky, or dirty yellow, or leaden 
hue ; ulcers appear upon the membrane ; a peculiar raising 
of the nasal bones will be observed, which the author has 
never noticed in any other disease ; the discharge is sometimes 
mixed with blood, and is often fetid ; and one or both of the 
submaxillary glands are swollen and adhere to the jaw bone. 
Too much reliance, however, should not be placed upon this 
swelling, as it frequently accompanies other diseases ; but the 
character of the discharge, and the raising of the nasal bones 
are peculiarities not easily mistaken when the disease is de^ 
veloped. As all the other symptoms will be found accom- 
panying other diseases, too much care cannot be exercised in 
deciding upon a case of this disease previous to a full develop- 
ment of the symptoms. 

All treatment thus far has proven a failure. 



FARCY. 327 

PABCY. 

This is regarded by the author as an incipient stage of 
glanders, or as a type of the same disease, and with proper 
management is curable. Experiments prove that the virus 
from a farcied horse will produce glanders by inoculation in a 
sound one, and that the glandered matter will in like manner 
produce farcy. There are two distinct varieties or stages of 
farcy : one, which is called button farcy, is altogether super- 
ficial, being confined to the lymphatic vessels of the skin, and 
readily yields to medical treatment ; the other variety makes 
its appearance in the extremities, generally upon the inside 
of the hind legs, which become completely engorged j but the 
swelling is very different from the ligamentary thickening, or 
from oedema, being very uneven or lumpy, excessively tender, 
and painful to the touch. Small abscesses are formed, which at 
first discharge a healthy pus, but soon ulcerate, and discharge 
a thin, sanious matter. These abscesses, or tumors, first make 
their appearance on the inside of the hind legs, and then on 
the fore ones in like manner ; the neck and lips come next in 
turn, and they may afterward appear in all parts of the body, 
when glanders will begin to manifest itself. 

By way of treatment, good wholesome food is all important. 
Sulphate of copper in two-drachm doses, combined with one 
or two drachms of pulverized gentian root, will often prove 
successful ; corrosive sublimate, also, in ten or fifteen grain 
doses, night and morning, has often been advantageously 
used ; the doses may be increased to a scruple, or even half a 
drachm, if the animal bears the medicine well. If the animal 
is much debilitated, give calomel in half-drachm doses instead 



328 SCARLET FEVER. 

of the sublimate, or the sulphuret of mercury may be sub- 
stituted. The use of arsenic has also beeu attended with good 
success, but the author has been more fortunate with the 
muriate of baryta in half-drachm doses, than with any other 
preparation in use. All the tumors should be opened, and 
caustic carefully applied to each ; sulphate of copper, nitrate 
of silver, the per-manganate of potash, or the red-hot iron, are 
the best applications. The following ointment should be 
rubbed along the corded vessels once a day : blue ointment, 
two ounces ; hydriodate of potash, two drachms ; lard, two 
ounces ; mix well. Or, the red oxide of mercury, two drachms 
to the ounce of lard is very good. 



SCARLET FEVER. 

This disease, otherwise called scarlatina, has too frequently 
been confounded with farcy, notwithstanding the two diseases 
present very different symptoms. It is easily managed, yield- 
ing readily to medical treatment. 

For several days previous to any very noticeable symptoms 
being manifest, the animal is oflf his feed, dull and mopy, with 
mouth hot and dry ; slight or copious discharges from the 
nose, mixed with blood ; the Schneiderian membrane highly 
colored, and presenting numerous scarlet blotches, irregular 
in form, and containing a thin, reddish fluid ; these blotches 
sometimes present a pustular appearance, but upon passing 
the finger over them, nothing of that character can be dis- 
covered ; the whole body is covered with similar spots, which 
sometimes require close examination to discover them ; in 
other cases, little pustules are formed, which break, and dis- 



MANGE. 229 

charge a thin sanious fluid of a reddish color and gluey 
nature ; swellings of the legs, sheath, and belly, are usually 
attending symptoms ; the respiration is quick ; the pulse is 
full and accelerated, and there is a disinclination to move. 

For treatment, the extract of belladonna alone appears to 
be a specific in this disease. It should be given in doses of 
from one half to two drachms, dissolved in a pail of water, and 
given to the animal to drink. No hay should be placed be- 
fore him ; soft mashes only should be allowed, until he is 
convalescent. This treatment, so simple yet so effective, has 
been pursued by the author's friend, Dr. Bowler, of Cincinnati, 
and himself, for the last ten years, with uniform success, not a 
single case having been lost. It is true that the disease is not 
of very common occurrence ; yet during that period the author 
has had over thirty cases. 



MANGE. 

Diseases of the skin are less numerous in the horse thau 
perhaps, most other animals ; a circumstance doubtless arising 
from the great care taken of our better class of horses to keep 
the skin clean, thereby promoting its healthy action. Mange 
is identical with the itch in the human body, and is an infec- 
tious disease, the intolerable itching being caused by minute 
insects, called acari. They are first observed with the aid of 
a powerful microscope along the mane and the root of the tail, 
causing a scurfy appearance of the skin. This appearance 
rapidly extends to the neck and body ; spots denuded of hair 
will appear, which gradually run into continuous scabby 
patches. As the disease advances, it thickens and puckers 



330 



MANGE. 



the skin, particularly of the neck, withers and loins. This dis- 
ease is easily cured if properly managed. 

The natural history of these insects is not well known. 
They live only upon, or beneath, the skin of animals. There 
appears to be a distinct variety, peculiar to each species of 
animals. They live for a considerable time after being re- 
moved from the skin, but for how long a period is not pre- 
cisely known. According 
to experiments made it 
^ appears that they can live 
^ in pure water for three 
g^ hours ; in strong vinegar, 
alcohol, and in a solution 
of kali carbonicum, twenty 
minutes ; in a solution of 
sulphuric acid, twelve 
minutes ; in turpentine, 
nine minutes ; and in a so- 
lution of arsenic, four min- 
utes. When they are not exposed to such violent and de- 
structive immersions, it has been said that they will retain life 
for six or eight days. From a comparison of the acari of 
mangy animals, it is supposed that the variety peculiar to 
the horse can live for a much longer period. Mangy horses 
have been removed from their stalls, washed with various pre- 
parations, put into another stable, and completely freed from the 
effects of the disease ; but upon returning to their former stalls, 
or using unwashed their accustomed harness, the disease soon 
showed symptoms of its return. This fact accounts for the 
trouble experienced in curing this disease. The insect is 




THE THREE FRIENDS. 



SURFEIT. 331 

rubbed off upon the sides of the stall, or clings to the harness, 
again to come in contact with the animal. 

For treatment, the animal should be stripped of all harness, 
well washed with acetic acid, and turned into a loose box 
stall away from that in which he has been standing. If this 
course is adopted, one or two washings will generally suffice. 
The harness also should be well washed, and not used for two 
or three months ; nor Should the horse be replaced in his 
former stall for a less period, and not even then until it has 
been thoroughly cleaned and white washed. A wash of white 
hellebore and water has been much and beneficially used for 
this disease ; and in inveterate cases corrosive sublimate in 
solution is recommended, though there is some danger of its 
absorption ; if this should occur, the animal would quite likely 
be destroyed. A mixture of sulphur, oil, and turpentine is 
highly recommended ; but the author has never witnessed 
the superior qualities of any of these preparations over the 
acetic acid. 



SUEPEIT. 

This disease appears all over the body in the form of pus- 
tules, which seem scaly, and then appear to get entirely well, 
while fresh ones make their appearance, and follow in the 
same course. The hair is rough, staring, and unhealthy in 
appearance ; the legs sometimes become much swollen, and 
there is general debility. This disease is supposed to arise 
from bad grooming, bad management, and unwholesome food, 
together with a general plethoric state of the system. 

For treatment, bleed the animal if plethoric, taking from 



332 STRAINS OF THE LOINS. 

the neck vein from four to six quarts ; la the absence of 
plethora, the lancet must not be used. Give a strong purging 
ball, followed by one of these powders twice a day : saltpetre, 
one and a half ounces ; flower of sulphur, two ounces ; black 
antimony, one ounce ; mix and divide into eight powders. 



HIDE BOUND. 

This is a condition of the skin, caused by some morbid action 
in the system. Derangement of the digestive organs will in- 
duce it. The animal must be treated for the disease under 
which it is laboring. 



STRAINS OF THE LOINS. 

Strains are of very frequent occurrence in the horse, in con- 
sequence, doubtless, of the great amount of labor demanded of 
him, which often taxes his powers to the utmost. These strains 
frequently give rise to serious trouble, rendering the animal 
unfit for work and often establishing an incurable lameness. 
Strains of the loins occur most frequently in draft horses, par- 
ticularly in those used in the shafts of drays or carts. Such 
animals on going down hill heavily loaded are very apt to be- 
come injured ; at times the injury is so great that the spinal 
marrow becomes affected, causing paralysis of the hind extre- 
mities, and rendering the animal comparatively useless ever 
after. When the injury is very severe, bleeding should be re- 
sorted to, if the animal can bear it. The following liniment 
will be found an excellent application for strains of all kinds : 
laudanum, gum camphor, spirits of turpentine, tincture of myrrh, 
castile soap, oil origanum, nitrous ether, ot each one ounces 



LOCKED JAW. 333 

alcohol, one quart ; mix all together, and shake well before 
using ; apply two or three times as occasion may require. 



f PALSY. 

This is a loss of power in the nervous system. General palsy 
is never found in the horse, it being always partial or limited 
in extent, and described under two heads, paraplegia and hemi- 
plegra. The first is a paralysis of the hind extremities, which 
is of very frequent" occurrence ; it sometimes occurs as a sym- 
pathetic affection,, in which cases it disappears with the other 
symptoms of the disease. The second form is a palsy of one 
side of the body only, and is of very rare occurrence. When 
paralysis arises from strains whereby the spinal cord is injured, 
it causes the most acute suffering, and the animal usually dies 
in a few days. When the pressure upon the spinal cord is not 
great, the animal is sometimes rendered useful for ordinary 
purposes, but very rarely becomes sound. 

For treatment, first open the bowels if they are the least cos- 
tive, and give internally one of the following powders night and 
morning ; nux vomica, one ounce ; pulverized gentian root, two 
ounces ; Jamaica ginger, one ounce ; mix, and divide into twelve 
powders. Apply warm sheep-skins to the loins, succeeded by 
the following application: linseed oil, one pint; spirits of harts- 
horn, four ounces ; shake well before using. Perfect rest and 
moderate diet are necessary. 



LOCKED JAW. 

This distressing malady, otherwise known as tetanus or tris- 
mus, is one generally arising from neglected wounds, such as 



— 1 



334 LOCKED JAW. 

are occasioned by a horse's picking up a nail ; in which case 
the wound, instead of being kept open by the owner, or his 
attendant, is suffered to close up, in consequence of which, if 
there is the slightest disposition to ulceration, matter is formed 
under the horn or hoof, which develops the most alarming 
symptoms, usually in about two weeks after the wound has 
healed. When locked jaw is the result of wounds, it is called 
symptomatic, or traumatic ; when existing without apparent 
cause, it is called idiopathic. The latter is said to be caused in 
some cases by the action of bots and of worms in the intestines. 

The first symptoms observable are a stiff, straggling gait 
behind ; rigidity of the muscles of the jaw, completely locking 
the jaws together; the tongue is sometimes swollen, and con- 
siderable saliva flows from the mouth. As the disease pro- 
gresses, the muscles throughout the body become rigid; the 
animal turns as though there was not a joint in the body ; the 
nose is poked out, the nostrils dilated, and respiration disturbed ; 
the bowels are almost invariably constipated ; on elevating the 
head, a spasmodic or flickering motion of the eye will be ob- 
served, exposing little more than the white parts. When the 
disease is confined to the head and neck, it is called trismus; 
when extended to all parts of the body, it is termed tetanus. 

There can scarcely be any principle laid down to govern the 
treatment of this disease, as cases have recovered under all kinds 
of treatment. The great object is to get the bowels opened ; 
when this is accomplished, the cases usually have a favorable 
termination ; but when the jaws are firmly set, the prospects are 
very limited. Give, if possible, by the mouth one ounce of aloes, 
ten drops of croton oil, two drachms of pulverized gentian root, 
and one drachm of ginger ; make into one ball with molasses. 



RHEUMATISM. 335 

If this cannot be given, keep a ball of aloes in the mouth, the 
action of which may be increased by adding to the ball two 
drachms of calo- 
mel, and omitting 
the c rot on oil. 
Give injections of 
belladonna, h alf 
an ounce dissolved 
in a pail of water. 
Opium has been 
much used, but is 
giving way to 
other prepara- btron's mazeppa. 

" They left me there to my despair, 
tions. Give upon Link'd to the dead and stiffening wretch." 

the tongue every hour twenty drops of the following mixture : 
hydrocyanic acid and tincture of aconite, of each one ounce ; 
mix, and shake, well together. Blistering the back, from the 
head to the tail, has succeeded in some cases. Chloroform has 
been highly recommended, but appears to have only a tempo- 
rary effect; it is given in doses of from one to two drachms. 




BHEUMATISM. 

This disease is quite common in the Western States. The 
symptoms are stiffness, lameness, and shifting from one limb to 
another ; sometimes tumefaction is observable about the extre- 
mities. The lameness is sometimes absent, and appears to be 
influenced by changes in the weather. 

For treatment, poultice the feet with mustard and flaxseed 
meal. Give internally of nux vomica, one ounce; pulverized 
gentian root, one and a half ounces ; pulverized ginger, ono 



336 HYDROCELE. 

ounce ; mix, and divide into twelve powders ; give one every 
night in the feed. 

The most successful treatment which the author has found, 
when the above has failed to effect a perfect cure, is that 
recommended by Dr. Bowler, of Cincinnati, whose experi- 
ence in baffling this disease has been quite considerable. It is 
as follows : — if the animal is plethoric, bleed freely and give a 
strong cathartic ; follow every morning with one of the following 
balls : pine tar, two ounces ; pulverize^ gentian root, one ounce; 
mix all together, and divide into eight balls. Keep the body 
warm, and give no corn. 



CRAMP. 

This complaint occasions considerable alarm to the owner of 
ahorse, from the peculiarity of the symptoms. A horse is found 
to go suddenly lame, lameness continuing, dragging one leg 
after him as though it were dislocated or broken. Upon taking 
a whip and striking him, he will sometimes go two or three 
steps in a natural way, and then the leg drags again. Such 
instances have been pronounced fractures by the farrier, and 
even by the young veterinarian such a mistake has been made ; 
indeed, there are instances of the horse's having been killed by 
order of the medical attendant. 

Treatment. Friction by hand-rubbing, and application of 
the liniment recommended for strains. Usually the animal will 
be found all right upon the following day. 



HYDROCELE. 

This disease commonly known as dropsy of the testicles, 
sometimes affects the stallion. It consists of a collection of 



SIT-FASTS. 33t 

serum in the tunica vaginalis, or bag containing the testes, 
fluctuating when pressed by the hand, but free from tenderness 
or pain. Its causes are obscure, but it is supposed to result 
from injuries, such as strains, etc. 

For treatment, the scrotum should be punctured, and a weak 
solution of tincture of iodine injected into the tunica vaginalis ; 
or equal parts of port wine, and water of zinc lotion, or lime 
water, may be used with very good effect. The animal should 
be well secured before these preparations, particularly the first, 
are used, as the pain thereby caused may render him for the 
time unmanageable. 



WAETS. 

These fungous growths appear in the horse most frequently 
about the mouth, nose, and lips ; but they are occasionally 
found upon other parts of the body. They are sometimes found 
in large numbers about the lips of colts, and are generally rubbed 
off, or drop off; if, however, they grow large and become 
deeply rooted, they may be cut off by passing a needle through 
the centre armed with double thread, and tied tightly around 
the neck on each side. This prevents the possibility of the 
ligatures being rubbed off. Or, they may be painted over with 
the per-manganate of potash, a few applications of which will 
entirely destroy warts of a large size; or they may be removed 
with a knife. 



SIT-FASTS. 

These are dark, hard, scabby spots upon the back, which are 
dead skin and cannot be easily removed ; but by poulticing for 
several days they become soft and may be torn off. Tincture 
• 22 



338 MALLANDERS AND SELLENDERS. 

of myrrh applied two or three times a day will generally eflfeci 
a cure after the dead skin is removed. 



■WARBLES. 

Tiiese arise from bruises, which cause superficial swellings 
that sometimes suppurate. They should be freely opened and 
the matter well washed out. A solution of sulphate of zinc, or 
alum-water, is all that is required to effect a cure. 



SADDLE OE HARNESS GALLS. 

These are bruises caused by friction and moisture, occurring 
most frequently in warm weather ; the parts are rubbed raw, 
and sometimes bleed. The treatment is simple and effectual. 
Bathe the parts several times a day with one pint of water and 
half a pint of tincture of myrrh. 



MALLANDERS AND SELLENDERS. 

These are scurfy eruptions of the back part of the knee 
joint and the front part of the hock joint. They sometimes 
occasion much pain, and lameness in consequence. They con- 
stitute but one disease, the names having reference to the fore 
and hind extremities ; mallenders being applied to eruptions 
upon the fore extremities, and sellenders to those upon the 
hind ones. 

For treatment, wash the parts well with castile soap and 
water, and apply the following : lard, four ounces, and Goulard's 
extract, one ounce, well mixed. 



SURGICAL CASES. 339 

ULCERATION OF THE UDDER. 

Mares are sometimes subject to ibis disease, which is caused 
by the milk's coagulating in the bag, and causing inflamma- 
tion and suppuration. The udder becomes swollen, hot, 
tender, hard, and knotty. A flaxseed poultice should at once 
be applied, when the abscess will soon be brought to a head, 
which will be known by its smooth, polished appearance and 
its soft feeling. It should then be lanced, and the udder 
bathed twice a day- with lard melted as hot as the animal can 
bear. Sometimes it becomes necessary to inject a solution of 
the sulphate of zinc into the opening ; but in ordinary cases 
the hot lard is sufficient, if properly applied. 



INFLAMED VEINS. 

The jugular or neck vein sometimes becomes inflamed in 
consequence of being injured by a bungling bleeder. A swell- 
ing is first noticed, followed by a gaping in the incision in the 
neck, from which an acrid fluid oozes. 

For treatment, bathe the part well with cold water, into 
\vhich a small portion of tincture of myrrh is thrown, and with 
a* purging ball a cure is soon eff'ected. 



SURGICAL CASES. 

It frequently becomes necessary, in order to relieve the 
animal from some painful disease, to resort to operations in 
surgery ; this, in fact, has of late years become an important 



S40 SUKGICAL CASES. 

branch of veterinary practice. Wlaen it becomes necv'^ssary to 
use the knife, the animal should be spared all useless torture. 
In severe operations, humanity dictates the use of some anses- 
thetic agent to render the animal insensible to pain. Chloro- 
form is the most powerful of this class, and may be adminis- 
tered with perfect safety, provided a moderate quantity of 
atmospheric air is inhaled with or during its administration. 
Sulphuric ether acts very feebly upon the horse, and cannot 
therefore be successfully used. Chloric ether answers a very 
good purpose, but pure chloroform is preferable. In minor 
operations, the twitch, the side-hobble, or the foot-strap, is all 
that is necessary. When a horse is to be cast for an operation, 
force must be used for its accomplishment. The patent hob- 
bles have been preferred for that purpose by veterinary sur- 
geons generally, though the author prefers a modification of 
the cast-rope and the patent hobbles. This improvement con- 
sists in having a heavy, well-padded leathern collar, each layer 
burned in with rosin, after the style of the old-fashioned fire- 
buckets ; at the bottom of this collar a strong ring is attached, 
secured by an iron band ; through this ring the rope is passed ; 
around the body a strong leathern band is buckled, which 
connects with the top of the collar by a cross strap, which 
keeps it in place ; a hobble band is placed upon each hind 
fetlock, through the D of which the rope is passed ; on each 
side of the collar a strong ring is firmly secured, through which 
the rope also passes, the ends of which are then pulled upon 
by one or two men on each side, and the animal let quietly 
down. The author is convinced by experience that.this ar- 
rangement is far preferable to any hobble arrangement yet 
seen. It is a mistaken idea that horses must be cast for every 
Uttle operation; in truth, but few operations require it. 



BLEEDING. 341 

BLEEDING. 
Blood-letting in former times was regarded as the sheet 
anchor in veterinary practice ; but that day has past. The 
practice of bleeding horses upon all occasions cannot be too 
strongly condemned; the cases where blood-letting proves 
beneficial being comparatively few. Before using the lancet 
the pulse must be examined, the condition of the animal con- 
sidered, and the effects upon that pulse must decide the quan- 
tity of blood to be taken. The pulse will be found following 
the front margin of the masseter muscle, which muscle forms 
the fleshy parts of the head upon each side, called the cheeks. 
By following the front part of this 
muscle downward with the thumb, until 
near the base of the lower 
jaw, and then passing the 
forefingers under, or — _J /''^^ 
inside of the jaw, the ' ' * "^~ 

pulse will be readily --r^^^^sE^^Ess-^--— ^^^^^^5^:^-5^^^-^ 

felt ; or, to point its i-ady Suffolk. 

location oi^J; with more certainty, if an imaginary line is drawn 
perpendicularly from the front part of the ear downward, it 
will cross the point where the pulse is located and felt. 

In a healthy condition the pulse beats from thirty-six to 
forty times a minute ; variation above or below this standard 
indicates a morbid condition of the system. This fact should 
be born in mind in the description of any disease. When 
bleeding is necessary, the neck never should be corded, as 
much injury has at times been caused by this practice. All 
that is requisite is to raise the jugular vein by pressing upon 




342 NEUROTOMY OR NERVING. 

it with the fingers of the left hand, using the lance with the 
right. The old-fashioned mode of bleeding with the fleam 
and blood-stick is a bungling operation, frequently requiring 
several trials before bringing blood, the result of which is an 
inflamed vein. A more convenient, a more certain, and a more 
satisfactory method is by using a spring lance, made for the 
purpose, which never fails in bringing blood upon the first 
trial. It is so contrived as to straddle the vein of the neck, 
which keeps it firm, and prevents its rolling, so that it is ira» 
possible to miss bringing the blood when it is once placed 
upon the vein and sprang. By this method of bleeding, the 
covering of the eye and the cording of the neck are unnecessary, 
and the operation can easily be accomplished by one person. 
After the vein has been opened, the blood-pail, pressed against 
the vein will cause the blood to flow freely. When the desired 
quantity has been drawn, the vein must be carefully closed by 
passing a pin through the centre of the opening, taking 
up the skin upon both sides, and tying with hair from the 
mane or tail. The pin may be removed in about twenty-four 
hours. 



TyTEUBOTOMY OR NERVING. 
This is one of the most important operations in reterinary 
practice, and one that has been much abused, not only in 
Europe, but even more so in the United States. Its useful- 
ness was first demonstrated by Assistant Professor Sewell, of 
the Yeterinary College of London. The operation consists in 
cutting out a portion of the metacarpal nerves on each side 
of the legs, thus destroying the sensibility of the foot. From 
the instantaneous relief experienced by the animal in all cases 



NEUROTOMY OR NERVINa. 343 

of foot lameness, no matter from what cause, an opportunity has 
been afiforded to dishonest persons for imposing upon the public 
by availing themselves of this practice ; an opportunity, it need 
not be said, which has been freely used, and thus a valuable 
operation has been brought into undeserved disrepute. The 
cases likely to be benefited by this operation are few, and 
should be selected with great care ; otherwise the loss of 
the animal's hoof may be, and often is, the termination of 
the case. 

This operation is recommended by veterinary authors in 
incurable cases of lameness of the navicular joint ; but suffi- 
cient caution is not impressed upon the mind of the reader, to 
enable him to guard against the fatal results which too often 
follow. 

In deciding upon a case for this operation, an animal should 
be selected with a foot as free from contraction as possible ; 
free from corns ; comparatively free from inflammation ; with a 
concave ground surface ; open heels ; hoof free from rings or 
roughness ; and no bony deposits within the hoof. In such a 
case, the operation may be performed with success. A horse 
that has been foundered should not, under any circumstances, 
be operated upon, as ossification of the laminae frequently fol- 
lows such an attack ; nor a horse affected with ossification 
of the lateral cartilages, corns, or badly contracted hoof; for 
these are the cases where loss of the hoof is likely to follow, 
rendering the animal useless. 

After the operation has been performed, care should be 
taken in driving the animal ; for it should be remembered that 
no matter what accident may happen to the foot, the animal 
is unconscious of pain. The feet should be frequently exam- 



344 NEUROTOMY OR NERVING. 

ined to see whether the horse has picked up a nail, or other 
wise injured the foot ; for such injuries would otherwise re- 
main undiscovered until too late to save the animal's life 
or usefulness. The smith should be informed of the opera- 
tion, in order to guard against pricking the animal's foot in 
shoeing. 

It is necessary previous to the operation that the feet should 
be perfectly cool, which condition may be obtained by frequent 
bathings with cold water for several days previous. The horse 
is cast, the foot to be operated upon loosened, and brought for- 
ward by an assistant, it resting upon a bed of straw. A verti- 
cal incision is made about two inches above the fetlock, between 
the cannon bone and back sinew, raising up with the forceps 
the cellular membrane, and carefully dissecting out the nerve. 
The precaution should be taken of placing the finger upon it, 
as the artery has been taken up and cut off before the mistake 
was discovered. Having fairly exposed the nerve, pass a curved 
needle armed with strong thread under it, and by carefully 
drawing it up and down the nerve may be readily separated. 
A sheathed knife is then passed under the nerve, and by a quick 

motion the nerve is severed at the upper part. After the strug- 

a 
gles of the animal cease, the cut nerve may be raised with the 

forceps, and from one-half of an inch to an inch removed. This 

second cut causes no pain. The wound is then closed by three 

single stitches. After operating upon both sides in like manner, 

the animal is allowed to rise. Bandages should then be placed 

upon the leg, and kept saturated for several days with cold 

water. 



TREPHINING. 345 

LITHOTOMY. 

Operations for stone in the bladder of the horse have been 
practised since 17 14, and in many cases very successfully. In 
performing this operation, an ordinary scalpel, a probe-pointed 
bistoury, a fluted whalebone staff, and a pair of curved forceps 
are necessary. The animal should be placed upon his back with 
the hind legs drawn well forward ; a whalebone Staff is passed 
up the urethra, which may be felt a little below the anus ; an 
incision, one and a half or two inches in length is made directly 
upon it, obliquely to one side, cutting through the urethra and 
the neck of the bladder ; the forceps are next introduced, and 
the stone removed ; after which the parts are carefully closed 
by means of the quill suture, which in this operation is far su- 
perior to the interrupted ona, as it more effectually prevents the 
dribbling of urine through the wound, which always occurs with 
the interrupted one, and therefore causes a more speedy union 
of the parts. 



TKEPHINING. 

This operation consists in cutting out circular pieces of bone 
with a circular saw, called a trephine, and is most generally 
performed in cases of fracture of the skull, or face. The bone 
removed must be from the sound part contiguous to the frac- 
ture, so as to enable an elevator to be passed inside of the cra- 
nial case, for the purpose of pushing back the broken bone to 
its proper place, and removing all detached pieces. This ope- 
ration is also performed in cases of ozena, by removing a piece 
of bone over the frontal sinuses, situated immediately between 
the eyes, in order to expose the diseased parts at once, that they 
may bb washed with proper injections. 



346 TAPPING THE CHEST. 

TENOTOMY. 

This operation is practised for the purpose of strengthening 
crooked legs or sprung knees. It consists in dividing the flexor 
tendons, in order to bring the limb straight. There are but few 
cases, however, in which the operation would be of much service, 
and therefore care must be exercised in selecting such cases as 
are proper. It would hardly be proper in a young horse, as 
other means less objectionable often succeed. In old horses it 
would not be prudent, as their limbs are generally stiff and 
permanently set ; nor would it be successful in cases where an- 
chylosis or stiff joint existed, as is often found in connection 
with crooked legs and sprung knees. 



COUCHING. 

This is an operation upon the eye for the purpose of remov- 
ing a cataract from the axis of vision. A couching needle is 
passed through the sclerotic coat of the eye a little behind the 
cornea, passing it upward behind the iris to where the cataract 
is located, pressing it downward into the vitreous humor behind 
the iris, where it remains. This operation has not been very 
successful in the horse, by reason of the imperfect restoration 
of the sight thereby afforded, which causes them in almost every 
instance to shy at every object which they encounter, thus ren- 
dering them dangerous upon the road. 



TAPPING THE CHEST. 

This operation consists in passing a round, pointed instru- 
ment, sheathed with a canula, into the chest, in order to draw 



AMPUTATION OP THE PENIS. 341 

off any accumulation of fluid that may have taken place in the 
viscus. , The instrument is passed, after first making a small in- 
cision through the skin, between the eighth and ninth ribs, but 
not too low down. It is pushed gently forward until it pene- 
trates the pleura, or lining membrane of the chest. The stellet 
is then withdrawn, and the canula is kept in place until the fluid 
ceases to run. If, however, a large quantity exists, all of it 
should not be taken away at one time ; for the pressure upon the 
lungs having been so great, if such sudden relief is afforded, 
nature, unable to accommodate herself to so rapid an alteration 
gives way, and the animal consequently dies. It should there- 
fore be taken away at one, two, or three tappings, as occasion 
may require. Good wholesome food should be allowed. 



PEKIOSTEOTOMY. 
This operation is most generally performed for painful splints. 
It consists in cutting though the periosteum, or membrane 
covering the surface of all bones, over the splint or node, which 
immediately gives relief. This operation requires the aid of an 
experienced man. 



AMPUTATION OP THE PENIS. 

This operation is occasionally called fcfr in the horse, particu- 
larly in cases of paraphymosis, or protrusion of the penis, that 
have resisted all other modes of treatment. The operation, as 
performed in England, is unnecessarily tedious, and not as suc- 
cessful as it should be. It is only requisite in performing this 
operation to place a twitch upon the animal, and while he is 
standing to take the penis in the left hand, and with an ampu- 



348 (ESEOPHAGOTOMY. 

tating knife in the right to sever it at one stroke. The he- 
morrhage, although considerable, need not occasion any alarm, 
A piece of cotton or soft sponge, saturated with spirits of tur 
pentine or any other styptic, and placed in the sheath, will soon 
cause the hemorrhage to cease. Fear of hemorrhage, may 
deter some persons from performing what may appear a bold 
operation ; but the author has not known a single operation 
performed in this way to have a fatal termination ; whereas with 
the English mode of operating it frequently does so, beside, 
even if it is successful, rendering the animal useless for a mucl? 
greater period of time. 



CESOPHAGOTOMY. 

This operation is occasionally resorted to where any foreign 
substance, as an apple, potato, carrot, and the like, has lodged 
in the oesophagus, or gullet. Where such obstructions exist, 
gentle manipulations with the hand should first be resorted to ; 
if these are not successful in removing them, the probang is called 
for, and in case of failure thus to dislodge them, this operation is 
the only remaining resort. It is not necessary to cast the animal. 
Cut down directly upon the swollen part of the throat, and re- 
move the obstruction. The wound may then be closed by means 
of the interrupted suture; that is, by single stitches, at propel! 
distances apart, allowing the ends to hang out of the external 
wound, which may be closed in the same manner. The animal 
should be kept on gruel for several days. If the gruel is seen 
to ooze out of the wound when he is swallowing, it should be 
carefully washed away with cold water. The parts should be 
syringed with a weak solution of sulphate of zinc, chloride of 
zinc, or tincture of myrrh. 



HERNIA. 349 

HEENIA. 

By the term hernia surgeons understand a rupture, orprotra- 
siou of some of the viscera out of the abdomen, forming a soft 
tumor. In human practice there are hernias occurring in all 
the viscera of the body ; but in the equine race they are confined, 
with rare exceptions, to the abdominal viscera, the inguinal 
hernia being the most common. This appears in the groin, and 
is a protrusion of the intestine through the abdominal ring, 
which in the stallion frequently passes down into the scrotum, or 
bag, constituting scrotal hernia. These hernias sometimes occur 
during castration in consequence of the violent struggles of the 
animal. In such cases it is best to administer chloroform at once 
in order to quiet the animal and prevent violent strugglings. The 
animal should be put upon his back, and one hand passed up the 
rectum, and one or two fingers of the other placed upon the 
scrotum, when by careful manipulations the intestine can gene- 
rally be replaced. If, however, a reduc- 
tion cannot be eflfected, an operation will 
be n ecessary. ^p;^ 
The hernia should 
be exposed by ^B 
cutting through 
the integument a 
little upon one 
side, and coming g^- _ Jfa 
down upon the r^^^g 
hernia, the finger 

, T .. GOOD FOR HEAVY DRAFTS. 

IS placed upon it, 

and a reduction effected by careful manipulation. Care should 

be taken that the nails upon the hand are trimmed close, in 




350 ROWELING. 

order to prevent wounding the intestine. The wound should 
then be closed by means of the interrupted suture. A folded 
cloth should then be applied to the part, and retained by means of 
a continuous bandage crossed between the legs from side to side 
in the form of the figure 8. Sometimes the intestine becomes 
strangulated, constituting strangulated hernia, the reduction of 
which requires an operation as before mentioned. If, however, 
it is found impossible, then to reduce it, the finger should be 
passed through the opening, if possible, and a probe-pointed 
bistoury following upon it, enlarge the opening and replace the 
intestine. The same treatment as before indicated will be ne- 
cessary. 

The symptoms of strangulated hernia are very similar to 
those of acute enteritis, or inflammation of the bowels. These 
may be regarded as the only hernias to which the horse is 
liable. 



KOWELING. 

Rowels were formerly much used, but of late years the seton 
has superseded them. The rowel consists of a round piece of 
sole leather, cut out in the centre wound round with tow, which 
is saturated before using with digestive ointment. The skin is 
cut through, and dissected upon each side sufficiently to admit 
the rowel. This is used principally under the jaws and in the 
breast. The seton answers the same purpose, and is much more 
convenient. It consists in arming a needle made for the pur- 
pose with tape and passing it through the part desired, the 
seton being saturated with the same ointment as the rowel. 



FIRING. 351 

riRINQ. 

The object in firing a horse is to produce an external inflam- 
mation where counter-action is required, as in spavin, ringbone, 
curbs, etc. The operation may be performed upon the animal 
while standing, by placing a twitch and side line upon him ; 
but if the surface to be fired is extensive, and the animal high 
strung, it is better to cast him, particularly where a number of 
oblique, vertical, or horizontal lines are to be drawn. Firing 
is not practised at the present day to the extent that it formerly 
was, and when it is practised every endeavor should be made to 
prevent, as far as possible, the blemishes which always follow 
the operation. Yarious forms of irons have been adopted to 
accomplish this end. The author gives the preference to the 
feathered iron, which is brought down to a very fine edge, and, 
opinions are entertained by veterinary surgeons as to the ad- 
vantages resulting from deep firing as compared with those 
accruing from surface firing. In the author's judgment, if firing 
is resorted to at all, it should be done effectually. His attention 
has recently been called to a firing iron devised by A. Maillard, 
Esq., of Bordentown, "New Jersey, which is the best adapted in- 
strument that has ever passed under his notice. It consists of two 
pieces of iron, octagonal in form, about one and a half inches 
long by one and a quarter wide, one piece containing five 
round-pointed projections, placed one at each corner and one 
at the centre, and the other four points, so arranged as, when 
fitted together, to fill up the intermediate spaces of its opposite ; 
both irons being used alternately on the same parts without ex- 
tending the surface fired. This iron will probably supersede 
any iron in use, and thanks are due to the inventor for his ia- 



352 TRACHEOTOMY. 

genuity in producing it. Pointed instraments have been before 
used, but far inferior in their arrangement. 



TKACHEOTOMY. 

This operatij^n is occasionally called for in cases of strangles, 
ft'hen the swelling threatens suffocation, as it is often the only 
means of saving the animal's life. It consists in making a lon- 
gitudinal incision through the skin immediately over the wind- 
pipe and below the larynx, cutting through the cartilaginous 
rings (two or more, as occasion requires), and inserting in the 
opening a tube of silver made for the purpose, through which 
the animal breathes, instead of through the nostrils. A circular 
piece is sometimes cut out of the windpipe in order to admit the 
tube more freely, which is certainly the better mode of perform- 
ing the operation. In a case of emergency, a piece of elder 
with the pith pushed out will answer temporary purposes. It 
should be well secured from slipping into the windpipe by 
means of a piece of string. 








The Horse Tamed. 

|g The great celebrity which Mr. Rarey obtained 
in England and France, owing to his unparalleled 
\^m success in rendering the most vicious and un- 
lB governable horses perfectly tractable and gentle, 
has excited no small degree of interest and curi- 
osity among us, to ascertain the method which he adopts to 
secure such noteworthy results. To gratify this interest, as laud- 
able as it is naturJ, we propose in this place giving the leading 
2S ^^^^^ 




354 rarey's method of taming horses. 

features of his method, as gleaned from the various English 
publications bearing upon the subject, especially from the little 
work, entitled " The Art of Taming Horses, By J. S. Rarey," 
and edited by the Hunting Correspondent of " The Illustrated 
London News." 

It is needless to premise, that not every man can become a 
Rarey, by the perusal of this, or of any other treatise upon the art 
of breaking horses ; yet it is not claiming too much for this system 
to say, that by its use the large majority of horses may be broken 
more expeditiously, more effectually, and with far more satis- 
faction and pleasure to the breaker than by the adoption of any 
other now known. It is no slight gain, to be able to transfer 
the breaking .of horses from ignorant, impatient, and disagree- 
able persons to those who can in every respect appreciate the 
noble qualities of the animal and who will therefore deal with 
him as his high rank in the scale of creation demands. 

The three fundamental principles of the Rarey theory are : 
first, that the horse is so constituted by nature that he will not 
offer resistance to any demand made of him which he fully com- 
prehends, if such demand is made in a way consistent with the 
laws of his nature ; second, that he has no consciousness of his 
strength beyond his experience, and can be handled according 
to our will without force ; and third, that we can, in compliance 
with the laws of his nature, by which he examines all things 
new to him, take any object however frightful around, over, or 
on him, that does not inflict pain, without causing him to fear. 

As to the first proposition : — the horse, although possessed of 
some faculties superior to man's yet being deficient in reasoning 
powers, has no knowledge of right or wrong, of free will and 
independent government, and is not aware of any imposition 



rarey's method of taming horses. 355 

practised upon him, however unreasonable it may be. lie can- 
not, consequently, decide as to what he should, or should not 
do, not having the requisite faculties to enable him to argue the 
justice of the thing demanded of him. Had he such faculties, 
taking into consideration his superior strength, he would be 
useless to man as a servant. If he had mind in proportion to 
his strength, he would roam through the fields at large, yield- 
ing service to no one. His nature has been wisely formed to 
be operated upon by the knowledge of man according to the 
dictates of his will, and he may properly be termed an uncon- 
scious submissive servant. This truth is verified in every day's 
experience by the abuse to which he is subjected. Any one 
who chooses to be so cruel can mount the noble steed, and run 
him till he drops with fatigue, or, as is often the case with the 
more spirited, falls dead beneath his rider. If he had the power 
to reason, would he not rear and pitch his rider, rather than 
suffer him to run him to death ? Happily for us, he has no 
thought of disobedience, except by impulse caused by the vio- 
lation of the law of his nature. If then, he is disobedient, it is 
the fault of man. 

As to the second : the fact that the horse is unconscious of 
the amount of his strength, can be proven to the satisfaction 
of any one. Were it otherwise, the light vehicle in which he 
is placed, the slender reins and harness which guide and con- 
fine him, would be snapped asunder in an instant, at his own 
volition ; no hitching-post could restrain him against his will, 
no saddle girth be placed around his body. These facts, 
made common by every-day occurrence, are not regarded as 
anything wonderful. Their continued existence serves to re- 
move us from all consideratiou of them. 



356 earey's method op taming horses. 

As to the third : there being, as we know from a natural 
course of reasoning, some cause for every impulse or move- 
ment of either mind or action, and this law governing every 
action or movement of the animal kingdom, there must be 
some cause before fear can exist ; and if fear exists from the 
effects of imagination, and not from the infliction of real 
pain, it can be removed by complying with those laws of 
nature, by which the horse examines an object, and deter- 
mines upon its innocence or harm. 

A log or stump by the roadside, for example, may be, in 
the imagination of the horse, some great beast about to pounce 
upon him ; but after he is taken up to it, and allowed to stand 
by it for a little time, and to touch it with his nose, and to 
go through his process of examination, he will not care any- 
thing more about it. The same principle and process will 
have the same effect with any other object, however frightful 
in appearance, in which there is no hai'm. 

These principles being taken as the basis, whatever obstacles 
oppose the proper breaking of horses are readily surmounted 
by the Rarey method, commencing with the first steps to be 
taken with the colt, and thence proceeding through the whole 
task of breaking. 

How TO Call a Colt from Pasture. — Go to the pasture 
and walk around the whole herd quietly, and at such a dis- 
tance as not to cause them to scare and run. Then approach 
them very slowly, and if they stick up their heads and seem to 
be frightened, stand still until they become quiet, so as not to 
make them run before you are close enough to drive them in 
the direction you want them to go. And when you begin 
to drive, do not flourish your arms or halloo, but gently fol- 



rarey's method op taming horses. 367 

low tbem, leaving the direction open that you wish them to 
take. Thus taking advantage of their ignorance, you will be 
able to get them into the pound as easily as the hunter drives 
the quails into his net. For, if they have always run in the 
pasture uncared for (as many horses do in prairie countries 
, and on large plantations), there is no reason why they should 
not be as wild as the sportman's birds, and require the same 
gentle treatment, if you want to get them without trouble ; 
for the horse, in his natural state is as wild as a stag, or any 
of the undomesticated animals, though more easily tamed. 

How TO Stable a Oolt without trouble. — The next step 
will be, to get the horse into a stable or shed. This should 
be done as quietly as possible, so as not to excite any sus- 
picion in the horse of any danger befalling him. The best 
way to do this is to lead a broken horse into the stable first, 
and hitch him, then quietly walk around the colt and let him 
go in of his own accord. This should be undertaken slowly 
and considerately, as one wrong move may frighten your 
horse, and make him think it necessary to escape at all haz- 
ards for the safety of his life — and thus make two hours' work 
of a ten minutes' job ; and this would be all your own fault, 
and entirely unnecessary — for he will not run unless you run 
after him, and that would not be good policy imless you knew 
that you could outrun him, for you will have to let him stop 
of his own accord after all. But he will not try to break 
away unless you attempt to force him into measures. If he 
does not see the way at once, and is a little fretful about 
going in, do not undertake to drive him, but give him a little 
less room outside, by gently closing in around him. Do not 
raise youx arms, but let them hang at your side, for you might 
as well raise a club : the horse has never studied anatomy, 



358 



earey's method of taming horses. 



and does not know hut that they loill unhinge themselves and 
jiy at him. If be attempts to turn back, walk before him, 
but do not run ; if he gets past you, encircle him again in the 
same quiet manner, and he will soon find that you are not 
going to hurt him ; and then you can walk so close around 
him that he will go into the stable for more room, and to get 
further from you. As soon as he is in, remove the quiet 
horse and shut the door. This will be his first notion of con- 
finement — not knowing how he got into such a place, nor how 
to get out of it. That he may take it as quietly as possible, see 
that the shed is entirely free from dogs, chickens, or anything 
that would annoy him. Then give him a few ears of corn, 
and let him remain alone fifteen or twenty minutes, until he 
has examined his apartment, and become reconciled to his 
confinement. 

While he is eating, see that your 
halter is ready and all right, and de- 
termine for yourself the best mode of 
operation. Always use a leather hal- 
ter, and be sure to have it made so 
that it will not draw tight around his 
nose if he pulls on it. It should be of 
the right size to fit his head easily and 
nicely, so that the nose-band will not 
be too tight or too loose. Never put 
a rope baiter on an unbroken colt, 
BRIDLE WITH A -WOODEN GAG- u u d c T auy clrcumstauces whatever. 

BIT FOR CONQDERINa VICIOUS 

HORSES. Rope halters have caused more horses 

to hurt or kill themselves than would pay for twice the cost 
of all the leather halters that have ever been used for the 




rarey's method of taming horses. 359 

purpose of breaking colts. It is almost impossible to break 
a colt that is very wild with a rope halter, without having him 
pull, rear, and throw himself, and thus endanger his life ; and 
this, because it is just as natural for a horse to try to get his 
head out of anything that hurts it, or feels unpleasant, as it 
would be for you to try to get your hand out of a fire. The 
cords of the rope are hard and cutting ; this makes him raise 
his head and draw on it, and as soon as he pulls, the slip noose 
(the way rope halters are always made) tightens, and pinches 
his nose, and then he will struggle for life, until, perchance, he 
throws himself. But this is not the worst. A horse that has 
once pulled on his halter can never be as well broken as one 
that has never pulled at all. 

Before anything more is attempted with the colt, some of 
the characteristics of his nature must be noticed, that his 
motions may be better understood. Every one that has ever 
paid any attention to the horse, has noticed his natural in- 
clination to smell everything which to him looks new and 
frightful. This is their strange mode of examining everything. 
And when they are frightened at anything, though they look 
at it sharply, they seem to have no confidence in their eyesight 
alone, but must touch it with their nose before they are en- 
tirely satisfied ; and, as soon as they have done that, all seems 
right. 

If you want to satisfy yourself of this characteristic of the 
horse, and to learn something of importance concerning the 
peculiarities of his nature, etc., turn him into the barn yard, 
or a large stable will do, and then gather up something .that 
you know will frighten him- — a red blanket, buffalo robe, or 
something of that kind. Hold it up so that he can see it, he 




360 rarey's method of taming horses. 

will stick up his head and snort. Then throw it down eorao- 
where in the centre of the lot or barn, and walk off to. one 
side. Watch his motions, and study his nature. If he is 
frightened at the object, he will not rest until he has touched 

it with his nose. He will 

begin to walk around the 

robe and snort, all the time 

,a ffettinff a little closer, until 

STRAP FOR THE EIGHT FORE LEO. (See pages &^''""b " "^>-"^ y^i^^s. , 

366-370.) \^Q finally gets within reach 

of it. He will then very cautiously stretch out his neck 
as far as he can reach, merely touching it with his nose, as 
though he thought it was ready to fly at him. But after he 
has repeated these touches for a few times,, for the first time 
(though he has been looking at it all the while) he seems to 
have an idea of what it is. When he has found, by the sense 
of feeling, that it is nothing that will do him any harm, he is 
ready to play with it. If you watch him closely, you will see 
him take hold of it with his teeth, and raise it up, and pull at 
it ; and in a few minutes you can see that he has not that same 
wild look about his eye, but that he stands like a horse biting 
at some familiar stump. 

Yet the horse is never so well satisfied wnen he is about any- 
thing that has frightened him, as when he is standing with his 
nose to it ; and in nine cases out of ten, you will see some of that 
same wild look about him again, as he turns to walk from it. 
You will, probably, see him looking back very suspiciously as 
he walks away, as though he thought it might come after him 
yet.* In all probability he will have to go back and make 
another examination before he is satisfied ; but he will familiar- 
ize himself with it, and if he should run in that field for a few 



RAREY's method of TAMlNa HORSES. 361 

days, the robe that frightened hitn so much at first will be no 
more to him than a familiar stump. 

It might very naturally be supposed from the fact of the 
horse's applying his nose to everything new to him, that he 
always does so for the purpose of smelling these objects ; but 
it is as much or more for the purpose of feeling, and he makes 
use of his nose, or muzzle (as it is sometimes called), as we 
would of our hands ; because it is the only organ by which ho 
can touch or feel anything with much susceptibility. 

He invariably makes use of the four senses — seeing, hear- 
ing, SMELLING, and FEELING — in all of his examinations, of 
which the sense of feeling is, perhaps, the most important. In 
the expe'riment with the robe, his gradual approach and final 
touch with his nose was as much for the purpose of feeling as 
anything else, his sense of smell being so keen that it would 
not be necessary for him to touch his nose against anything 
in order to get the proper scent ; for it is said that a horse 
can smell a man at a distance of a mile. Besides, if the scent 
of the robe was all that was necessary, he could get that 
several rods off; whereas, we know from experience, that if a 
horse sees and smells a robe a short distance from him, he is 
very much frightened (unless he is used to it) until he touches 
or feels it with his nose ; which is a positive proof that feeling 
is the controlling sense in this case. 

It is a prevalent opinion among horsemen generally that 
the sense of smell is the governing sense of the horse ; and 
with that view many receipts of strong-smelling oils, etc., 
have been concocted in order to tame him. All of these as 
far as the scent goes, have no effect whatever in taming him, or 
conveying any idea to his mind ; though the acts that accom- 




362 rarey's method oe taming horses. 

pany these efforts — handling him, touching him about the 
nose and head, and patting him, as you are directed to do, 
after administering the articles, may have a very great effect, 
which is mistaken for the effect of the ingredients used. 

Approaching a Colt. — In order to take horses as we 
find them, of all kinds, and to train them to our liking, we 
should always take with us, when we go into a stable to train 

a colt, a long switch whip 
(whalebone buggy whips are 
the best) with a good silk 
cracker, so as to cut keenly 
and make a sharp report. 
BTRAP FOR THE OFF FORE LEQ. (See p. 370.) Thls, if haudlcd with dcxtcr- 
ity, and rightly applied, accompanied with a sharp, fierce word, 
will be sufficient to enliven the spirits of any horse. With 
this whip in your right hand, with the lash pointing backward, 
enter the stable alone. It is a great disadvantage in training 
a horse to have any one in the stable with you ; you should be 
entirely alone, so as to have nothing but yourself to attract 
his attention. If he is wild, you will soon see him on the 
opposite side of the stable from you ; and now is the time to 
use a little judgment. 

Accordingly, when you have entered the stable, stand still, 
and let your horse look at you a minute or two, and as soon 
as he is settled in one place, approach him slowly, with both 
arms stationary, your right hanging by your side, holding the 
whip as directed, and the left bent at the elbow, with your 
hand projecting. As you approach him, go not too much 
toward his head or croup, so as not to make him move either 
forward or backward, thus keeping your horse stationary ; if 



karey's method op timing horses. 363 

he does move a little either forward or backward, step a little 
to the right or left very cautiously ; this will keep him in one 
place. As you get very near him, draw a little to his shoulder, 
and stop a few seconds. If you are in his reach he will turn 
his head and smell your hand, not that he has any preference 
for your hand, but because that is projecting, and is the nearest 
portion of your body to the horse. This all colts will do, 
and they will smell your naked hand just as quickly as they 
will of anything that^you can put in it. 

As soon as he touches your hand with his nose, caress him 
as before directed, always using a very light, soft hand, merely 
touching the horse, always rubbing the way the hair lies, so 
that your hand will pass along as smoothly as possible. As 
you stand by his side, you may find it more convenient to rub 
his neck or the side of his head, which will answer the same 
purpose as rubbing his forehead. Favor every inclination of 
the horse to smell or touch you with his nose. Ahvays follow 
each touch or communication of this kind with the most tender 
and affectionate caresses, accompanied with a kind look, and 
pleasant ivord of some sort, such as, " Ho ! my little boy — ho ! 
my little boy 1" "Pretty boy !" "Nice lady !" or something of 
that kind, constantly repeating the same words, with the same 
kind, steady tone of voice ; for the horse soon learns to read the 
expression of the face and voice, and will know as well when 
fear, love, or anger prevails, as you know your own feelings ; 
two of which, fear and anger, a good horseman should never 
feel. 

If your horse, instead of being wild, seems to be of a stub- 
born or mulish disposition ; if he lays back his ears as you ap- 
proach him, or turns his heels to kick you, he has not that regard 



364 rarey's method of taming horses. 

or fear of man that he should have, to enable you to handk nim 
quickly and easily ; and it might be well to give him a few sharp 
cuts with the whip, about the legs, pretty close to the body. It 
will crack keenly as it plies around his legs, and the crack of 
the whip will affect him as much as the stroke ; besides, one 
sharp cut about his legs will affect him more than two or three 
over his back, the skin on the inner part of his legs or about his 
flank being thinner, more tender, than on his back. Do not 
whip him much — just enough to frighten him ; it is not because 
we want to hurt the horse that we whip him — we only do it to 
frighten vice and stubbornness out of him. Whatever you do, 
do quickly, sharply, and with a good deal of fire, but always 
without anger. If you are going to frighten him at all, you 
must do it at once. Never go into a pitched battle with your 
horse, and whip him until he is mad and will fight you ; it would 
be better not to touch him at all, for you will establish, instead 
of fear and respect, feelings of resentment, hatred, and ill-will. 
If you can succeed in frightening him, you can whip him with- 
out making him mad ; for fear and anger never exist together 
in the horse, and as soon as one is visible, the other disappears. 
After you have frightened him, so that he will stand up straight 
and pay some attention to you, approach him again, and caress 
him a good deal more than you whipped him ; then you will 
excite the two controlling passions of his nature, love and feai', 
and as soon as he learns what you require, he will obey quickl}'. 
How TO Halter and Lead a Colt. — As soon as you have 
tamed the colt a little, take the halter in your left hand, and 
approach him as before, and on the same side that you have 
tamed him. If he is very timid about your approaching closely 
to him, you can get up to him quicker by making tha '^hip a 



rarey's method of taming horses. 3G5 

I 

part of youv arm, and reaching out very gently with the butt end 
of it, rubbing him lightly on the neck, all the time getting a 
little closer, shortening the whip by taking it up in your hand, 
until you finally get close enough to put your hands on him. 
If he is inclined to hold his head from you, put the end of the 
halter-strap around his neck, drop your whip, and draw very 
gently ; he will let his neck give, and you can pull his head to 
you. Then take hold of that part of the halter which buckles 
over the top of his head, and pass the long side, or that part 
which goes into the buckle, under his neck, grasping it on the 
opposite side with your right hand, letting the first strap loose 
— the halter will be sufficient to hold his head to you. Lower 
the halter a little, just enough to get his nose into that part 
which goes around it ; then raise it somewhat, and fasten the 
top buckle, and you will have it all right. The first time you 
halter a colt you should stand on the left side, pretty well back 
to his shoulder, only taking hold of that part of the halter that 
goes around his neck ; then with your two hands about his neck 
you can hold his head to you, and raise the halter on it without 
making him dodge by putting your hands about his nose. You 
should have a long rope or strap ready, and as soon as you have 
the halter on, attach this to it, so that you can let him walk the 
length of the stable without letting go of the strap, or without 
making him pull on the halter, for if you only let him feel the 
weight of your hand on the halter, and give him rope when he 
runs from you, he will never rear, pull, or throw himself, yet you 
will be holding him all the time, and doing more toward gent- 
ling him than if yon had the power to snub him right up, and 
hold him to one spot ; because he does not know anything about 
his strength, and if you don't do anything to make him pull, he 



n 



366 



rarey's method of taming horses. 



will never know^ that he can. In a few minutes you can begin 
to control him with the halter ; then shorten the distance be- 
tween yourself and the horse by taking up the strap in your 
hand. 

As soon as he will allow you to hold him by a tolerably short 
Etrap, and to step up to him without flying back. You can 

begin to give him some 
idea about leading. 
But to do this, do not 
go before and attempt 
to pull him after you, 
but commence by pull- 
ing him very quietly 
to one side. He has 
nothing to brace either 
side of his neck, and 
will soon yield to a 
steady, gradual pull of the halter ; and as soon as you have pulled 
him a step or two to one side, vstep up to him and caress him, and 
then pull him again, repeating this operation until you can pull 
him around in every direction, and walk about the stable with 
him, which you can do in a few minutes, for he will soon think 
when you have made him step to the right or left a few times, 
that he is compelled to follow the pull of thd halter, not know- 
ing that he has the power to resist your pulling; besides, you 
have handled him so gently that he is not afraid of you, and 
you always caress him when he comes up to you, and he likes 
that, and would just as lief follow you as not. After he has 
had a few lessons of that kind, if you turn him out in a field, he 
will come up to you every opportunity he gets. 




TAMiNff THE HORSE. (See page 368.) 



rarey's method op taminq horses. 56t 

You should lead him about in the stall some time before you 
take him out, opening the door so that he can see out, leading 
him up to it and back again, and past it. See that there is 
nothing ont he outside to make him jump when you take him 
out, and as you go out with him, try to make him go very slowly, 
catching hold of the halter close to the jaw with your left hand, 
while the right is resting on the top of the neck, holding to his 
mane. After you are out with him a little while, you can lead 
him about as yon please. 

Don't let any second person come up to you when you first 
take him out; a stranger taking hold of the halter would 
frighten him, and make him run. There should not even be 
any one standing near him, to attract his attention or scare 
him. If you are alone, and manage him rightly, it will not 
require any more force to lead or hold him than it would to 
manage a broken horse. 

How TO Tie up a Colt. — If you want to tie up your colt, pat 
him in a tolerably wide stall, which should not be too long, and 
should be connected by a bar or something of that kind to the 
partition behind it ; so that, after the colt is in he cannot go far 
enough back to take a straight, backward pull on the halter; 
then by tying him in the centre of the stall, it would be impos- 
sible for him to pull on the halter, the partition behind prevent- 
ing him from going back, and the halter in the centre checking 
him every time he turns to the right or left. In a stall of thii 
kind you can break any horse to stand tied with a light strap, 
anywhere, without his ever knowing anything about pulling. 
For if you have broken your horse to lead, and have taught 
him the use of the halter (which you should always do before 
you hitch him to anything), yaa can hitch him in any kind of 



368 rarey's method op taming horses. 

a stall, and if you give him something to eat to keep him up to 
his place for a few minutes at first, there is not one colt in fif iy 
that will pull on his halter. 

How to Tame a Horse. — Take up one fore-foot and bend 
his knee till his hoof is bottom upward, and nearly touching 
his body; then slip a loop over his knee, and up until it comes 
above the pastern-joint, to keep it up, being careful to draw the 
loop togetlier between the hoof and pastern-joint with a second 
strap of some kind to prevent the loop from slipping down and 
coming off. This will leave the horse standing on three legs ; 
you can now handle him as you wish, for it is utterly impossible 
for him to kick in this position. Tliere is something in this 
operation of taking up one foot, that conquers a horse quicker 
and better than anything else you can do to him. There is no 
process in the world equal to it to break a kicking horse, as 
there is a principle of this kind in his nature that by conquer- 
ing one member, you conquer, to a great extent, the whole 
horse. 

This will conquer him better than anything you could do, 
and without any possible danger of hurting himself or you 
either, for you can tie up his foot and sit down and look at him 
until he gives up. When you find that he is conquered, go to 
him, let down his foot, rub his leg with your hand, caress him, 
and let him rest a little ; then put it up again. Repeat this a 
few times, always putting up the same foot, and he will soon 
learn to travel on three legs, so that you can drive him some 
distance. As soon as he gets a little used to this way of tra- 
veling, put on your harness, and hitch him to a sulky. If he 
is the worst kicking horse that ever raised a foot, you need not 
be fearful of his doing any damage while he has one foot up, 



karey's method of taming horses. 369 

for he cannot kick, neither can he run fast enough to do any 
harm. And if he is the wildest horse that ever had harness on, 
and has run away every time he has been hitched, you can now 
hitch him in a sulky, and drive him as you please. If he wants 
to run, you can let him have the lines, and the whip too, with 
perfect safety, for he can go but a slow gait on three legs, and 
will soon be tired, and willing to stop ; only hold him enough 
to guide him in the right direction, and he will soon be tired 
and willing to stop at the word. Thus you will effectually cure 
him at once of any further notion of running off. Kicking 
horses have always been the dread of everybody ; but by this 
new method you can harness them to a rattling sulky, plough, 
wagon, or anything else in its worst shape. They may be 
frightened at first, but cannot kick, or do anything to hurt them- 
selves, and will soon find that you do not intend to hurt them, 
and then they will not care anything more about it. You can 
then let down the leg and drive along gently without any further 
trouble. By this new process a bad kicking horse can be taught 
to go gentle in harness in a few hours' time. 

How to Make a Horse lie down. — To make a horse lie 
down, bend his left fore-leg and slip a loop over it, so that he 
cannot get it down. Then put a surcingle round his body, and 
fasten one end of a long strap around the other fore-leg, just 
above the hoof. Place the other end under the before-described 
surcingle, so as to keep the strap in the right direction ; take 
a short hold of it with your right hand ; stand on the left side 
of the horse, grasp the bit in your left hand, pull steadily on the 
strap with your right ; bear against his shoulder till you cause 
him to move. As soon as he lifts his weight, your pulling will 
raise tke other foot, and he will have to come on his knees. 
24 



370 



rarey's method op taming horses. 




Keep the strap tight in your hand, so that he cannot straighten 
his leg if he rises up. Hold him in this position, and turn his 
head toward you ; bear against his side with 
your shoulder, not hard, but with a steady, 
equal pressure, and in 
about ten minutes he 
will lie down. As soon 
as he lies down, he will 
be com pletely con- 
quered, and you can 
handle him as you 
-please. Take off the 
TEACHING THE HORSE TO LIE DowTj straps, and Straighten 

out his legs ; rub him lightly about the face and neck with your 
hand the way the hair lies ; handle all his legs, and after he has 
lain ten or twenty minutes, let him get up again. After rest- 
ing him a short time, make him lie down as before. Repeat 
the operation three or four times, which will be sufficient for 
one lesson. Give him two lessons a day, and when you have 
reached four lessons, he will lie down by taking hold of one 
foot. As soon as he is well broken to lie down in this way, 
tap him on the opposite leg with a stick when you take hold of 
his foot, and in a few days he will lie down from the mere motion 
of the stick. 

To Accustom a Horse to Strange Sounds and Sights. — 
It is an excellent practice to accustom all horses to strange 
sounds and sights, and of very great importance to young 
horses which are to be ridden or driven in large towns, or 
used as chargers. Although some horses are very much more 
timid and nervous than others, the very worst can be very 



rarey's method op taming horses. 371 

much improved by acting on the first principles laid down in 
the introduction to this article — that is, by proving that the 
strange sights and sounds will do them no harm. 

When a railway is first opened, the sheep, the cattle, and 
especially the horses, grazing in the neighboring fields, are 
terribly alarmed at the sight of the swift, dark, moving trains, 
and the terrible snorting and hissing of the steam engines. 
They start away — they gallop in circles — and when they stop, 
gaze with head and tail erect, until the monsters have dis- 
appeared. But from day to day the live stock become more 
accustomed to the sight and sound of the steam horse, and 
after a while they do not even cease grazing when the train 
passes. They have learned that it will do them no harm. 
The same result may be observed with respect to young horsgs 
when first they are brought to a large town, and have to meet 
great loads of hay, omnibuses crowded with passengers, and 
other strange or noisy objects ; if judiciously treated, not 
flogged and ill-used, they lose their fears without losing their 
high courage. 

To accustom a Horse to a Drum. — Place it near him on 
the ground, and without forcing him, induce him to smell it 
again and again, until he is thoroughly accustomed to it. 
Then lift it np, and slowly place it on the side of his neck, 
where he can see it, and tap it gently with a stick or your 
finger. If he starts, pause, and let him carefully examine it. 
Then commence again, gradually moving it backward until it 
rests upon his withers, by degrees playing louder and louder, 
pausing always when he seems alarmed, to let him look at it 
and smell, if needful. In a very few minutes you may play 
with all your force, without his taking any notice. When 



372 earey's method op taming horses. 

this practice has been repeated a few times, your horse, how- 
ever spirited, will rest his nose unmoved on the big drum, 
while the most thundering piece is played. 

To teach a Horse to hear an Umbrella — Go through the 
same cautious forms, let him see it, and smell it, open it by 
degrees, gain your point inch by inch, passing it always from 
his eyes to his neck, and from his neck to his back and tail ; 
and so with a riding-habit ; in half an houl* any horse may 
be taught that it will not hurt him, and then the difficulty is 
over. 

To fire off a Horse^s back. — Begin with caps, and, by de- 
grees, as with the drum. Instead of lengthening the reins, 
stretch the bridle hand to the front, and raise it for the car- 
jaine to rest on, with the muzzle clear of the horse's head, a 
little to one side. Lean the body forward without rising in 
the stirrups. Avoid interfer-ing tvith the horse's mouth, or 
exciting his fears by suddenly closing your legs either he- 
fore or after firing — be quiet yourself, and your hoi'se 
loill be quiet. The colt can learn to bear a rider on his bare 
back during his first lessons, when prostrate and powerless, 
fast bound by straps; The surcingle has accustomed him to 
girths, he leads well, and has learned that when the right rein 
is pulled he must go to the right, and when the left rein to 
the left. You may now teach him to bear the bit and the 
SADDLE, if you have not placed it upon his back while on the 
ground. 

How TO Accustom a Horse to a Bit. — You should use a 
large, smooth, snaffle bit, so as not to hurt his mouth, with a 
bar to each side, to prevent the bit from pulling through 
either way. This you should attach to the head-stall of your 



rarey's method of taming horses. 



373 



bridle, and put it on your colt without any reins to it, and let 
him run loose in a large stable or shed some time, until he 
becomes a little used to the bit, and 
will bear it without trying to get it out 
of his mouth. It would be well, if con- 
venient, to repeat this several times, 
before you do anything more 
with the colt ; as soon as he will 
bear the bit, attach a single rein 
1 i t. You 
should also 
;have a halter 
■ on your colt, 
or a bridle 
made after the 
fashion of a 
halter, with a 
strap to it, so 




STRUaOLES OF THE VICIOUS HORSE AOAINST LYINQ DOWN. 



that you can 

hold or lead him about without pulling at the bit much. 
He is now ready for the saddle. 

The Proper Way to Bit a Colt. — Farmers often put bit- 
ting harness on a colt the first thing they do to him, buckling 
up the bitting as tight as they can draw it, to make him carry 
his head high, and then turn him out in a field to run half a 
day at a time. This is one of the worst punishments that 
could be inflicted on the colt, and is very injurious to a young 
horse that has been used to running in pasture with his head 
down. Colts have been so seriously injured in this way that 
they have never recovered. 



3t4 rarey's method of taming horses. 

A horse should be well accustomed to the bit before yoa 
put on the bitting harness, and when you first bit him you 
should only rein his head up to that point where he naturally 
holds it, let that be high or low ; he will soon learn that he 
cannot lower his head, and that raising it a little will loosen 
the bit in his mouth. This will give him the idea of raising 
his head to loosen the bit, and then you can draw the bitting a 
little tighter every time you put it on, and he will still raise 
his head to loosen it ; by this means you will gradually get his 
head and neck in the position you want him to carry them, 
and give him a nice and graceful carriage without hurting him, 
making him mad, or causing his mouth to get sore. 

If you put the bitting on very tight the first time, he cannot 
raise his head enough to loosen it, but will bear on it all the 
time, and paw, sweat, and throw himself. Many horses have 
been killed by falling backward with the bitting on ; their 
heads being drawn up strike the ground with the whole weight 
of the body. Horses that have their heads drawn up tightly 
should not have the bitting on more than fifteen or twenty 
minutes at a time. 

How TO Saddle a Colt. — The first thing will be to tie each 
stirrup-strap into a loose knot to make them short, and pre- 
vent the stirrups from flying about and hitting him. Then 
double up the skirts and take the saddle under your right 
arm, so as not to frighten him with it as you approach. 
When you get to him rub him gently a few times with your 
band, and then raise the saddle very slowly, until he can see 
it, and smell and feel it with his nose. Then let the skirt 
loose, and rub it very gently against his neck the way the hair 
lies, letting him hear the rattle of the skirts as he feels them 



karey's method op taming horses. 3*75 

against him ; each time getting a little further backward, and 
finally slipping it over his shoulders on his back. Shake it a 
little with your hand, and in less than five minutes you can 
rattle it about over his back as much as you please, and pull 
it off and throw it on again, without his paying much atten- 
tion to it. 

As soon as you have accustomed him to the saddle, fasten 
the girth. Be careful how you do this. It often frightens the 
colt when he feels the girth binding him, and making the 
saddle fit tight on his back. You should bring up the girth 
very gently, and not draw it too tight at first, just enough to 
hold the saddle on. Move him a little, and then girth it as 
tight as you choose, and he will not mind it. 

You should see that the pad of your saddle is all right be- 
fore you put it on, and that there is nothing to make it hurt 
him, or feel unpleasant to his back. It should not have any 
loose straps on the back part of it, to flap about and scare 
him. After you have saddled him in this way, take a switch 
in your right hand to tap him up with, and walk about in the 
stable a few times with your right arm over your saddle, taking 
hold of the reins on each side of his neck with your right and 
left hands, thus marching him about in the stable until you 
teach him the use of the bridle and can turn him about in 
any direction, and stop him by a gentle pull of the rein. 
Always caress him, and loose the reins a little every time you 
stop him. 

You should always be alone, and have your colt in some 
light stable or shed, the first time you ride him ; the loft should 
be high, so that you can sit on his back without endangering 
your head. You can teach him more in two hoar's time in a 



SY6 rarey's method of taming horses. 

stable of this kind, than you could in two weeks in the common 
way of breaking colts, out in an open place. If you foUo^r 
my course of treatment, you need not run any risk, or have 
any trouble in riding the worst kind of horse. You take him 
a step at a time, until you get up a mutual confidence and 
trust between yourself and horse. First teach him to lead and 
stand hitched; next acquaint him with the saddle, and the 
use of the bit ; and then all that remains is to get on him 
without scariug him, and you can ride him as well as any 
horse. 

How TO Mount the Colt. — First gentle him well on both 
sides, about the saddle, and all over until he will stand still 
without holding, and is not afraid to see you anywhere about 
him. As soon as you have him thus gentled, get a small 
block, about one foot or eighteen inches in height, and set 
it down by the side of him, about where you want to stand to 
mount him ; step up on this, raising yourself very gently ; 
horses notice every change of position very closely, and if you 
were to step up suddenly on the block, it would be very apt 
to scare him ; but by raising yourself gradually on it, he will 
see you without being frightened, in a position very nearly 
the same as when you are on his back. 

As soon as he will bear this without alarm, untie the stirrup- 
strap next to you, and put your left foot into the stirrup, and 
stand square over it, holding your knee against the horse, and 
your toes out, so as not to touch him under the shoulder with 
the toe of your boot. Place your right hand on the front of 
the saddle, and on the opposite side of you, taking hold of a 
portion of the mane and the reins, as they hang loosely over 
his neck, with your left hand ; then gth dually bear your weight 



rarey's method of taming horses. 



377 



I ' 



on the stirrup, and on your right hand, until the horse feels 
your whole weight on the saddle ; repeat this several times, 
each time raising yourself a little higher from the block, until 
he will allow you to raise your leg over his croup, and place 
yourself in the saddle. 

There are three great advantages in having a block from 
which to mount. First, a sudden change of position is very 
apt to frighten a young horse who has never been handled ; 
he will allow you to^walk up to him, and stand by 
his side without scaring at you, because you have 
gentled him to that position ; but 
if you get down on 
your hands and 
knees and crawl to- 
ward him, he will 
be very much fright- 
ened ; and upon the 
same principle, he 
would be frightened at your new position if you had the power 
to hold yourself over his back without touching him. The 
first great advantage of the block, then, is to gradually gentle 
him to that new position in which he will see you when you 
ride him. 

' Secondly, by the process of leaning your weight in the 
.stirrup, and on your hand, you can gradually accustom him 
to your weight, so as not to frighten him by having him feel 
it all at once. And, in the third place, the block elevates you 
so that you will not have to make a spring in order to get 
upon the horse's back, but from it you can gradually raise 
yourself into the saddle. When you take these precautions. 




SUBMISSION OF THE HORSE. 



3t8 rarey's method op taming horses. 

there is no horse so wild but that you can mount him without 
making him jump. When mounting, your horse should always 
stand without being held. A horse is never well broken when 
he has to be held with a tight rein when mounting ; and a colt 
is never so safe to mount as when you see that assurance of 
confidence, and absence of fear, which cause him to stand with- 
out holding. 

An improved plan of mounting is to pass the palm of the 
right hand on the ofif-side of the saddle, and as you rise lean 
your weight on it ; by this means you can mount with the girth 
loose, or without any girth at all. 

How TO Ride a Colt. — When you want him to start do 
not touch him on the side with your heel, or do anything to 
frighten him and make him jump. But speak to him kindly, 
and if he does not start pull him a little to the left until he 
starts, and then let him walk off slowly with the reins .loose. 
Walk him around in the stable a few times until he gets used to 
the bit, and you can turn him about in every direction and stop 
him as you please. It would be well to get on and off a good 
many times until he gets perfectly used to it before you take 
him out of the stable. 

After you have trained him in this way, which shonld not 
take you more than one or two hours, you can ride him any- 
where you choose without ever having him jump or make any 
effort to throw you. 

When you first take him out of the stable be very gentle with 
him, as he will feel a little more at liberty to jump or run, and 
be a little easier frightened than he was while in the stable. 
But after handling him so much in the stable he will be pretty 
well broken, and you will be able to manage him without trouble 
or danffer. 



barey's method op taming horses. 379 

When you first mount him take a little the shortest hold on 
the left rein, so that if anything frightens him you can prevent 
him from jumping by pulling his head round to you. This 
operation of pulling a horse's head round against his side will 
prevent any horse from jumping ahead, rearing up, or running 
away. If he is stubborn and will not go, you can make him 
move by pulling his head round to one side, when whipping 
would have no effect. And turning him round a few times will 
make him dizzy, and then by letting him have his head straight, 
and giving him a little touch with the whip, he will go along 
without any trouble. 

Never use martingales on a colt when you first ride him ; 
every movement of the hand should go right to the bits in the 
direction in which it is applied to the reins, without a martin- 
gale to change the direction of the force applied. You can 
guide the colt much better without it, and teach him the use of 
the bit in much less time. Besides, martingales would prevent 
you from pulling his head round if he should try to jump. 

After your colt has been ridden until he is gentle and well 
accustomed to the bit, you may find it an advantage, if he car- 
ries his head too high or his nose too far out, to put martingales 
on him. 

You should be careful not to ride your colt so far at first as 
to heat, worry, or tire him. Get off as soon as you see that he 
is a little fatigued ; gentle him, and let him rest ; this will make 
him kind to you, and prevent him from getting stubborn or 
mad. 

To Break a Horse to Harness. — Take him in a light 
stable, as you did to ride him ; take the harness, and go through 
the same process that you did with the saddle, until you get him 



380 



RAREY'S METHOD OP TAMING HORSES. 



familiar with it, so that you can put it on him, and rattle it 
about without his caring for it. As soon as he will bear this, 
put on the lines, caress him as you draw them over him, and 
drive him about in the stable till he will bear them over his hips. 
The lines are a great aggravation to some colts, and often 
frighten them as much as if you were to raise a whip over them. 
As soon as he is familiar with the harness and lines, take him 
out and put him by the side of a gentle horse. Always use a 
bridle without blinkers when you are breaking a horse to 
harness. 

Lead him to and around alight gig or phaeton ; let him look 
at it, touch it with his nose, and stand by it till he does not care 
for it : then pull the shafts a little to the left, and stand your 
horse in front of the off- wheel. Let some one stand on the right 
side of the horse, and hold him by the bit, while you stand on 
the left side, facing the sulky. This will keep him straight. 
Run your left hand back, and let it rest on his hip, and lay 

hold of the 



shafts with 
your right, 
bringing 
them up very 
gently to the 
left han d, 
which still 
remains sta- 

BREAKINO THE HOKSE TO HARNESS. tlOUary. UO 

not let anything but your arm touch his back, and as soon as 
you have the shafts square over him, let the person on the op- 
posite side take hold of one of them, and lower them very gently 




NEUROTOMY OR NERVING. 381 

to the shaft-bearers. Be very slow and deliberate about hitch- 
ing ; the longer time you take the better, as a general thing. 
When you have the shafts placed, shake them slightly, so that 
he will feel them against each side. As soon as he will bear 
them without scaring, fasten your braces, etc., and start him 
along very slowly. Let one man lead the horse, to keep him 
gentle, while the other gradually works back with the lines till 
he can get behind and drive him. After you have driven him 
in this way a short distance, you can get into the sulky, and all 
will go right. It is very important to have your horse go gently 
when you first hitch him. After you have walked him awhile, 
there is not half so much danger of his scaring. Men, do very 
wrong to jump up behind a horse to drive him as soon as they 
have him hitched. There are too many things for him to com- 
prehend all at once. The shafts, the lines, the harness, and the 
rattling of the sulky, all tend to scare him, and he must be made 
familiar with them by degrees. If your horse is very wild, one 
foot had better be put up the first time you drive him. With 
the leg strapped up, the lighter the gig the better, and four 
wheels. are better than two. 



— 1 



WARRANTY. 



In the purchase of a horse the buyer should take with the receipt 
what is termed in law a warranty. The best way of expressing i> 
is in this form : 

Philadelphia, August 1, 18 — . 

Received of William Ingalls three hundred dollars, for a black 
mare, warranted only five years old, sound, free from vice, and 
quiet to ride and drive. 

$300. EDWARD RIDDLE. 

A receipt, which includes simply the word *' warranted," extends 
merely to soundness. " Warranted sound," has no greater extent ; 
the age, freedom from vice, and quietness to ride and drive should all 
be especially named. This warranty embraces every cause of un- 
soundness that can he detected, or that is inherent in the constitution ' 
of the animal at the time of sale, as well as every vicious habit which 
he has previously shown. In order to establish a breach of the war- 
ranty, and then be enabled to return the horse or i-ecover the price 
paid, the purchase] must prove that it was unsound or viciously 
disposed at the time of sale. In case of cough, the horse must have 
been heard to cough previously to the purchase, or as he was led 
home, or as soon as he had entered the stable of the purchaser. 
Coughing, even on the following morning, will not be sufficient ; for 
It is possible that he might have caught cold by a change of sta- 
bling. If he is lame, it must be proved to arise from a cause that 
could not have occurred after he was in the purchaser's possession. 
No price will imply a warranty, or be deemed equivalent to one ; 
the warranty must be expressly stated. 

A fraud in the seller must be proved, in order that the buyer may 
be enabled to return the horse or maintain an action for the price. 
The warranty should be given at the time of sale. A warranty or 
a promise to warrant the horse, given at any period previous to the 
Bale, is of no effect ; for the horse is a very perishable commodity, 
and his constitution and his usefulness may undergo a considerable 
change in a few days. A warranty after the sale is also of no effect, 
as it is given without any legal consideration. In order to complete 
the purchase, there must be a transfer of the animal, or a written 
memorandum of agreement, or the payment of some sum, however 
email, as earnest-money. No verbal promise to buy or sell is bind- 
ing withoiit one of these accompaniments ; and the moment either 
C382) 



WARRANTY. 383 

of them is effected, the legal transfer of property, or its delivery, is 
made, and whatever may happen to the horse, the seller retains, or 
is entitled to, the money. If the purchaser exercises any act of 
ownership— as by using the animal without leave of the seller, or 
by having any operation performed upon him, or medicines given 
to him — he makes him his own. 

If the horse should afterward be discovered to have been un- 
sound at the time of warranty and sale, the buyer may return him. 
Although not legally .compelled to give notice to the seller of the 
discovered unsoundness, it is best that such notice should be given. 
The animal should then be tendered at the hoiise or stable of the 
seller. If he refuses to receive the animal, humanity dictates that 
he should be sent to a livery stable, in preference to tying him up 
in the street ; an action can be maintained, after the horse has been 
tendered, for the necessary expenses of keeping him as well as for 
the price paid. The keep, however, can be recovered only for the 
time that necessarily intervened between the tender and the deter- 
mination of the action. It is not legally necessary to return the 
animal as soon as the unsoundness is discovered. The animal may 
be kept for a reasonable time afterward, and even proper medical 
means may be resorted to for the removal of the unsoundness ; but 
courtesy, and indeed justice, will require that the notice should be 
given as soon as possible. Although it is laid down, upon the au- 
thority of an eminent English judge, that " no length of time elapsed 
after the sale, will alter the nature of a contract originally false," yet 
there ai"e recorded cases in which the buyer was prevented from 
maintaining his action, because he did not give notice of the un- 
soundness within a reasonable time after its discovery. What will 
constitute this reasonable time, depends upon many circumstances. 
It was formerly supposed that the buyer had no right to have the 
horse medically treated, and that he would vitiate the warranty by 
so doing. The question, however, in snch a case would be, whether 
the animal was injured, or his value lessened, by such treatment. 
It maybe remarked that it is generally most prudent to refrain from 
all medical treatment, since the means adopted, no matter how 
skillfully used, may have an unfortunate effect, or what is done 
may be misrepresented by ignorant or interested observers. 

When a horse is returned, and an action brought for the price, 
it is indispensable that in every respect, except the alleged un- 
soundness, the animal should be as perfect and valuable as when 
he was bought. 



3>;4 WARRANTY. 

The purchaser may, possibly, like the horse, notwithstanding his 
discove: /- aeiec;; ; io. vrhich case iie may retain him and hring uu 
action 1'-: L,ho derrsciaticn in value on ficecunt cf tho ■unsoiincir.esi. 
Few, however, will do this, because the retaining of the animal will 
give rise to a suspicion that the defect is of no great consequence, 
and consequently will occasion much cavil about the amount of 
damages ; the suit terminating, probably, in the recovery of slight, 
if any, damages. 

Where there is no warranty, an action may be brought on the 
ground of fraud; but as this is very difficult to be maintained, few 
persons will hazard it. It will in such a case, be necessary to prove 
that the seller knew the defect, and that the buyer was imposed 
upon by his false representations ; and that, too, under circum- 
stances in which a person of ordinary carefulness and circumspection 
might have been imposed upon. If the defect was palpably evident, 
the purchaser has nc, remedy, for he should have exercised more 
caution ; but if a warranty was given, it covers every unsoundness, 
evident or concealed. Although a person should iguorantly or 
carelessly buy a blind horse, warranted sound, he may return it — 
the warranty is his protection, and prevents him from examining 
the horse as closely as he otherwise would have done ; but if he 
buys a blind horse, supposing him to be sound, and without a war- 
ranty, he is without any remedy. The law supposes every one to 
exercise common circumspection and common sense. 

A person should have a more thorough knowledge of horses than 
most possess, together with perfect confidence in the seller, who 
ventures to buy a horse without a warranty. If a person buy a 
horse warranted sound, and discovering no defect in him, sells him 
again, relying upon his warranty, and the unsoundness is discov- 
ered by the second purchaser, and the horse returned to the first 
buyer, or an action commenced against him, the latter has his claim 
upon the first seller, and may demand of him not only the price of 
the horse, or the difference in value, but all expenses which may 
necessarily have been inciarred. 

Exchanges, whether of one horse absolutely for another, or where 
a sum of money is paid in addition by one of the parties, stand upon 
precisely the same ground as simple sales. If there is a warranty 
upon either side, and that is broken, the exchange is vitiated ; i'f 
there is no warranty, deceit must be proved. 

THE END. 



CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 



PEEFACE 



A MARKED interest has of late years been manifested in onr 
country relative to t£e subject of breeding and rearing dotnestic 
cattle. This has not been confined to the dairyman alone. The 
greater portion of intelligent agriculturists have perceived the 
necessity of paying more attention than was formerly devoted to 
the improvement and perfection of breeds for the uses of the table 
as well. In this respect, European cattle-raisers have long taken 
the precedence of our own. 

The gratifying favor with which the author's former publication, 
" The Horse and his Diseases," has been received by the public, has 
induced him to believe that a work, similar in spirit and general 
treatment, upon Cattle, would not be without interest for the agri- 
cultural community. 

In this belief, the present treatise has been prepared. The 
author has availed himself of the labors of others in this connec- 
tion ; never, however, adopting results and conclusions, no matter 
how strongly endorsed, which have been contradicted by his own 
observation and experience. In a field like the one in question, 
assuredly, if anywhere, some degree of independent judgment will 
not be censured by those who are familiar with the sad conse- 
quences resulting from the attempted application of theories now 
universally exploded, but which in the day and generation of their 
originators were sanctioned and advocated by those who claimed to 
be magnates in this department. 



6 PREFACE. 

To the following works, especially, the author acknowledges him- 
self indebted : American Farmer's Encyclopoedia ; Stephens's Book 
of the Farm ; Flint's Milch-Cows and Dairy Farming ; Laurence 
on Cattle ; Allen's Domestic Animals ; Youatt and Martin on 
Cattle ; Thomson's Food of Animals ; Allen's Rural Architecture ; 
Colman's Practical Agriculture and Rural Economy ; Goodale's 
Breeding of Domestic Animals ; and Prof. Gamgee's valuable 
contributions to veterinary science. 

Particular attention is requested to the division of " Diseases." 
Under this head, as in his former work, the author has endeavored 
to detail the symptoms of the most common ailments of cattle in 
such a manner that every farmer and cattle-owner can at once 
understand them, and also to suggest such procurable remedies as a 
wide experience has proved to be most efficacious. 

A generous space has been devoted to the consideration of that 
fatal epidemic, now generally known as " Pleuro-Pneumonia," as it 
has manifested itself in Europe and this country, in the belief that 
a matter of such vital importance to the stock-raiser ought to re- 
ceive a complete exposition in a work like the present. As the 
author's personal experience in connection with the treatment of 
this peculiar disease has been, perhaps, as large and varied as that 
of any American practitioner, he is not without the hope that his 
views upon the matter may prove productive of some benefit to 
others. 

Should the present volume prove as acceptable to those interested 
as did his former work, the author will be abundantly satisfied that 
he has not mistaken in this instance the wants of the public. 



CONTENTS. 



HISTORY AND BREEDS OF CATTLE, 13 

Thb British Ox, 15 

AMEBicAir Cattle, 21 

The Ayrshire, •. 23 

The Jersey, - 80 

The Short-Horns 32 

The Dutch, 36 

The Hereford 38 

The North-Devon, 41 

Native Cattle 43 

Natural History OF Cattle, £0 

Gestation, y 51 

Formation of Teeth, .1 51 

Points of a Good Cow, 07 

The Milk-Mieror 61 

CROSSING AND BREEDING, 77 

PKEOIfANCi%, 92 

Treatment Before Calviko 93 

FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT, - 9 

SoiLi»o * 118 

CCLTCRE OF Grasses FOR Fodder 122 

The Barn, 14® 

MiLKiJfO, 155 

Raisins OF Calves, 108 

Points of Fat Cattle, 183 

•Driving AND SLAcaH'fERisfG, 188 

7 



8 CONTENTS. 

t 

DISEA.SES AND THEIR REMEDIES, 205 

Abortion, 206 

Apoplexy, 1 215 

Black- Water, 215 

Bronchitis,. 216 

Consumption 217 

Coryza, .". 217 

Cow-pox,, 218 

Diarrhoea, 219 

Dysentery, 220 

Enteritis, 222 

Epizootics, 224 

Epizootic Catarrh, 234 

Pardol, 236 

Foul in the Foot, 237 

Garget 237 

Gastro-eateritis 238 

Hoose, , 2SS 

Hoove 239 

Hydatids, 240 

Inflammation of the Bladder 241 

luflammation of the Haw, 241 

Inflammation of the Kidneys, 242 

Inflammation of the Liver, A.. 242 

Laryngitis, 243 

Lice, 244 

Mange, 244 

Murrain, 246 

Navel-ill, 247 

Obstrnctions in the (Esophagus, • 247 

Open Joints, '. . 248 



CONTENTS. 9 

DISEASES AND THEIR RTSM^DIES— Continued. 

Parturition, 248 

Free Martins, 251 

Cleansinsr 253 

Inversion of the IJterns, 253 

Phrenitis 254 

Pleurisy, 255 

Pleuro-pneumonia, 256 

Pneumonia, ; 300 

Protrusion of the Bladder, 302 

Puerperal Fever, 302 

Quarter Evil 303 

Rabies, 304 

Red Water, 305 

Rheumatism, 307 

Strangulation of the Intestines, 308 

Thrush in the Mouth, 308 

Tumors 308 

Ulcers about the Joints 312 

Warbles 313 

Worms, 315 

Worms in the Bronchial Tabes, 316 

SuRQicAL Operations, 316 

Castration, 316,4 

Tracheotomy, 319 

Spaying, 320 

List of Medicihes used in Treating Cattle 330 

DosBS OP Various Medicines 336 



ILLUSTEATIONS. 



pAoa 

APrize Bctll, 13 

Ths! Well-fed Beasts, 19 

An Iykshibe Bull, 23 

A Sh>rt-horn BuLL,...f. 33 

A NoKi?H Devon Steer, 41 

Draft Oxen, 45 

Skeletoi of the Ox, ••• 50 

Teeth at Birth, 52 

Teeth AT Second Week, 52 

Teeth at Tiree Weeks, 53 

Teeth at a Konth, 53 

Teeth at Fiveto Eight Months, 53 

Ten Months Teith, 53 

Twelve Months Teeth 54 

Fifteen Months Ieeth, 64 

Eighteen Months ^eeth, 55 

Teeth at Two Ybabi Past, 55 

Teeth at Three Ybais Past, 56 

Teeth at Four Years Past, 56 

Teeth at Five Years Pxst, 56 

Teeth at Ten Years Pas?, 56 

A Good Milch Cow, 58 

Milk-Mirror (A), „ 62 

Milk-Mirror (B), 63 

Milk-Mirror (C), 63 

Milk-Mikror (D), 64 

Milk-Mikeor (E), 65 

11 



12 ILLUSTRATir^NS. 

MiLK-MlKROR (F), 66 

MlLK-MlBEOE (G), 69 

MiLK-MlREOR (H), 70 

Milk-Mirror (K), 72 

MiLK-MlEROR (L), 74 

ow AND Calf, 77 

Ready for Action, 85 

A Speightlt Youth, i9 

Feeding, 97 

The Family Pets, 102 

Buying Cattle, 107 

Calling in the Cattle, 112 

" On the Rampage," 117 

Patiently Waiting, , 123 

A Chance for a Selection, , 129 

A West Highland Ox, 139 

Barn for Thiety-fouk Cows and Three Yoke op Oxen,..* 150 

Transverse Section, 152 

Room over the Cow-Room, 153 

The Preferable Method,.., 159 

Maternal Affection, 168 

Frolicsome, 177 

Points of Cattle, 185 

A Frontispiece, 190 

Scotch Mode of Cutting up Beef, 195 

English Mode of Cutting up Beep, 197 

Diseases and Their Remedies, 205 

A Chat on the Road, , 218 

The Mad Bull, 230 

An Aberdeenshire Polled Bull « 244 

Taking an Observation, 256 

The Twins, \ 268 

A Rural Scene, 2S5 

Taking it Easily, 299 

Home Again 313 




It is quite certain that the ox has been domesticated 
and in the service of man from a very remote period. 
We are informed in the fourth chapter of Genesis, that cattle 
were kept by the early descendants of Adam ; Jubal, the son 
of Lamech — who was probably born during the lifetime of 
Adam — being styled the father of such as have cattle. The 
ox having been preserved by Noah from the flood of waters, 
the original breed of our present cattle must have been in 
the neighborhood of Mount Ararat. From thence, dispersing 
over the face of the globe — altering by climate, by food, and 

13 



14 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

by cultivation — originated the various breeds jf modern 
ages. 

That the value of the ox tribe has been in all ages and 
climates highly appreciated, we have ample evidence. The 
natives of Egypt, India, and Hindostan, seem alike to have 
placed the cow amongst their deities; and, judging by her 
usefulness to all classes, no animal could perhaps have been 
selected whose value to mankind is greater. The traditions, 
indeed, of every Celtic nation enroll the cow among the 
earliest productions, and represent it as a kind of divinity. 

In nearly all parts of the earth cattle are employed for 
their labor, for their milk, and for food. In southern Africa 
they are as much the associates of the Caffre as the horse is 
of the Arab They share his toils, and assist him in tending 
his herds. They are even trained to battle, in which they 
become fierce and courageous. In central Africa the proudest 
ebony beauties are to be seen upon the backs of cattle. 
In all ages thej have drawn the plough. In Spain they still 
trample out the corn ; in India they raise the water from the 
deepest wells to irrigate the thirsty soil of Bengal. When 
Caesar invaded Britain they constituted the chief riches of its 
inhabitants ; and they still form no inconsiderable item in the 
estimate of that country's riches. 

The parent race of the ox is said to have been much larger 
than any of the present varieties. The Urus, in his wild 
state at least, was an enormous and fierce animal, and 
ancient legends have thrown around him an air of mystery. 
In almost every part of the continent of Europe and in every 
district of England, skulls, evidently belonging to cattle, 
have been found, far exceeding in bulk any now known. 



THE BRITISH OX. 15 

As the various breeds of cattle among us were introduced 
into this country from Great Britain, we propose, before 
going into the details of the leading American breeds, to 
glance somewhat briefly at the history of 



THE BRITISH OX. 

In the earliest and most reliable accounts which we possess 
of the British Isles — the Commentaries of Caesar — we learn 
that the ancient Britons possessed great numbers of cattle. 
No satisfactory description of these cattle occurs in any 
ancient author; but, with occasional exceptions, we know 
that they possessed no great bulk or beauty. Caesar tells us 
that the Britons neglected tillage and lived on milk and 
flesh ; and this account of the early inhabitants of the 
British Isle is corroborated by other authors. It was such 
an occupation and mode of life as suited their state of society. 
The island was divided into many little sovereignties; no 
fixed property was secure ; and that alone was valuable 
which could be hurried away at the threatened approach of 
the invader. Many centuries after this, when — although one 
sovereign seemed to reign paramount over the whole of the 
kingdom — there continued to be endless contests among the 
feudal barons, and therefore that property alone continued to 
be valuable which could be secured within the walls of the 
castle, or driven beyond the assailant's reach — an immense 
stock of provisions was always stored up in the various 
fortresses, both for the vassals and the cattle ; or it was con- 
trived that the latter should be driven to the domains of some 
friendly baron, or concealed in some inland recess. 

When the government became more powerful and settled. 



IG CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

and property of every kind was assured a proportionate 
degree of protection, as well as more equally divided, 
the plough came into use; agricultural productions were 
oftener cultivated, the reaping of which was sure after the 
labor of sowing. Cattle were then comparatively neglected 
and for some centuries injuriously so. Their numbers 
diminished, and their size also seems to have diminished ; 
and it is only within the last century and a half that any 
serious and successful efforts have been made materially to 
improve them. 

In the comparatively roving and uncertain life which the 
earlier inhabitants led, their cattle would sometimes stray 
and be lost. The country was at that time overgrown with 
forests, and the beasts betook themselves to the recesses of 
these woods, and became wild and sometimes ferocious. 
They, by degrees, grew so numerous as to be dangerous 
to the inhabitants of the neighboring districts. One of 
the chronicles asserts that many of them harbored in 
the forests in the neighborhood of London. Strange stories 
are told of some of them, and, doubtless, when irritated, they 
were fierce and dangerous enough. As, however, civilization 
advanced, and the forests became thinned and contracted, 
these animals were seen more rarely, and at length almost 
disappeared. A few of them, however, are still to be found 
in the parks of some of the leading English noblemen, who 
keep them for ornament and as curiosities. 

The color of this wild breed is invariably white, the muzzle 
being black ; the whole of the inside of the ear, and about 
one-third of the outside, from the tips downward, red ; horns 
white, with black tips, very fine, and bent upward ; some of 



THE BRITISH OX. 17 

the bulls have a thin, upright mane, about an inch and a half 
or two inches long. The beef is finely marbled and of ex- 
cellent flavor. 

At the first appearance of any person they set off in full 
gallop, and at the distance of about two hundred yards, 
make a wheel around and come boldly up again in a menacing 
manner ; on a sudden they make a full stop at the distance 
of forty or fifty yards, looking wildly at the object of their 
surprise ; but upon the least motion they all again turn 
round and fly off with equal speed, but not to the same 
distance, forming a shorter circle ; and, again returning with a 
more threatening aspect than before, they approach probably 
within thirty yards, when they again make another stand, 
and then fly off ; this they do several times, shortening their 
distance and advancing nearer and nearer, till they come 
within such short distance that most persons think it prudent 
to leave them. 

When the cows calve, they hide their calves for a week or 
ten days in some retired situation, and go and suckle them 
two or three times a day. If any persons come near the 
calves they clap their heads close to the ground to hide 
themselves — a proof of their native wildness. The dams 
allow no one to touch their young without attacking with 
impetuous ferocity. When one of the herd happens to be 
wounded, or has grown weak and feeble through age or 
sickness, the rest set on it and gore it to death. 

The breeds of cattle which are now found in Great Britain, 
are almost as various as the soil of the different districts or 
the fancies of the breeders. They have, however, been very 
conveniently classed according to the comparative size of the 



18 CATTLE AND THEIK DISEASES. 

horns ; the long-horns, originally from Lancashire, and estab- 
lished through most of the midland counties ; the short-ho7vis, 
generally cultivated in the northern counties and in Lincoln- 
shire, and many of them found in every part of the kingdom 
where the farmer pays much attention to his dairy, or where 
a large supply of milk is desired ; and the middle-horns, a 
distinct and valuable breed, inhabiting, principally, the north 
of Devon, the east of Sussex, Herefordshire, and Gloucester- 
shire ; and of diminished bulk and with somewhat different 
character, the cattle of the Scottish and Welsh mountains. 
The Alderney, with its crumpled horn, is found on the 
southern coast ; while the polled, or hornless, cattle prevail 
in Suffolk, Norfolk, and Galloway, whence they were first 
derived. 

These leading breeds, however, have been intermingled in 
every possible way. They are found pure only in their 
native districts, or on the estate of some wealthy and spirited 
individuals. Each county has its own mongrel breed, often 
diflBcult to be described, and not always to be traced — 
neglected enough, yet suited to the soil and the climate ; and 
among small farmers, maintaining their station, in spite of 
attempts at improvements by the intermixture or the substi 
tution of foreign varieties. 

Much dispute has arisen as to the original breed of British 
cattle. The battle has been sharply fought between the 
advocates of the middle and of the long-horns. The short- 
horns and the polls are out of the lists ; the latter, although 
it has existed in certain districts from time immemorial, being 
probably an accidental variety. The weight of argument 



THE BRITISH OX. 



19 



appears at present to rest with the middle horns ; the long- 
horns being evidently of Irish extraction. 

Great Britain has shared the fate of other nations, and 
oftener than they been overrun and subjugated by invaders. 
As the natives 
retreated they 
carried with 
them some 
portion of their 
property, con- 
sisting, in the 
remote and 
early times, 
principally of 
cattle. They 
drove along 

with them as many as they could, when they retired to the 
fortresses of ISTorth Devon and Cornwall, or the mountainous 
region of Wales, or when they took refuge in the retirement 
of East Sussex; and there, retaining all their prejudices, 
manners, and customs, were jealous of the preservation of 
that which reminded them of their native country before it 
yielded to a foreign yoke. 

In this way was preserved the ancient breed of British 
cattle. Difference of climate produced some change, particu- 
larly in their bulk. The rich pasturage of Sussex fattened 
the ox into its superior size and weight. The plentiful, but 
not so luxuriant, herbage of the north of Devon produced a 
smaller and more active animal ; while the privations of 
Wales lessened the bulk and thickened the hide of the Welsh 




THE WELL-FED BEASTS. 



20 CATTLE AND THEIE DISEASES. 

Stock. As for Scotland, it set its invaders at defiance ; or 
its inhabitants retreated for a while, and soon turned again 
on their pursuers. They -were proud of their country, and 
of their cattle, their choicest possession ; and there, also, the 
cattle were preserved, unmixed and undegenerated. 

Thence it has resulted, that in Devon, in Sussex, in Wales, 
and in Scotland, the cattle have been the same from time 
immemorial ; while in all the eastern coasts and through 
every district of England, the breed of cattle degenerated, or 
lost its original character ; it consisted of animals brought 
from all the neighboring, and some remote districts, mingled 
in every possible variety, yet conforming to the soil and the 
climate. 

Careful observations will establish the fact, that the 
cattle in Devonshire, Sussex, Wales, and Scotland are essen- 
tially the same. They are middle horned ; not extraordinary 
milkers, and remarkable for the quality rather than the 
quantity of their milk ; active at work, and with an unequalled 
aptitude to fatten. They have all the characters of the same 
breed, changed by soil, climate, and time, yet little changed 
by man. The color, even, may be almost traced, namely : 
the red of the Devon, the Sussex, and the Hereford ; and 
where only the black are now found, the recollection of the 
red prevails. 

As this volume is intended especially for the farmers of 
our own country, it is deemed unnecessary in this connection 
to present any thing additional under the present head, except 
the names of the prominent species of British cattle. These 
are, commencing with the middle horns, the North Devon, 
tlie Hereford, the Sussex, the Welsh (with the varieties of 



AMERICAN CATTLE. 21 

the Pembrokeshire, the Glamorganshire, the Radnor black, 
the Anglesea and some others) ; and the Scotch with its chief 
varieties, the West Highlanders, the North Highlanders, the 
North Eastern, the Fife, the Ayrshire, and the Galloways. 

As to the long horns, which came originally from Craven, 
in Yorkshire, it may be remarked that this breed has been 
rapidly disappearing of late, and has everywhere given place 
to better kinds. Of this species there are — -or perhaps were — 
two leading classes, the Lancashire and the Leicestershire 
improved. 

Of the short horns, the leading breeds are the Dutch, the 
Holderness, the Teeswater, the Yorkshire, the Durham, the 
Northumberland, and some others. 



AMERICAN CATTLE. 

The breeds of cattle which stock the farms of the United 
States are all derived from Europe, and, with few exceptions, 
from Great Britain. The highest breeds at the present time 
are of comparatively recent origin, since the great improve- 
ments in breeding were only commenced at about the period 
of the American Revolution. The old importations made by 
the early settlers, must consequently have been from com- 
paratively inferior grades. 

In some sections of the Union, and more particularly in 
New England, the primitive stock is thought to have under- 
gone considerable improvement ; whilst in many parts of the 
Middle, and especially of the Southern States, a greater or 
less depreciation has ensued. The prevailing stock in the 
Eastern States is believed to be derived from the North 



22 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

Derons, most of the excellent marks and qualities of wliich 
they possess. For this reason they are very highly esteemed, 
and have been frequently called the American Devon. The 
most valuable working oxen are chiefly of this breed, which 
also contributes so largely to the best displays of beef found 
inithe markets of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. By 
means of this domestic stock, and the importations still 
extensively made of selections from the short horns, and 
others of the finest European breeds, the cattle, not only of 
New England, but of other sections, are rapidly improving, 
especially in the Middle and Western States. 

A brief sketch of the principal breeds of American cattle, 
as well as of the grades or common stock of the country, will 
be of service to the farmer in making an intelligent selection 
with reference to the special object of pursuit — whether it be 
the dairy, the production of beef, or the raising of cattle for 
work. 

In selecting any breed, regard should be had to the 
circumstances of the individual farmer and the object to be 
pursued. The cow most profitable for the milk dairy, may 
be very unprofitable in the butter and cheese dairy, as well 
as for the production of beef ; while, for either of the latter 
objects, the cow which gave the largest quantity of milk 
might be very undesirable. A union and harmony of all 
good qualities must be secured, so far as possible. The 
farmer wants a cow that will milk well for some years ; and 
then, when dry, fatten readily and sell to the butcher for the 
highest price. These qualities, often supposed to be utterly 
incompatible, will be found united in some breeds to a 
greater extent than in others ; while some peculiarities of 



THE AYRSHIRE. 



23 



form have been found, bj observation, to be better adapted 
to the production of milk and beef than others. 

It is proposed, therefore, to sketch the pure breeds now- 
found in America. 




THE AYKSHIRE. 

This breed is justly celebrated throughout Great Britain 
and this country for its excellent dairy qualities. Though 

the most recent 
-- in their origin, 
they are pretty 
distinct from the 
Scotch and Eng- 
lish races. In 
color, the pure 
Aryshires are 
generally red and 
white, spotted or 
mottled, not roan like many of the short horns, but often 
presenting a bright contrast of colors. They are sometimes, 
though rarely, nearly or quite all red, and sometimes black 
and white ; but the favorite color is red and white brightly 
contrasted ; and, by some, strawberry-color is preferred. The 
head is small, fine and clean ; the face long and narrow at 
the muzzle, with a sprightly, yet generally mild expression ; 
eye small, smart and lively ; the horns short, fine, and 
slightly twisted iipward, set wide apart at the roots ; the 
neck thin ; body enlarging from fore to hind quarters ; the 
back straight and narrow, but broad across the loin; joints 
rather loose and open ; ribs rather flat ; hind quarters rather 



AN ATRSHIRE BrLt. 



24 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

thin ; bone fine ; tail long, fine, and bushy at the end ; hair 
generally thin and soft; udder light color and capacious, 
extending well forward under the belly ; teats of the cow of 
medium size, generally set regularly and wide apart ; milk- 
veins prominent and well developed. The carcass of the 
pure bred Ayrshire is light, particularly the fore quarters, 
which is considered by good judges as an index of great 
milking qualities ; but the pelvis is capacious and wide over 
the hips. 

On the whole, the Ayrshire is good looking, but wants 
some of the symmetry and aptitude to fatten which charac- 
terize the short horn, which is supposed to have contributed 
to build up this valuable breed on the basis of the original 
stock of the county of Ayr, which extends along the eastern 
shore of the Firth of Clyde, in the southwestern part of 
Scotland. 

The original stock of this country are described as of a 
diminutive size, ill fed, ill shaped, and yielding but a scanty 
return in milk. They were mostly of a black color, with 
large stripes of white along the chine and ridge of their 
backs, about the flanks, and on their faces. Their horns 
were high and crooked, having deep ringlets at the root — the 
surest proof that they were but scantily fed ; the chine of 
their backs stood up high and narrow ; their sides were lank, 
fihort, and thin ; their hides thick and adhering to the bones ; 
their pile was coarse and open ; and few of them gave more 
than six or eight quarts of milk a day when in their best 
condition, or weighed, when fat, more than from a hundred 
to a hundred and sixty pounds avoirdupois, rejecting ofi'al. 

A wonderful change has since been made in the condition, 



THE AYSRHIRE. 25 

aspect, and qualities of the Ayrshire dairy stock. They are 
now almost double the size, and yield about four times the 
quantity of milk that the Ayrshire cows formerly yielded. 
A large part of this improvement is due to better feeding 
and care, but much, no doubt, to judicious crossing. Strange 
as it may seem, considering the modern origin of this 
breed, all that is certainly known touching it is, that about a 
century and a half ago there was no such breed as Ayrshire 
in Scotland. The question has therefore arisen, whether 
these cattle came entirely from a careful selection of the best 
native breed. If they did, it is a circumstance without a 
parallel in the history of agriculture. The native breed may 
indeed be ameliorated by careful selection ; its value may be 
incalculably increased ; some good qualities, some of its best 
qualities, may be developed for the first time ; but yet there 
will be some resemblance to the original stock, and the more 
the animal is examined, the more clearly can be traced the 
characteristic points of the ancestor, although every one of 
them is improved. 

Youatt estimates the daily yield of an Ayrshire cow, for 
the first two or three months after calving, at five gallons a 
day, on an average ; for the next three months, at three 
gallons ; and for the next four months, at one gallon and a 
half. This would give eight hundred and fifty gallons as the 
annual average ; but, allowing for some unproductive cows, 
he estimates the average of a dairy at six hundred gallons a 
year for each cow. Three gallons and a half of the Ayrshire 
cow's milk will yield one and a half pounds of butter. Some 
have estimated the yield still higher. 

One of the four cows originally imported into this country 



26 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

by John P. Gushing, Esq., of Massachusetts, gave in one 
year three thousand eight hundred and sixty-four quarts, beer 
measure, or about nine hundred and sixty-six gallons, at ten 
pounds the gallon ; being an average of over ten and a half 
beer quarts a day for the entire year. The first cow of this 
breed, imported by the Massachusetts Society, for the Pro- 
motion of Agriculture, in 1837, yielded sixteen pounds of 
butter a week for several successive weeks, on grass feed 
only. It should be borne in mind, in this connection, that 
the climate of I^ew England is less favorable to the produc- 
tion of milk than that of England and Scotland, and that no 
cow imported after arriving at maturity can be expected to 
yield as much, under the same circumstances, as one bred on 
the spot where the trial is made, and perfectly acclimated. 

On excellent authority, the most approved shape and 
marks of a good dairy cow are as follows : Head small, long, 
and narrow toward the muzzle ; horns small, clear, bent, and 
placed at considerable distance from each other ; eyes not 
large, but brisk and lively ; neck slender and long, tapering 
toward the head, with a little loose skin below; shoulders 
and fore quarters light and thin ; hind quarters large and 
broad ; back straight, and joints slack and open ; carcass deep 
in the rib ; tail small and long, reaching to the heels ; legs 
small and short, with firm joints ; udder square, but a little 
oblong, stretching forward, thin skinned and capacious, but 
not low hung; teats or paps small, pointing outward, and at 
a considerable distance from each other ; milk-veins capacious 
and prominent ; skin loose, thin, and soft like a glove ; hair 
short, soft, and woolly ; general figure, when in flesh, hand- 
some and well proportioned. 



THE AYRSHIRE. 27 

If this description of the Ayrshire cow be correct, it will 
be seen that her head and neck are remarkably clean and 
fine, the latter swelling gradually toward the shoulders, both 
parts being unencumbered with superfluous flesh. The same 
general form extends backward, the fore quarters being light^ 
the shoulders thin, and the carcass swelling out toward the 
hind quarters, so that when standing in front of her it has the 
form of a blunted wedge. Such a structure indicates very 
fully developed digestive organs, which exert a powerful 
influence on all the functions of the body, and especially on 
the secretion of the milky glands, accompanied with milk- 
veins and udder partaking of the same character as the 
stomach and viscera, being large and capacious, while the 
external skin and interior walls of the milk-glands are thin 
and elastic, and all parts arranged in a manner especially 
adapted for the production of milk. 

A cow with these marks will generally be of a quiet and 
docile temper, which greatly increases her value. A cow 
that is of a quiet and contented disposition feeds at ease, is 
milked with ease, and yields more than one of an opposite 
temperament ; while, after she is past her usefulness as a 
milker, she will easily take on fat, and make fine beef and a 
good quantity of tallow, because she feeds freely, and when 
dry the food which went to make milk is converted into fat 
and flesh. But there is no breed of cows with which gentle 
ness of treatment is so indispensable as with the Ayrshire, 
on account of her naturally nervous temperament. If she 
receives other than kind and gentle treatment, she will often 
resent it with angry looks and gestures, and withhold her 
milk ; and if such treatment is long continued, will dry up ; 



28 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

but she willingly and easily yields it to the hand that fondles 
her, and all her looks and movements toward her friends are 
quiet and mild. 

The Ayrshires in their native country are generally bred 
'or the dairy, and for no other object ; and the cows have 
justly obtained a world-wide reputation for this quality. 
The oxen are, however, very fair as working cattle, though 
they cannot be said to excel other breeds in this respect. 
The Ayrshire steer may be fed and turned at three years 
old ; but for feeding purposes the Ayrshires are greatly 
improved by a cross with the short horns, provided regard is 
had to the size of the animal. It is the opinion of good 
breeders that a high-bred short horn bull and a large-sized 
Ayrshire cow will produce a calf which will come to maturity 
earlier, and attain greater weight, and sell for more money 
than a pure-bred Ayrshire. This cross, with feeding from 
the start, may be sold fat at two or three years old, the 
improvement being most noticeable in the earlier maturity 
and size. 

In the cross with the short horn, the form ordinarily 
becomes more symmetrical, while there is, perhaps, little risk 
of lessening the milking qualities of the offspring, if sufficient 
regard is paid to the selection of the individual animals to 
breed from. It is thought by some that in the breeding of 
animals it is the male which gives the external form, or the 
bofly and muscular system of the young, while the female 
imparts the respiratory organs, the circulation of the blood, 
the organs of secretion, and the like. 

If this principle be true, it follows that the milking quali- 
ties come chiefly from the mother, and that the bull cannot 



THE AYRSHIRE. 29 

materially alter the conditions which determine the transmis- 
sion of these qualities, especially when they are as strongly 
marked as they are in this breed. 

Until, however, certain mooted questions connected with 
breeding are definitively settled, it is the safest plan, in 
breeding for the dairy, to adhere to the rule of selecting only 
animals whose progenitors on both sides have been dis- 
tinguished for their milking qualities. 

It may be stated, in conclusion, that for purely dairy 
purposes the Ayrshire cow deserves the first place. In 
consequence of her small, symmetrical, and compact body, 
combined with a well-formed chest and a capacious stomach, 
there is little waste, comparatively speaking, through the 
respiratory system ; while at the same time there is very 
complete assimilation of the food, and thus she converts a 
very large proportion of her food into milk. So remarkable 
is this fact, that all dairy farmers who have any experience 
on the point, agree in stating that an Ayrshire cow generally 
gives a larger return of milk for the food consumed than a 
cow of any other breed. The absolute quality may not be 
so great, but it is obtained at a less cost ; and this is the 
point upon which the question of profit depends. The best 
milkers which have been known in this country were grade 
Ayrshires, larger in size than the pure bloods, but still 
sufficiently high grades to give certain signs of their origin 
This grade would seem to possess the advantage of com- 
bining, to some extent, the two qualities of milking and 
adaptation to beef; and this is no small recommendation of 
the stock to farmers situated as American farmers are, who 



30 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES, 

wish for milk for some years and then to turn over to the 
Dutcher. 



THE JERSEY. 

These cattle are now widely known in this country. Many 
of them have been imported from an island of the same name 
in the British Channel, near the coast of France, and they 
may now be considered, for all practical purposes, as fully 
acclimated. They were first introduced, upward of thirty 
years ago, from the channel islands, Alderney, Guernsey, 
and Jersey, 

This race is supposed to have been originally derived from 
Normandy, in the northern part of France. The cows have 
been long celebrated for the production of very rich milk and 
cream, but till within the last twenty-five or thirty years 
they were comparatively coarse, ugly, and ill-shaped. Im- 
provements have been very marked, but the form of the 
animal is still far from satisfying the eye. 

The head of the pure Jersey is fine and tapering, the cheek 
small, the throat clean, the muzzle fine and encircled with a 
light stripe, the nostril high and open ; the horns smooth, 
crumpled, but not very thick at the base, tapering and tipped 
with black ; ears small and thin, deep orange color inside ; 
eyes full and placid ; neck straight and fine ; chest broad and 
deep ; barrel hoofed, broad and deep, well ribbed up ; back 
straight from the withers to the hip, and from the top of the 
hip to the setting of the tail ; tail fine, at right angles with 
the back, and hanging down to the hocks ; skin thin, light 
color, and mellow, covered with fine soft hair ; fore legs 
Bhort, straight and fine below the knee, arm swelling and full 



THE JERSEY. 31 

above ; hind quarters long and well filled ; hind lega short 
and straight below the hocks, with bones rather fine, 
squarely placed, and not too close together ; hoofs small ; 
udder full in size, in line with the belly, extending well up 
behind ; teats of medium size, squarely placed and wide 
apart, and milk-veins very prominent. The color is generally 
cream, dun, or yellow, with more or less of white, and the 
fine head and neck give the cows and heifers a fawn-like 
appearance, and make them objects of attraction in the park ; 
but the hind quarters are often too narrow to work well, 
particularly to those, who judge animals by the amount of 
fat which they carry. 

It should be borne in mind, however, that a good race of 
animals is not always the most beautiful, as that term is 
generally understood. Beauty in stock has no invariable 
standard. In the estimation of some, it results mainly from 
fine forms, small bones, and close, compact frames ; while 
others consider that structure the most perfect, and therefore 
the most beautiful, which is best adapted to the use for which 
it is destined. With such, beauty is relative. It is not the 
same in an animal designed for beef and in one designed for 
the dairy or for work. The beauty of a milch cow is the 
result of her good qualities. Large milkers are very rarely 
cows that please the eye of any but a skillful judge. They 
are generally poor, since their food goes mainly to the 
production of milk, and because they are selected with less 
regard to form than to good milking qualities. The prevail- 
ing opinion as to the beauty of the Jersey, is based on the 
general appearance of the cow when in milk — no experiments 
in feeding exclusively for beef having been made public, and 



32 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

no opportunity to form a correct judgment from actual 
observation having been furnished ; and it must be confessed 
that the general appearance of the breed would amply justify 
the hasty conclusion. 

The bulls are usually very different in character and dispo- 
sition from the cows, and are much inclined to become restive 
and cross at the age of two or three years, unless their 
treatment is uniformly gentle and firm. 

The Jersey is to be regarded as a dairy breed, and that 
almost exclusively. It would not be sought for large dairies 
kept for the supply of milk to cities ; for, though the quality 
would gratify the customer, the quantity would not satisfy 
the owner. The place of the Jersey cow is rather in private 
establishments, where the supply of cream and butter is a 
sufficient object ; or, in limited numbers, to add richness to 
the milk of large butter dairies. Even one or two good 
Jersey cows with a herd of fifteen or twenty, will make a 
great difference in the quality of the milk and butter of the 
whole establishment ; and they would probably be profitable 
for this, if for no other object. 



THE SHORT HORNS. 

No breed of cattle has commanded more universal admira- 
tion during the last half century than the improved short 
horns, whose origin can be traced back for nearly a hundred 
years. According to the best authorities, the stock which 
formed the basis of improvement existed equally in York- 
shire, Lincolnshire, Northumberland, and the adjoining 
oounties; and the pre-eminence was accorded to Durham, 



THE SHORT HORNS. 



33 



which gave its name to the race, from the more correct 
principles of breeding which seem to have obtained there. 

There is a dispute among the most eminent breeders as to 
how far it owes its origin to early importations from Holland, 
whence many superior animals were brought for the purpose 
of improving the old long horned breed. A large race of 
cattle had existed for many years on the western shores of 
the continent of Europe. As early as 1633,. they were 
imported from Denmark into ISTew England in considerable 
numbers, and thus laid the foundation of a valuable stock in 

this country. 
They extend- 
ed along the 
coast, it is 
said, through 
Holland to 
France. The 
dairy formed 
^afe..;^:^^^;^^^^ a prominent 

A SHOET HORN BULL. braUCll 01 

farming at a very early date in Holland, and experience led 
to the greatest care in the choice and breeding of dairy 
'Stock. From these cattle many selections were made to 
cross over to the counties of York and Durham. The 
prevailing color of the large Dutch cattle was black and 
white, beautifully contrasted. 

The cattle produced by these crosses a century ago were 
known by the name of "Dutch." The cows selected for 
crossing with the early imported Dutch bulls were generally 
long horned, large boned, coarse animals, a fair type of which 




34 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

was found in the old " Holderness" breed of Yorkshire — slow 
feeders, strong in the shoulder, defective in the fore quarter, 
and not very profitable to the butcher, their meat being coarse 
and uninviting. Their milking qualities were good, surpass- 
ing those, probably, of the improved short horns. What- 
ever may be the truth with regard to these crosses, and 
however far they proved effective in creating or laying the 
foundation of the modern improved short horns, the results 
of the efforts made in Yorkshire and some of the adjoining 
counties were never so satisfactory to the best judges as 
those of the breeders along the Tees, who selected animals 
with greater reference to fineness of bone and symmetry of 
form, and the animals they bred soon took the lead and 
excited great emulation in improvement. 

Importations of short horns have been frequent and exten- 
sive Into the United States within the last few years, and 
this famous breed is now pretty generally diffused over the 
country. 

The high-bred short horn is easily prepared for a show, and, 
as fat will cover faults, the temptation is often too great to be 
resisted ; and hence it is not uncommon to see the finest 
animals rendered unfit for breeding purposes by over-feeding. 
The race is susceptible of breeding for the production of milk, 
as several families show, and great milkers have often been 
known among pure-bred animals ; but it is more common 
to find it bred mainly for the butcher, and kept accordingly. 
It is, however, a well-known fact, that the dairies of London 
are stocked chiefly with short horns and Yorkshires, or high 
grades between them, which, after being milked as long as 
profitable, feed equal, or nearly so, to pure-bred short horns. 



THE SHORT HORNS. 85 

It has been said, by very good authority, that the short horns 
improve every breed with which they cross. 

The desirable characteristics of the short horn bull may be 
summed up, according to the judgment of the best breeders, 
as follows : He should have a short but fine head, very broad 
across the eyes, tapering to the nose, with a nostril full and 
prominent ; the nose itself should be of a rich flesh color ; eyes 
bright and mild; ears somewhat large and thin ; horns slightly 
covered and rather flat, well set on ; a long, broad, muscular 
neck ; chest wide, deep, and projecting ; shoulders fine, oblique, 
well formed into the chine ; fore legs short, with upper arm 
large and powerful ; barrel round, deep, well-ribbed horns ; hips 
wide and level ; back straight from the withers to the setting 
on of the tail, but short from hips to chine ; skin soft and 
velvety to the touch ; moderately thick hair, plentiful, soft, 
and mossy. The cow has the same points in the main, but 
her head is finer, longer, and more tapering ; neck thinner 
and lighter, and shoulders more narrow across the chine. 

The astonishing precocity of the short horns, their remark- 
able aptitude to fatten, the perfection of their forms, and the 
fineness of their bony structure, give them an advantage 
over most other races when the object of breeding is for the 
shambles. No animal of any other breed can so rapidly 
transform the stock of any section around him as the im- 
proved short horn bull. 

It does not, however, follow that the high-bred short horns 
are unexceptionable, even for beef The very exaggeration, 
so to speak, of the qualities which make them so valuable for 
the improvement of other and less perfect races, may become 
a fault when wanted for the table. The very rapidity with 



36 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

which they increase in size is thought by some to prevent 
their meat from ripening up sufficiently before being hurried 
off to the butcher. The disproportion of the fatty to the 
muscular flesh, found in this to a greater extent than in 
races coming more slowly to maturity, makes the meat of the 
thorough-bred short horn, in the estimation of some, less 
agreeable to the taste, and less profitable to the consumer ; 
since the nitrogenous compounds, true sources of nutriment, 
are found in less quantity than in the meat of animals not so 
highly bred. 

In sections where the climate is moist, and the food 
abundant and rich, some families of the short horns may be 
valuable for the dairy ; but they are most frequently bred ex- 
clusively for beef in this country, and in sections where they 
have attained the highest perfection of form and beauty, so 
little is thought of their milking qualities that they are often 
not milked at all, the calf being allowed to run with the dam. 



THE DUTCH. 

This short horned race, in the opinion of many — as has 
been previously remarked — contributed largely, about a 
century ago, to build up the Durham or Teeswater stock. 
It has been bred with special reference to dairy qualities, 
and is eminently adapted to supply the wants of the dairy 
farmer. The cows of North Holland not only give a large 
quantity, but also a very good quality, so that a yield of 
sixteen to twenty-five quarts, wine measure, at every milking, 
is not rare. 

The principles upon which the inhabitants of Holland 
practise, in selecting a cow from which to breed, are as 



THE DUTCH. ST 

follows : She should have, they say, considerable size — not 
less than four and a half or five feet girth, with a length of 
body corresponding ; legs proportionally short ; a finely 
formed head, with a forehead or face somewhat concave ; 
clear, large, mild and sparkling eyes, yet with no expression 
of wildness ; tolerably large and stout ears, standing out from 
the head ; fine, well curved horns ; a rather short, than long, 
thick, broad neck, well set against the chest and withers ; 
the front part of the breast and shoulders must be broad and 
fleshy ; the low-hanging dewlap must be soft to the touch ; 
the back and loins must be properly projected, somewhat 
broad, the bones not too sharp, but well covered with flesh ; 
the animal should have long curved ribs, which form a broad 
breast bone; the body must be round and deep, but not 
sunken into a hanging belly ; the rump must not be uneven, 
the hip-bones should not stand out too broad and spreading, 
but all the parts should be level and well filled up ; a fine tail, 
set moderately high up and tolerably long, but slender, with a 
thick, bushy tuft of hair at the end, hanging down below the 
hocks ; the legs must be short and low, but strong in the 
bony structure ; the knees broad, with flexible joints ; the 
muscles and sinews must be firm and sound, the hoofs broad 
and flat, and the position of the legs natural, not too close 
and crowded •, the hide, covered with fine glossy hair, must 
be soft and mellow to the touch, and set loose upon the body. 
A large, rather long, white and loose udder, extending well 
back, with four long teats, serves also as a characteristic 
mark of a good milch cow. Large and prominent milk- 
veins must extend from the navel back to the udder ; the 
belly of a good milch cow should not be too deep and hang- 



38 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES, 

ing. The color of the North Dutch cattle is mostly varie- 
gated. Cows with only one color are no favorites. Red or 
black variegated, gray and blue variegated, roan, spotted and 
white variegated cows, are especially liked 



THE HEKEFOEli. 

These cattle derive their name from a county in the 
western part of England. Their general characteristics are a 
white face, sometimes mottled ; white throat, the white 
generally extending back on the neck, and sometimes, though 
rarely, still further along on the back. The color of the rest 
of the body is red, generally dark, but sometimes light. 
Eighty years ago the best Hereford cattle were mottled or 
roan all over ; and some of the best herds, down to a com- 
paratively recent period, were either all mottled, or had the 
mottled or speckled face. 

The expression of the face is mild and lively ; the forehead 
open, broad, and large ; the eyes bright and full of vivacity ; 
the horns glossy, slender and spreading ; the head small, 
though larger than, and not quite so clear as, that of the 
Devons ; the lower jaw fine ; neck long and slender ; chest 
deep ; breast-bone large, prominent, and very muscular ; the 
shoulder-blade light ; shoulder full and soft ; brisket and loins 
large ; hips well developed, and on a level with the chine ; 
hind quarters long and well filled in ; buttocks on a level 
with the back, neither falling off nor raised above the hind 
quarters ; tail slender, well set on ; hair fine and soft ; body 
round and full ; carcass deep and well formed, or cylindrical ; 
bone small ; thigh short and well made ; legs short and 
straight, and slender below the knee ; as handlers very 



THE HEREFORD. ^ 

excellent, especially mellow to the touch on the back, the 
shoulder, and along the sides, the skin being soft, flexible, of 
medium thickness, rolling on the neck and the hips ; hanr 
bright ; face almost bare, which is characteristic of pure 
Herefords. 

They belong to the middle horned division of the cattle of 
Great Britain, to which they are indigenous, and have been 
improved within the last century by careful selections. 

Hereford oxen are excellent animals, less active but 
stronger than the'Devons, and very free and docile. The 
demand for Herefords for beef prevents their being much 
used for work in their native county, and the farmers there 
generally use horses instead of oxen. 

It is generally conceded that the qualities in which Here- 
fords stand pre-eminent among the middle-sized breeds are in 
the production of oxen and their superiority of flesh. On 
these points there is little chance of their being excelled. It 
should, however, be borne in mind that the best oxen are not 
produced from the largest cows ; nor is a superior quality of 
flesh, such as is considered very soft to the touch, with thin 
skin. It is the union of these two qualities which often 
characterizes the short horns ; but Hereford breeders — as a 
recent writer remarks — should endeavor to maintain a higher 
standard of excellence — that for which the best of the breed 
have always been esteemed — a moderately thick, mellow 
hide, with a well apportioned combination of softness with 
elasticity. A sufficiency of hair is also desirable, and if 
accompanied with a disposition to curl moderately, it is more 
in esteem ; but that which has a harsh and wiry feel is 
objectionable. 



4(V CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

In point of symmetry and beauty of form, the well bred 
Herefords may be classed with the improved short horns, 
though they arrive somewhat more slowly at maturity, and 
never attain such weight. Like the improved short horns, 
they are chiefly bred for beef, and their beef is of the best 
quality in the English markets, commanding the highest 
price of any, except, perhaps, the West Highlanders. The 
short horn produces more beef at the same age than the 
Hereford, but consumes more food in proportion. 

The Herefords are far less generally spread over England 
than the improved short horns. They have seldom been bred 
for milk, as some families of the latter have ; and it is not very 
unusual to find pure-bred cows incapable of supplying milk 
sufficient to nourish their calves. They have been imported 
to this country to some extent, and several fine herds exist 
in different sections ; the earliest importations being those of 
Henry Clay, of Kentucky, in ISH. 

The want of care and attention to the udder, soon after 
calving, especially if the cow be on luxuriant grass, often 
injures her milking properties exceedingly. The practice 
in the county of Hereford has generally been to let the 
calves suckle from four to six mouths, and bull calves often 
run eight months with the cow. But their dairy qualities 
are perhaps as good as those of any cattle whose fattening 
properties have been so carefully developed ; and, though it 
is probable that they could be bred for milk with proper care 
and attention, yet, as this change would be at the expense of 
other qualities equally valuable, it would evidently be wiser 
to resort to other stock for the dairy. 




THE NORTH DEVONS. 41 

THE NOETH DEVONS. 

This beautiful race of middle horned cattle dates further 
back than any well established breed among us. It goes 
generally ^^^ ~ ~ 

under the 
simple 
name of 
Devon; but 
the cattle 
of the south- 
ern part of 

the county, 

from which a nokth devon steer. 

the race derives its name, differ somewhat from those of the 
northern, having a larger and coarser frame, and far less 
tendency to fatten, though their dairy qualities are superior. 

The North Devons are remarkable for hardihood, symmetry 
and beauty, and are generally bred for work and for beef, 
'rather than for the dairy. The head is fine and well set on ; 
the horns of medium length, generally curved ; color usually 
bright blood-red, but sometimes inclining to yellow ; skin 
thin and orange-yellow ; hair of medium length, soft and 
silky, making the animals remarkable as handlers ; muzzle 
of the nose white ; eyes full and mild ; ears yellowish, or 
orange-color inside, of moderate size ; neck rather long, with 
little dewlap ; shoulders oblique ; legs small and straight, 
with feet in proportion ; chest of good width ; ribs round and 
expanded ; loins of first-rate quality, long, wide, and fleshy ; 
hips round, of medium width ; rump level ; tail full near the 



42 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

setting on, tapering to the tip ; 'thighs of the bull and ox 
muscular and full, and high in the flank, though in the cow 
sometimes thought to be light ; the size medium, generally- 
called small. The proportion of meat on the valuable parts 
is greater, and the offal less, than on most other breeds, while 
it is well settled that thej consume less food in its produc- 
tion. The Devons are popular with the Smithfield butchers, 
and their beef is well marbled or grained. 

As working oxen, the Devons perhaps excel all other races 

in quickness, docility, beauty, and the ease with which they 

are matched. With a reasonable load, they are said to be 

^equal to horses as walkers on the road, and when they are 

no longer wanted for work they fatten easily and turn well. 

As milkers, they do not excel — perhaps they may be said 
not to equal — the other breeds, and they have a reputation 
of being decidedly below the average. In their native 
country the general average of the dairy is one pound of 
butter a day during the summer. They are bred for beef 
and for work, and not for the dairy ;, and their yield of milk 
is small, though of a rich quality. Several animals, however' 
of the celebrated Patterson herd would have been remarkable 
as milkers even among good milking stock. 

Still, the faults of the North Devon cow, considered as a 
dairy animal, are too marked to be overlooked. The 
rotundity of form and compactness of frame, though they 
contribute to her remarkable beauty, constitute an objec- 
tion to her for this purpose : since it is generally admitted 
that the peculiarity of form which disposes an animal to take 
on fat is somewhat incompatible with good milking qualities. 
On this account, Youatt — who is standard authority in sueh 



NATIVE CATTLE. • 43 

matters — says that for the dairy the North Devon must be 
acknowledged to be inferior to several other breeds. The 
milk is good, and yields more than the average proportion 
of cream and butter ; but it is deficient in quantity. He also 
maintains that its property as a milker could not be im 
proved without producing a certain detriment to its grazmg 
qualities. Distinguished Devon breeders themselves have 
come to the. same conclusion upon this point. The improved 
North Devon cow may be classed, in this respect, with the 
Hereford, neither of which has well developed milk-vessels — 
a point of the utmost consequence to the practical dairyman. 



NATIVE CATTLE. 

The foregoing comprise the pure-bred races in America ; 
for, though other and well-established breeds — like the Gal- 
loways, the long horns, the Spanish, and others — have, at 
times, been imported, and have had some influence on our 
American stock, yet they have not been kept distinct to such 
an extent as to become the prevailing stock of any particular 
section. 

A large proportion, however — by far the largest propor- 
tion, indeed — of the cattle known among us cannot be in- 
cluded under any of the races to which allusion has been 
made ; and to the consideration of this class the present 
article is devoted. 

The term "breed" — as was set forth in the author's 
treatise, " The Horse and his Diseases" — when properly 
understood, applies only to animals of the same species, 
possessing, besides the general characteristics of that species, 
other characteristics peculiar to themselves, which they owe 



44 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

to the influence of soil, climate, nourishment, and the habits 
of life to which thej are subjected, and which they transmit 
with certainty to their progeny. The characteristics of 
certain breeds or families are so well marked, that, if an 
ndividu'al supposed to belong to any one of them were to 
produce an offspring not possessing them, or possessing them 
only in part, with others not belonging to the breed, it 
would be just ground for suspecting a want of purity of 
blood. 

In this view, no grade animals, and no animals destitute 
of fixed peculiarities or characteristics which they share in 
common with all other animals of the class of which they 
are a type, and which they are capable of transmitting with 
certainty to their descendants, can be recognized by breeders 
as belonging to any one distinct race, breed, or family. 

The term " native" is applied to a vast majority of our 
American cattle, which, though born on the soil, and thus in 
one sense natives, do not constitute a breed, race, or family, 
as correctly understood by breeders. They do not possess 
characteristics peculiar to them all, which they transmit with 
any certainty to their offspring, either of form, size, color, 
milking or working properties. 

But, though an animal may be made up of a mixture of 
blood almost to impurity, it does not follow that, for specific 
purposes, it may not, as an individual animal, be one of the 
best of the species. Indeed, for particular purposes, animals 
might be selected from among those commonly called 
" natives" in New England, and " scrubs" at the west and 
south, equal, and perhaps superior, to any among the races 
produced by the most skillful breeding. 



NATIVE CATTLE. 



45 



There can be no objection, therefore, to the use of the 
term " native," when it is understood as descriptive of no 
known breed, but only as applied to the common stock of a 
country, which does not constitute a breed. But perhaps 
the entire class of animals commonly called " native's" would 
be more accurately described as grades ; since they are well 
known to have sprung from a great variety of cattle procured 
at different times and in different places on the continent of 
Europe, in England, and in the Spanish West Indies, brought 
together without any regard to fixed principles of breeding, 
but only from individual convenience, and by accident. 

The first importations to this country were doubtless those 
taken to Virginia previous to 1609, though the exact date 
of their arrival is not known. Several cows were carried 
there from the "West Indies in 1610, and in the next year no 
less than one hundred arrived there from abroad. 




DRAFT OXEK. 



The earliest cattle imported into New England arrived in 
1624. At the division of cattle which took place three years 



46 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

after, one or two are distinctly described as black, or black 
and white, others as brindle, showing that there was no 
uniformity of color. Soon after this, a large number of cattle 
were brought over from England for the settlers at Salem. 
These importations formed the original stock of Massachu- 
setts. 

In It 25, the first importation was made into New York 
from Holland by the Dutch West India Company, and the 
foundation was then laid for an exceedingly valuable race of 
animals, which subsequent importations from the same 
country, as well as from England, have greatly improved. 
The points and value of this race in its purity have been 
already adverted to under the head of the Dutch cattle. 

In 162T, cattle were brought from Sweden to the settle- 
ments on the Delaware, by the Swedish West India 
Company. In 1631, 1632, and 1633, several importations 
were made into New Hampshire by Captain John Mason, 
who, with Gorges, had procured the patent of large tracts of 
land in the vicinity of the Piscataqua river, and who imme- 
diately formed settlements there. The object of Mason was 
to carry on the manufacture of potash. For this purpose he 
employed the Danes ; and it was in his voyage to and from 
Denmark that he procured many Danish cattle and horses, 
which were subsequently scattered over that entire region, 
large numbers being driven to the vicinity of Boston and 
sold. These Danish cattle are described as large and coarse, 
of a yellow color ; and it is supposed that they were pro- 
cured by Mason as being best capable of enduring the 
severity of the climate and the hardships to which they 
would be subjected. 



NATIVE CATTLE. 47 

However this may have been, they very soon spread 
among the colonists of the Massachusetts Bay, and have 
undoubtedly left their marks on the stock of the New 
England and the Middle States, which exist to some extent 
even to the present day, mixed in with an infinite multitude 
of crosses with the Devons, the Dutch cattle already alluded 
to, the black cattle of Spain and Wales, and the long horn 
and the short horn — most of which crosses were accidental, 
or due to local circumstances or individual convenience. 
Many of these cattle, the descendants of such crosses, are of a 
very high order of merit ; but to which particular cross this 
is due, it is impossible to say. They generally make hardy, 
strong, and docile oxen, easily broken to the yoke and quick 
to work, with a fair tendency to fatten when well fed ; while 
the cows, though often ill-shaped, are sometimes remarkably 
good milkers, especially as regards the quantity which they 
give. 

Indeed, it has been remarked by excellent judges of stock, 
that if they desired to select a dairy of cows for milk for sale, 
they would make their selection from cows commonly called 
native, in preference to pure-bred animals of any of the 
established breeds, and that they believed they should find 
such a dairy the most profitable. 

In color, the natives, made up as already indicated, are 
exceedingly various. The old Denmarks, which to a con- 
siderable extent laid the foundation of the stock of Maine 
and New Hampshire, were light yellow. The Dutch of New 
York and the Middle States, were black and white ; the 
Spanish and Welsh were generally black ; the Devons, which 
are supposed to have laid the foundation of the stock of some 



48 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES 

of the States, were red. Crosses of the Denmark with the 
Spanish and Welsh naturally made a dark brindle ; crosses 
of the Devon often made a lighter or yellowish brindle ; 
while the mor? recent importations of Jerseys and short 
horns have generally produced a beautiful spotted progeny 
The deep red has long been a favorite color in New England; 
but the prejudice in its favor is fast giving way to more 
variegated colors. 

Among the earlier importations into this country were 
also several varieties of hornless cattle, which have been 
kept measurably distinct in some sections ; or where they 
have been crossed with the common stock there has been a 
tendency to produce hornless grades. These are not unfre- 
quently known as "buffalo cattle." They were, in many 
cases, supposed to belong to the Galloway breed ; or, which 
is more likely, to the Suffolk dun, a variety of the Galloway, 
and a far better milking stock than the Galloways, from 
which, it sprung. These polled, or hornless cattle vary in 
color and qualities, but they are usually very good milkers 
when well kept, and many of them fatten well, and attain 
good weight. 

The Hungarian cattle have also been imported, to soihe 
extent, into different parts of the country, and have been 
crossed upon the natives with some success. Many other 
strains of blood from different breeds have also contributed 
to build up the common stock of the country of the present 
day ; and there can be no question that its appearance and 
value have been largely improved during the last quarter of 
a century, nor that improvements are still in progress which 
will lead to satisfactory resujts in the future. 



NATIVE CATTLE. 49 

But, though we already have an exceedingly valuable 
foundation for improvement, no one will pretend to deny 
that our cattle, as a whole, are susceptible of it in many 
respects. They possess neither the size, the symmetry, nor 
the early maturity of the short horns ; they do not, as a 
general thing, possess the fineness of bone, the beauty of 
form and color, nor the activity of the Devons or the Here- 
fords ; they do not possess that uniform richness of milk, 
united with generous quality, of the Ayrshires, nor the 
surpassing richness of milk of the Jerseys : but, above all, 
they do not possess the power of transmitting the many good 
qualities which they often have to their ofiTspring — which is 
the characteristic of all well established breeds. 

It is equally certain, in the opinion of many good judges, 
that the dairy stock of the country has not been materially 
improved in its intrinsic good qualities during the last thirty 
or forty years. This may not be true of certain sections, 
where the dairy has been made a special object of pursuit, 
and where the custom of raising the best male calves of the 
neighborhood, or those that came from the best dairy cows, 
and then of using only the best formed bulls, has long pre- 
vailed. Although in this way some progress has, doubtless, 
been made, there are still room and need for more. More 
attention must be paid to correct principles of breeding 
before the satisfactory results which every farmer should 
strive to reach can be attained. 

Having glanced generally at the leading breeds of cattle in 

Great Britain, and examined, more in detail, the various 

breeds in the United States, the next subject demanding 

attention is, 
4 



50 



CATTLE AND THEIR DlSEAbES. 



THE NATUBAL HISTOBY OF CATTLE. 




SKELETON OF THE OX AS COVERED BY THE MUSCLES. 

1. The upper jaw-bone. 2. The nasal bone, or bone of the nose. 3. The lachrymal 
bone. 4. T)ie malar, or cheek bone. 6. The frontal bone, or bone of the forehead. 
6. The horns, being processes or continuations of the frontal. 7. The temporal bone. 
8. The parietal bone, low in the temporal fossa. 9. The occipital bone, deeply 
depressed below the crest or ridge of the head. 10. The lower jaw. 11. The 
grinders. 12. The nippers, found on the lower jaw alone. 13. The ligament of the 
neck, and its attachments. 14. The atlas. 16. The dentata. 17. The orbits of the 
eye. 18. The vertebiae, or bones of the neck. 19. The bones of the back. 20. The 
bones of the loins. 21. The sacrum. 22. The bones of the tail. 2.3. The haunch 
and pelvis. 24. The eight true ribs. 25. The false ribs, with their cartilages. 
26. The sternum. 27. The scapula, or shoulder-blade. 28. The humerus, or lower 
bone of the shoulder. 29. The radius, or principal bone of the arm. 40. The 
ulna, its upper part forming the elbow. 41. The small bones of the knee. 42. The 
large metacarpal or shank bone. 43. The smaller or splint bone. 44. The sessa- 
mold bones. 45. The bifurcation at the pasterns, and the two larger pasterns to 
each foot. 46. The two smaller pasterns to each foot. 47. The two coffin bones to 
each foot. 48. The navicular bones. 49. The thitrh bone. .W. The patella, or hone 
of the knee. 51. Thp tibia, or proper leg bone. 52. The point of the hock. 63. The 
small iiiiips of the hnck. 54. The metatarsals, or larger bones of the hind leg. 
65. The pasterns and feet. 



Division. Vertehrata — possessing a back-bone. 
Class. Mammalia — such as give suck. 



FORMATION OP TEETH. 51 



Order. Euminantia — chewing the cud. 
Family. With horns. 
Genus. Bovidce — the ox tribe. 

Of this tribe there are eight species : 
Bos urus, the ancient bison. 
Bos bison, the American buffalo. 
Bos moschatus, the musk ox. 
Bos frontalis, the gayal. 
Bos grunniens, the grunting ox. 
Bos caffer, the South African buffalo. 
Bos bubalus, the common buffalo. 
Bos taurus, the common domestic ox. 



GESTATION". 

The usual period of pregnancy in a cow is nine calendar 
months, and something over : at times as much as three 
weeks. With one thousand and thirty one cows, whose 
gestations were carefully observed in France, the average 
period was about two hundred and eighty-five days. 



FORMATION OP TEETH. 

It is of the utmost importance to be able to judge of the 
age of a cow. Few farmers wish to purchase a cow for the 
dairy after she has passed her prime, which will ordinarily 
be at the age of nine or ten years, varying, of course, accord- 
ing to care, feeding, &c., in the earlier part of her life. 

The common method of forming an estimate of the age of 
cattle is by an examination of the horn. At three years old, 
as a general rule, the horns are perfectly smooth ; after this, 
a ring appears near the nob, and annually afterward a new 



62 



CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 




TEETH AT BIBTH. 



one is formed, so that, by adding two years to the first ring, 
the age is calculated. This is a very uncertain mode of 
judging. The rings are distinct 
only in the cow ; and it is well 
known that if a heifer goes to bull 
when she is two years old, or a 
little before or after that time, a 
change takes place in the horn and 
the first ring appears ; so that a real 
three-year-old would carry the 
mark of a four-year-old. 

The rings on the horns of a bull 
are either not seen until five, or 
they cannot be traced at all ; while 
in the ox they do not appear till he is five years old, and then 
are often very indistinct. In addition to this, it is by no 

means an uncommon practice to 
file the horns, so as to make 
them smooth, and to give the 
animal the appearance of being 
much younger than it really is. 
This is, therefore, an exceedingly 
fallacious guide, and cannot be 
relied upon by any one with the 
degree of confidence desired. 

The surest indication of the 
age in cattle, as in the horse, is 
given by the teeth. 
The calf, at birth, will usually have two incisor or front 
teeth — in some cases just appearing through the gums ; in 




SECOND WEEK. 



FORMATION OF TEETH, 



53 



others, fully set, varying as the cow falls short of, or exceeds, 
her regular time of calving. If she overruns several days, 




THREE WEEKS. 



the eeth will have set and attained considerable size, as 
appears in the cut representing teeth at birth. During the 
second week, a tooth will usually be added on each side, and 




FIVE TO EtaST MONTHS. 



TEN MOKTHS. 



the mouth will generally appear as in the next cut; and 
before the end of the third week, the animal will generally 
have six incisor teeth, as denoted in the cut representing 



54 



CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES, 




TWELVE MONTHS. 



teeth at the third week j and in a week from that time the 
full number of incisors will have appeared, as seen in the 

next cut. 

These teeth are temporary, 
and are often called milk-teeth. 
Their edge is very sharp ; and 
as the animal begins to live 
upon more solid food, this edge 
becomes worn, showing the 
bony part of the tooth beneath, 
and indicates with considerable 
precision the length of time they 
have been used. The centre, 
or oldest teeth show the marks of age first, and often become 
somewhat worn before the corner teeth appear. At eight 

weeks, the four inner teeth are 
nearly as sharp as before. 
They appear worn not so much 
on the outer edge or line of the 
tooth, as inside this line ; but, 
after this, the edge begins 
gradually to lose its sharpness, 
and to present a more flattened 
surface ; while the next outer 
teeth wear down like the four 
central ones ; and at three 
months this wearing off is very apparent, till at four months 
all the incisor teeth appear worn, but the inner ones the 
most. Now the teeth begin slowly to diminish in size by a 




FIFTEBK HOKTBS. 



FORMATION OF TEETH. 



55 




EIGHTEEN MONTHS. 



kiud of contraction, as well as wearing down, and the 
distance apart becomes more and more apparent. 

From the fifth to the eighth 
month, the inner teeth will 
usually appear as in the cut of 
the teeth at that time ; and at 
ten months, this change shows 
more clearly, as represented in 
the next cut, and the spaces 
between them begin to show 
very plainly, till at a year old 
they ordinarily present the ap- 
pearance of the following cut ; 
and at the age of fifteen months, that shown in the next, 
where the corner teeth are not more than half the original 
size, and the centre ones still 
smaller. 

The permanent teeth are now 
rapidly growing, and preparing 
to take the place of the milk- 
teeth, which are gradually ab- 
sorbed till they disappear, or 
are pushed out to give place to 
the two permanent central inci- 
sors, which at a year and a half 
will generally present the ap- 
pearance indicated in the cut, which shows the internal 
structure of the lower jaw at this time, with the cells of the 
teeth, the two central ones protruding into the mouth, the 
next two pushing up, but not quite grown to the surface, 




TWO TBAB8 PAST. 



5a 



CATTLE AND THEIB DISEASES. 



with the third pair just perceptible. These changes require 
time ; and at two years past the jaw will usually appear as 




THREE TEARS PAST. 



FOUR TEARS PAST. 



in the cut, where four of the permanent central incisors are 
seen. After this, the other milk-teeth decrease rapidly, but 
are slow to disappear; and at three years old, the third pair 




PIVB TEARS PAST. 



TEN TEARS PAST. 



of permanent teeth are but formed, as represented in the cut ; 
and at four years the last pair of incisors will be up, as in 
the cut of that age ; but the outside ones are not yet fully 



POINTS OF A GOOD COW. 57 

grown, and the beast can hardly be said to be full-mouthed 
till the age of five years. But before this age, or at the age 
of four years, the two inner pairs of permanent teeth are 
beginning to wear at the edges, as shown in the cut ; while 
at five years old the whole set becomes somewhat worn down 
at the top, and on the two centre ones a darker line appears 
in the middle, along a line of harder bone, as appears in the 
appropriate cut. 

Now will come a year or two, and sometimes three, when 
the teeth do not so clearly indicate the exact age, and the 
judgment must be guided by the extent to which the dark 
middle lines are worn. This will depend somewhat upon 
the exposure and feeding of the animal ; but at seven years 
these lines extend over all the teeth. At eight years, another 
change begins, which cannot be mistaken. A kind of 
absorption begins with the two central incisors — slow at 
first, but perceptible — and these two teeth become smaller 
than the«rest, while the dark lines are worn into one in all 
but the corner teeth, till, at ten years, four of the central 
incisors have become smaller in size, with a smaller and 
fainter mark, as indicated in the proper cut. At eleven, the 
six inner teeth are smaller than the corner ones ; and at 
twelve, all become smaller than they were, while the dark 
lines are nearly gone, except in the corner teeth, and the 
inner edge is worn to the gum. 



POIWTS OF A GOOD COW. 
After satisfaction is afi^orded touching the age of a cow, 
she should be examined with reference to her soundness of 
constitution. A good constitution is indicated by large 



58 



CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 



lungs, which are found in a deep, broad, and prominent chest, 
broad and well-spread ribs, a respiration somewhat slow and 
regular, a good appetite, and if in milk a strong inclination 
to drink, which a large secretion of milk almost invariably 
stimulates. In such a cow the digestive organs are active 
and energetic, and they make an abundance of good blood, 
which in turn stimulates the activity of the nervous system, 
and furnishes the milky glands with the means of abundant 

secretion. Such a cow, when 
dry, readily takes on fat. When 
activity of the milk-glands is 
found united with close ribs, 
small and feeble lungs, and a 
slow appetite, often attended 
by great thirst, the cow will 
generally possess only a 
weak and feeble constitu- 
tion ; and if the « milk is 
^^jf.0 " plentiful, it will generally be 
-co ^cn^k^M^^/ of bad quality, while the animal, 
if she does not die of diseased 
lungs, will not readily take on fat, when dry and fed. 

In order to have no superfluous flesh, the cow should have 
a small, clean, and rather long head, tapering toward the 
muzzle. A cow with a large, coarse head will seldom fatten 
readily, or give a large quantity of milk. A coarse head 
increases the proportion of weight of the least valuable parts, 
while it is a sure indication that the whole bony structure is 
too heavy. The mouth should be large and broad ; the eye 
bright and sparkling, but of a peculiar placidness of expres- 




A GOOD MILCH COW. 



POINTS OP A GOOD COW. 59 

sion, with no indication of wildness, but rather a mild and 
feminine look. These points will indicate gentleness of 
disposition. Such cows seem to like to be milked, are' fond 
of being caressed, and often return caresses. The horns 
should be small, short, tapering, yellowish, and glistening. 
The neck should be small, thin, and tapering toward the 
head, but thickening when it approaches the shoulder ; the 
dewlaps small. The fore quarters should be rather small 
when compared with the hind quarters. The form of the 
barrel will be large, Tand each rib should project further than 
the preceding one, up to the loins. She should be well 
formed across the hips and in the rump. 

The spine or backbone should be straight and long, rather 
^loosely hung, or open along the middle part, the result of the 
distance between the dorsal vertebrae, which sometimes 
causes a slight depression, or sway back. By some good 
judges, this mark is regarded as of great importance, 
especially when the bones of the hind quarters are also rather 
loosely put together, leaving the rump of great width and 
the pelvis large, and the organs and milk-vessels lodged 
in the cavities largely developed. The skin over the rump 
should be loose and flexible. This point is of great impor- 
tance ; and as, when the cow is in low condition or very poor, 
it will appear somewhat harder and closer than it otherwise 
would, some practice and close observation are required to 
judge well of this mark. The skin, indeed, all over the body, 
should be soft and mellow to the touch, with soft and glossy 
hair. The tail, if thick at the setting on, should taper and 
be fine below. 

But the udder is of special importance. It should be large 



60 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

in proportion to the size of the animal, and the skin thin, 
with soft, loose folds extending well back, capable of great 
distension when filled, but shrinking to a small compass 
when entirely empty. It must be free from lumps in every 
part, and provided with four teats set well apart, and of 
medium size. Nor is it less important to observe the milk- 
veins carefully. The principal ones under the belly should 
be large and prominent, and extend forward to the navel, 
losing themselves, apparently, in the very best milkers, in a 
large cavity in the flesh, into which the end of the finger can 
be inserted ; but when the cow is not in full milk, the milk- 
vein, at other times very prominent, is not so distinctly traced ; 
and hence, to judge of its size when the cow is dry, or nearly 
so, this vein may be pressed near its end, or at its entrance 
into the body, when it will immediately fill up to its full size. 
This vein does not convey the milk to the udder, as some 
suppose, but is the channel by which the blood returns; and 
its contents consist of the refuse of the secretion, or of what 
has not been taken up in forming milk. There are also veins 
in the udder, and the perineum, or the space above the udder, 
and between that and the buttocks, which it is of special im- 
portance to observe. These veins should be largely de- 
veloped, and irregular or knotted, especially those of the 
udder. They are largest in great milkers. 

The knotted veins of the perineum, extending from above 
downwards in a winding line, are not readily seen in young 
heifers, and are very difficult to find in poor cows, or those 
of only a medium quality. They are easily found in very 
good milkers, and if not at first apparent, they are made so 
by pressing upon them at the base of the perineum, when 



POINTS OF A GOOD COW. 61 

they swell up and send the blood back toward the vulva. 
They form a kind of thick network under the skin of the 
perineum, raising it up somewhat, in some cases near the 
vulva, in others nearer down and closer to the udder. It is 
important to look for these veins, as they often form a very 
important guide, and by some they would be considered as 
furnishing the surest indications of the milking qualities of 
the cow. Full development almost always shows an abun- 
dant secretion of milk ; but they are far better developed 
after the cow has had two or three calves, when two or three 
years' milking has given full activity to the milky glands, 
and attracted a large flow of blood. The larger and more 
prominent these veins the better. It is needless to say that 
in observing them some regard should be had to the condition 
of the cow, the thickness of skin and fat by which they may 
be surrounded, and the general activity and food of the 
animal. Food calculated to stimulate the greatest flow of 
milk will naturally increase these veins, and give them more 
than usual prominence. 



THE MILK-MIRROB. 

The discovery of M. Guenon, of Bordeaux, in France — a 
man of remarkable practical sagacity, and a close observer 
of stock — consisted in the connection between the milking 
qualities of the cow and certain external marks on the udder, 
and on the space above it, called the perineum, extending 
to the buttocks. To these marks he gave the name of milk- 
mirror, or escutcheon, which consists in certain perceptible 
spots rising up from the udder in different directions, forms 
and sizes, on which the hair grows upward, whilst the hair 



62 



CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 



on other parts of the body grows downward. The reduction 
of these marks into a system, explaining the value of particu- 
lar forms and sizes of the 
milk-mirror, belongs exclu- 
sively to Guenon. 

He divided the milk-mirror 
into eight classes, and each 
class into eight orders, mak- 
ing in all no less than 
sixty-four divisions, which 
he afterward increased by 
subdivisions, thus rendering 
the whole system compli- 
cated in the extreme, espe- 
cially as he professed to be 
able to judge with accuracy, 
by means of the milk-mirror, 
not only of the exact quantity 
a cow would give, but also 
of the quality of the milk, and of the length of time it would 
continue. He endeavored to prove too much, and was, as a 
matter of consequence, frequently at fault himself. 

Despite the strictures which have been passed upon 
Guenon's method of judging of cows, the best breeders and 
judges of stock concur in the opinion, as the result of their 
observations, that cows with the most perfectly developed 
milk-mirrors are, with rare exception, the best milkers of 
their breed ; and that cows with small and slightly developed 
milk-mirrors are, in the majority of cases, bad milkers. 
There are, undoubtedly, cows with very small mirrors, which 




MILE-HIRROR [A. 



THE MILK-MIRROR. 



63 




MILK-MIRROR [B.] 



are, nevertheless, very fair in the yield of milk ; and among 
those with middling quality of mirrors, instances of rather 
more than ordinary milkers often 
occur, while at the same time it is 
true that cases now and then are 
found where the very best marked 
and developed mirrors are found on 
very poor milkers. These apparent 
exceptions, however, are to be ex- 
plained, in the large majority of cases, 
by causes outside of those which 
affect the appearance of the milk- 
mirror. It is, of course, impossible to 
estimate with mathematical accuracy 
either the quantity, quality, or du- 
ration of the milk, since it is affected by so many chance 
circumstances, which cannot always be known or estimated 
by even the most skillful judges; such, 
for example, as the food, the treat- 
ment, the temperament, accidental 
diseases, inflammation of the udder, 
premature calving, the climate and 
season, the manner in which she has 
been milked, and a thousand other 
things which interrupt or influence 
the flow of milk, without materially 
changing the size or shape of the 
milk-mirror. It has, indeed, been 
MILK-MIRROR [C] very justly observed that we often 

see cows equally well formed, with precisely the same milk- 




64 



CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 



mirror, and kept in the same circumstances, yet giving neither 
equal quantities nor similar qualities of milk. Nor could it 
be otherwise ; since the action of the organs depends, not 
merely on their size and form, but, to a great extent, on the 
general condition of each individual. 

The different forms of milk-mirrors are represented by 
the shaded parts of cuts, lettered A, B, C, D ; but it is neces- 
sary to premise that upon the cows themselves they are 
always partly concealed by the thighs, the udder, and the 
folds of the skin, which are not shown, and therefore they are 
not always so uniform in nature as they appear in the cuts. 

Their size varies as the skin is more or less folded or 
stretched ; while the cuts represent the skin as uniform or 
free from folds, but not stretched out. It is usually very 
easy to distinguish the milk-mirrors by the upward direction 
of the hair which forms them. They are sometimes marked 
by a line of bristly hair growing in 
the opposite direction, which sur- 
rounds them, forming a sor^ of 
outline by the upward and downward 
growing hair. Yet, when the hair is 
very fine and short, mixed with longer 
hairs, and the skin much folded, and 
the udder voluminous and pressed by 
the thighs, it is necessary, in order 
to distinguish the part enclosed 
between the udder and the legs, and 
examine the full size of the mirrors, to 
observe them attentively, and to place 
the legs wide apart, and to smooth out the skin, in order to 
avoid the folds. 




MIIK-MIRROR [D.] 



THE MILK-MIKROR. 



65 



The mirrors may also be observed by holding the back of 
the hand against the perineum, and drawing it from above 
downward, when the nails rubbing against the up-growing 
hair, make the parts covered by it rery perceptible. 

As the hair of the milk-mirror has not the same direction 
as the hair which surrounds it, it may often be distinguished 
by a difference in the shade 
reflected by it. It is then 
sufficient to place it properly 
to the light in order to see 
the difference in shade, and 
to make out the part covered 
by the upward-growing hair. 
Most frequently, however, 
the hair of the milk-mirror is 
thin and fine, and the color 
of the skin can easily be 
seen. If the eye alone is 
trusted, we shall often be 
deceived. 

In some countries cattle- 
dealers shave the back part 
of the cow. Just after this milk-mirror [E.i 

operation the mirrors can neither be seen nor felt ; but this 
inconvenience ceases in a few days. It may be added that 
the shaving — designed, as the dealers say, to beautify the 
cow — is generally intended simply to destroy the milk-mirror, 
and to deprive buyers of one means of judging of the milking 
qualities of the cows. It is unnecessary to add that the 

cows most carefully shaven are those which are badly 
5 




66 



CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 



marked, and that it is prudent to take it for granted that 
cows so shorn are bad milkers. 

Milk-mirrors vary in position, extent, and the figure which 
they represent. They may be divided according to their 
position, into mirrors or escutcheons, properly so called, or 
into lower and upper tufts, or escutcheons. The latter are 
very small in comparison with the former, and are situated 
in close proximity to the vulva, as seen at 1, in cut E. They 
are very common on cows of bad milking races, but are very 
rarely seen on the best milch cows. They consist of one or 
two ovals, or small bands of up-gi'ow- 
ing hair, and serve to indicate the 
continuance of the flow of milk. The 
period is short, in proportion as the 
tufts are large. They must not be 
confounded with the escutcheon proper, 
which is often extended up to the 
vulva. They are separated from it by 
bands of hair, more or less large, as 
in cut marked F. 

Milk-mirrors are sometimes symme- 
MiLK-MiBBOR [F.] trical, and sometimes without symme- 

try. When there is a great difference in the extent of the 
two halves, it almost always happens that the teats on the 
side where the mirror is best developed give more milk than 
those of the opposite side. The left half of the mirror, it 
may be remarked, is almost always the largest ; and so, when 
the perinean part is folded into a square, it is on this side of 
the body that it unfolds. Of three thousand cows in 




THE MILK-MIRROR.- 67 

Denmark, l)Ut a fingle one was found, whose escutcheon 
varied even a little from this rule. 

The mirrors having a value in proportion to the space 
which they occupy, it is of great importance to attend to all 
the rows of down-growing hairs, which diminish the extent 
of surface, whether these tufts are in the midst of the mirror, 
or form indentations on its edges. 

These indentations, concealed in part by the folds of the 
skin, are sometimes seen with difficulty; but it is important 
to take them into account, since in a great many cows they 
materially lessen the size of the mirror. Cows are often 
found, whose milk-mirrors at first sight appear very large, 
but which are only medium milkers ; and it will usually be 
found that lateral indentations greatly diminish the surface 
of up-growing hair. Many errors are committed in estima- 
ting the value of such cows, from a want of attention to the 
real extent of the mirror. 

All the interruptions in the surface of the mirror indicate a 
diminution in the quantity of the milk, with the exception, 
however, of small oval or elliptical plates which are found in 
the mirror, on the back part of the udders of the best cows, 
as represented in the cut already given, marked A. These 
ovals have a peculiar tint, which is occasioned by the down- 
ward direction of the hair which forms them. In the best 
cows these ovals exist with the lower mirrors very well 
developed, as represented in the cut just named. 

In short, it should be stated that, in order to determine the 
extent and significance of a mirror, it is necessary to consider 
the state of the perineum as to fat, and that of the fullness of 
the udder. In a fat cow, with an inflated udder, the mirror 



68 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

would appear larger than it really is ; whilst in a lean cow, 
with a loose and wrinkled udder, it appears smaller. Fat 
will cover faults — a fact to be borne in mind when selecting 
a cow. 

In bulls, the mirrors present the same peculiarities as in 
cows ; but they are less varied in their form, and especially 
much less in size. 

In calves, the mirrors show the shapes which they are 
afterwards to have, only they are more contracted, because 
the parts which they cover are but slightly developed. They 
are easily seen after birth ; but the hair which then covers 
them is long, coarse, and stiff; and when this hair falls off, 
the calf's mirror will resemble that of the cow, but will be of 
less size. 

With calves, however, it should be stated, in addition, that 
the milk-mirrors are more distinctly recognized on those 
from cows that are well kept, and that they will generally be 
fully developed at two years old. Some changes take place 
in the course of years, but the outlines of the mirror appear 
prominent at the time of advanced pregnancy, or, in the case 
of cows giving milk, at the times when the udder is more 
distended with milk than at others. 

M. Mayne, who has explained and simplified the method 
of M. Guenon, divides cows, according to the quantity which 
they give, into four classes : first, the very good ; second, the 
good ; third, the medium ; and fourth, the bad. 

In the FIRST class he places cows, both parts of whose 
milk mirror, the mammary — the tuft situated on the udder, 
the legs and the thighs — and the perinean — that on the 
perineum, extending sometimes more or less out upon the 



THE MILK-MIRROR, 



69 



thighs — are large, continuous, and uniform, covering at 
least a great part of the perineum, the udder, the inner 
surface of the thighs, and extending more or less out upon 
the legs, as in cut A, with no interruptions, or, if any, small 
ones, oval in form, and situated on the posterior face of the 
udder. 

Such mirrors are found on most very good cows, but may 
also be found on cows which can scarcely be called good, 
and which should be ranked in the 
next class. But cows, whether having 
very well developed mirrors or not, 
may be reckoned as very good, and as 
giving as much milk as is to be ex- 
pected from their size, food, and the 
hygienic circumstances in which they 
are kept, if they present the following 
characteristics : veins of the perineum 
large, as if swollen, and visible on the 
exterior — as in cut A — or which can 
easily be made to appear by pressing 
upon the base of the perineum ; veins 
of the udder large and knotted ; milk-veins large, often 
double, equal on both sides, and forming zig-zags, under the 
belly. 

To the signs furnished by the veins and by the mirror, 
may be added also the following marks : a uniform, very 
large, and yielding udder, shrinking much in milking, tnd 
covered with soft skin and fine hair ; good constitution, full 
chest, regular appetite, and great propensity to drink. Such 
cows rather incline to be poor than to be fat. The skin is 




HIliK-MIRROB [G]. 



TO 



CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 



soft and yielding ; shgrt, fine hair; small head; fine horns; 
bright, sparkling eye ; mild expression ; feminine look ; with 
a fine neck. 

Cows of this first class are very rare. They give, even 
when small in size, from ten to fourteen quarts of milk a 
day ; and the largest sized from eighteen to twenty-six 
quarts a day, and even more. Just after calving, if arrived 
at maturity and fed with good, wholesome, moist food in 
sufficient quantity and quality, adapted to promote the secre- 
tion of milk, they can give about a pint of milk for every 
ten ounces of hay, or its equivalent, which they eat. 

They continue in milk for a long period. The best never 
go dry, and may be milked even up to the time of calving, 
giving from eight to ten quarts of milk a day. But even the 
best cows often fall short of the quantity of milk which they 
are able to give, from being fed on food which is too dry, or 
not sufficiently varied, or not rich enough 
in nutritive qualities, or deficient in 
quantity. 

The SECOND class is that of good cows; 
and to this belong the best commonly 
found in the market and among the 
cow-feeders of cities. 

They have the mammary part of the 
milk-mirror well developed, but the 
perinean part contracted, or wholly 
wanting, as in cut G ; or both parts of 
the mirror are moderately developed, or 
slightly indented, as in cut II. Cut E belongs also to this 
class, in the lower part ; but it indicates a cow, which — as 




MILK-MIRROK [H.] 



THE MILK-MIRROR. Tl 

the upper mirror, 1, indicates — dries up sooner when again in 
calf. 

Tliese marks, though often seen in many good cows, should 
be considered as certain only when the veins of the perineum 
form, under the skin, a kind of network, which, without being 
very apparent, may be felt by a pressure on them ; when the 
milk-veins on the belly are well-developed, though less knotty 
and less prominent than in cows of the first class ; in short, 
when the udder is well developed, and presents veins which 
are sufficiently numerous, though not very large. 

It is necessary here, as in the preceding class, to distrust 
cows in which the mirror is not accompanied by large veins. 
This remark applies especially to cows which have had 
several calves, and are in full milk. They are medium or 
bad, let the milk-mirror be what it may, if the veins of the 
belly are not large, and those of the udder apparent. 

The general characteristics which depend on form and 
constitution combine, less than in cows of the preceding class, 
the marks of good health and excellent constitution with 
those of a gentle and feminine look. 

Small cows of this class give from seven to ten or eleven 
quarts of milk a day, and the largest from thirteen to seven- 
teen quarts. They can be made to give three-fourths of a 
pint of milk, just after calving, for every ten ounces of hay 
consumed, if well eared for, and fed in a manner favorable to 
the secretion of milk. 

They hold out long in milk, when they have no upper 
mirrors or tufts. At seven or eight months in calf, they may 
give from five to eight quarts of milk a day. 

The THIRD class consists of middling cows. When the 



12 



CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 



milk-mirror really presents only the mammary or lower part 
slightly indicated or developed, and the perinean part con- 
tracted, narrow, and irregu- 
lar — as in cut K — ^the cows 
are middling. The udder 
is slightly developed or 
hard, and shrinks very little 
after milking. The veins 
of the perineum are not 
apparent, and those which 
run along the lower side of 
the abdomen are small, 
straight, and sometimes un- 
equal. In this case the 
mirror is not symmetrical, 
and the cow gives more 
milk on the side where the 
MILK-MIRROR [K.] vciu Is tlie largcst. 

These cows have large heads, and a thick, hard skin. 
Being ordinarily in good condition, they are beautiful to look 
at, and seem to be well formed. Many of them are nervous 
and restive, and not easily approached. 

Cows of this class give, according to size, from three or four 
to ten quarts of milk. They very rarely give, even in the 
most favorable circumstances, half a pint of milk for every 
ten ounces of hay which they consume. The milk diminishes 
rapidly, and dries up wholly the fourth or fifth month in 
calf. 

The FOUKTH class is composed of bad cows. As they are 




THE MILK-MIRROR. 73 

commonly in good condition, these cows are often the most 
beautiful of the herd and in the markets. They have fleshy 
thighs, thick and hard skin, a large and coarse neck and 
head, and horns large at the base. 

The udder is hard, small and fleshy, with a skin covered 
with long, rough hair. No veins are to be seen either on 
the perineum or the udder, while those of the belly are 
slightly developed, and the mirrors are ordinarily small, as in 
cut L. 

With these characteristics, cows give only a few quarts of 
milk a day, and dry up in a short time after calving. Some 
of them can scarcely nourish their calves, even when they 
are properly cared for and well fed. 

Sickly habits, chronic affections of the digestive organs, the 
chest, the womb, and the lacteal system, sometimes greatly 
affect the milk secretion, and c^use cows troubled with them 
to fall from the first or second to the third, and sometimes to 
the fourth class. 

Without pushing this method of judging of the good 
milking qualities of cows into the objectionable extreme to 
which it was carried by its originator, it may be safely 
asserted that the milk-mirror forms an important additional 
mark or point for distinguishing good milkers ; and it may 
be laid down as a rule that, in the selection of milch cows, 
as well as in the choice of young animals for breeders, the 
milk-mirror should, by all means, be examined and considered ; 
but that we should not limit or confine ourselves exclusively 
to it, and that other and long-known marks should be equally 
••egarded. 

There are eases, however, where a knowledge and careful 



u 



CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 



examination of the form and size of the mirror become of the 
highest importance. It is well known that certain signs or 
marks of great milkers are developed, only as the capaci- 
ties of the animal herself are fully and completely developed 

by age. The milk-veins, for 
instance, are never so large 
and prominent in heifers and 
young cows as in old ones, 
and the same may be said of 
the udder, and of the veins of 
the udder and perineum ; all 
of which it is of great import- 
ance to observe in the selec- 
tion of milch cows. Those 
signs, then, which in cows 
arrived at maturity are almost 
sufficient in themselves to 
warrant a conclusion as to 
their merits -as milkers, are, 
to a great extent, wanting in 
younger animals, and altogether in calves, as to which there 
is often doubt whether they shall be raised ; and here a 
knowledge of the form of the mirror is of immense advantage, 
since it gives, at the outset and before any expense is in- 
curred, a somewhat reliable means of judging of the future 
milking capacities of the animal ; or, if a male, of the 
probability of his transmitting niilking qualities to his off- 
spring. 

It will be seen, from an examination of the points of a 
good milch cow. that, though the same marks which indicate 




MILK-MIRROR [L.] 



THE MILK-iVnRROR. 75 

the greatest milking qualities may not always indicate the 
greatest aptitude to fatten, yet that the signs which denote 
good fattening quaUties are included among the signs favora- 
ble to the production of milk ; such as soundness of constitu- 
tion, marked by good organs of digestion and respiration, 
fineness and mellowness of the skin and hair, quietness of 
disposition — which inclines the animal to rest and lie down 
while chewing the cud — and other marks which are relied on 
by graziers in selecting animals to fatten. 

In buying dairy stock the farmer generally finds it for his 
interest to select young heifers, as they give the promise of 
longer usefulness. But it is often the case that older cows 
are selected with the design of using them for the dairy for 
a limited period, and then feeding them for the butcher. In 
either case, it is advisable, as a rule, to choose animals in low 
or medium condition. The farmer cannot commonly afford 
to buy fat ; it is more properly his business to make it, and 
to have it to sell. Good and well-marked cows in poor 
condition will rapidly gain in flesh and products when 
removed to better pastures and higher keeping, and they 
cost less in the original purchase. 

It is, perhaps, superfluous to add that regard should be 
had to the quality of the pasturage and keeping which a cow 
has previously had, as compared with that to which she is 
to be subjected. The size of the animal should also be 
considered with reference to the fertility of the pastures into 
which she is to be put. Small or medium-sized animals 
accommodate themselves to ordinary pastures far better than 
large ones. Where a very large cow will do well, two small 
ones will usually do better ; while the large animal might fail 



76 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

entirely where two small ones would do well. It is better 
to have the whole herd, so far as may be, uniform in size ; 
for, if they vary greatly, si'me may get more than they nef '\, 
and others will not hav^ enough. This, however, ranb it 
Iways be brought about. 




The raising of cattle has now become a source of 
profit in many sections, — to a greater extent, at 
least, than formerly — and it becomes a matter of great 
practical importance to our farmers to take the proper steps 
to improve them. Indeed, the questions — what are the best 
breeds, anti what are the best crosses, and how shall I 
improve my stock — are now asked almost daily ; and their 
practical solution would add many thousand dollars to the 
aggregate wealth of the farmers of the country, if they would 
all study their own interests. 



Y8 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

The time is gradually passing away when the intelligent 
practical farmer will be willing to put his cows to any bull, 
simply because his services may be had for twenty-five cents ; 
for, even if the progeny is to go to the butcher, the calf sired 
by a pure-bred bull — particularly of a race distinguished for 
fineness of bone, symmetry of form, and early maturity — will 
bring a much higher price at the same age than a calf sired 
by a scrub. Blood has a money value, which will, sooner or 
later, be generally appreciated. 

The first and most important object of the farmer is to get 
the greatest return in money for his labor and his produce ; 
and it is for his interest to obtain an animal — a calf, for 
example — that will yield the largest profit on the outlay. If 
a calf, for which the original outlay was five dollars, will 
bring at the same age and on the same keep more real net 
profit than another, the original outlay for which was not 
twenty-five cents, it is certainly for the farmer's interest to 
make the heavier original outlay and thus secure the superior 
animal. Setting all fancy aside, it is merely a question of 
dollars and cents ; but one thing is certain — and that is, that 
no farmer can aff'ord to keep poor stock. It eats as much, 
and requires nearly the same amount of care and attention, 
as stock of the best quality ; while it is equally certain that 
stock of ever so good a quality, whether grade, native, or 
thoroughbred, will be sure to deteriorate and sink to the 
level of poor stock by neglect and want of proper attention. 

How, then, is our stock to be improved ? Not, certainly, 
by that indiscriminate crossing, with a total disregard of all 
well-established principles, which has thus far marked our 
efforts with foreign stock, and which is one prominent reason 



CROSSING AND BUEEDINQ. T9 

why so little improvement has been made in our dairies ; 
nor by leaving all the results to chance, when, by a careful 
and judicious selection, they may be within our own control. 

We want cattle for distinct purposes, as for milk, beef, or 
labor. In a large majority of cases — especially in the dairy 
districts, at least, comprising the Eastern and Middle States — 
the farmer cares more for the milking qualities of his cows, 
especially for the quantity they give, than for their fitness 
for grazing, or aptness to fatten. These latter points become 
more important in the Western and some of the Southern 
States, where much greater attention is paid to breeding and 
to feeding, and where comparatively slight attention is given 
to the productions of the dairy. A stock of cattle which 
would suit one farmer might be wholly unsuited to another ; 
and in such particular case the breeder should have some 
special object in view, and select his animals with reference 
to it. 

There are, however, some well-defined general principles 
that apply to breeding everywhere, and which, in many 
cases, are not thoroughly understood. To these attention 
will now be directed. 

The first and most important of the laws to be considered 
in this connection is that of similarity. It is by virtue of 
this law that the peculiar characters, properties, and qualities 
of the parents — whether external or internal, good or bad, 
healthy or diseased — are transmitted to their ofispring. This 
is one of the plainest and most certain of the laws of nature. 
The lesson which it teaches may be stated in five words : — 
Breed only from the best. 

Judicious selection is indispensable to success in breeding, 



80 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

and this should have regard to every particular — general 
appearance, length of limb, shape of carcass, development of 
chest ; in cattle, to the size, shape, and position of the udder, 
thickness of skin, touch, length and texture of hair, docility, 
and all those points which go to make up the desirable 
animal. 

Not only should care be exercised to avoid structural 
defects, but especially to secure freedom from hereditary 
diseases; as both defects and diseases appear to be more 
easily transmissible than desirable qualities. There is, often- 
times, no obvious peculiarity of structure or appearance 
which suggests the possession of diseases or defects which 
are transmissible ; and for this reason, special care and con- 
tinued acquaintance are requisite in order to be assured of 
their absence in breeding animals ; but such a tendency, 
although invisible or inappreciable to careless observers, 
must still, judging from its effects, have as real and certain 
an existence as any peculiarity of form or color. 

In neat cattle, hereditary diseases do not usually show 
themselves at birth ; and sometimes the tendency remains 
latent for many years, perhaps through one or two genera- 
tions, and afterward breaks out with all its former severity. 
The diseases which are found hereditary in cattle are scrofula, 
consumption, dysentery, diarrhoea, rheumatism, and malig- 
nant tumors. As these animals are less exposed to the 
exciting causes of disease, and less liable to be overtasked or 
subjected to violent changes of temperature, or otherwise put 
in jeopardy, their diseases are not so numerous as those of 
the horse, and what they have are less violent, and generallv 
of a chronic character. 



CROSSING AND BREEDING. 



81 



With regard to hereditary diseases, it is eminently true 
that " an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." As 
a general and almost invariable rule, animals possessing 
either defects or a tendency to disease, should not be 
employed for breeding. If, however, for special reasons it 
seems desirable to breed from one which has some slight 
defect of symmetry, or a faint tendency to disease — although 
for the latter it is doubtful whether the possession of any 
good qualities can fully compensate — it should be mated 
with one which excels in every respect in which it is itself 
deficient, and on no account with one which is near of kin 
to it. 

There is another law, by which that of similarity is greatly 
modified — the law of Variation or divergence. 

All animals possess a certain flexibility or pliancy of 
organization, which renders them capable of change to a 
greater or less extent. When in a state of nature, variations 
are comparatively slow and infrequent ; but when in a state 
of domestication they occur much oftener and to a much 
greater extent. The greater variability in the latter case is 
doubtless owing, in some measure, to our domestic produc- 
tions' being reared under conditions of life not so uniform as, 
and different from, those to which the parent species was 
exposed in a state of nature. 

Among what are usually reckoned the more active causes 

of variation may be named climate, food, and habit. Animals 

in a cold climate are provided with a thicker covering of hair 

than in warmer ones. Indeed, it is said that in some of the 

tropical provinces of South America, there are cattle which 

have an extremely rare and fine fur, in place of the ordinary 
6 



82 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

pile of hair. The supply of food, whether abundant or 
scanty, is one of the most efficient causes of variation known 
to be within the control of man. A due consideration of the 
natural effects of climate and food is a point worthy the 
careful attention of the stock-husbandman. If the breeds 
employed be well adapted to the situation, and the capacity 
of the soil be such as to feed them fully, profit may be safely 
anticipated. Animals are to be regarded as machines for 
converting herbage into money. 

The bestowal of food sufficient, both in amount and quality, 
to enable animals to develop all the excellencies inherent in 
them, and yield all the profit of which they are capable, is 
something quite distinct from undue forcing or pampering. 
The latter process may produce wonderful animals to look at, 
but neither useful nor profitable ones, and there is danger of 
thus producing a most undesirable variation, since in animals 
the process may be carried far enough to produce barrenness. 
Instances are not wanting, particularly among the more 
recent improved short-horns, of impotency among the males 
and of barrenness among the females ; and in some cases 
where the latter have borne calves, they have failed to secrete 
sufficient milk for their nourishment. Impotency in bulls of 
various breeds has, in many instances, occurred from toe 
high feeding, especially when connected with a lack of 
sufficient exercise. A working bull, though perhaps not so 
pleasing to the eye as a fat one, is a surer stock-getter; and 
his progeny is more likely to inherit full health and vigor. 

Eahit has a decided influence toward producing variations. 
We find in domestic animals that use — or the demand 
created by habit — is met by a development or change in the 



CROSSING AND BREEDING. 



83 




organization adapted to the requirement. For instance, with 
cows in a state of nature, or where required only to suckle 
their young, the supply of milk is barely fitted to the require- 
ment. If more is desired, and the milk is drawn completely 
and regu- 
larly, the 
yield is in- 
creased and 
continued 
longer. By 
keeping up 
the demand 
there is in- 
duced, in ^-;^ 
the next 

generation, ready for action. 

a greater development of the secreting organs, and more 
milk is given. By continuing the practice, by furnishing the 
needful conditions of suitable food and the like, and by 
selecting in each generation those animals showing the 
greatest tendency toward milk, a breed specially adapted 
for the dairy may be established. It is just by this mode 
that the Ayrshires have, within the past century, been 
brought to be what they are — a breed giving more good 
milk upon a certain amount of food than any other. 

It is a fact too well established to be controverted, that 
the first male produces impressions upon subsequent progeny 
by other males. To what extent this principle holds, it is 
impossible to say. Although the instances in which it is 
known to be of a very marked and obvious character may be 



84 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

comparatively few, yet there is ample reason to believe that, 
although in a majority of cases the effect may be less notice- 
able, it is not less real ; and it therefore demands the special 
attention of breeders. The knowledge of this law furnishes 
a clue to the cause of many of the disappointments of which 
practical breeders often complain, and of many variations 
otherwise unaccountable, and it suggests particular caution 
as to the first male employed in the coupUng of animals — a 
matter which has often been deemed of little consequence in 
regard to cattle, inasmuch as fewer heifers' first calves are 
reared, than those are which are borne subsequently. 

The phenomenon — or law, as it is sometimes called — of 
atavism, or ancestral injiuence, is one of considerable 
practical importance, and well deserves the careful attention 
of the breeder of farm stock. 

Every one is aware that it is by no means unusual for a 
child to resemble its grandfather, or grandmother, or even 
some ancestor still more remote, more than it does either its 
own father or mother. The same occurrence is found among 
our domestic animals, and oftener in proportion as the breeds 
are crossed or mixed up. Among our common stock of neat 
cattle, or natives — originating, as they did, from animals 
brought from England, Scotland, Denmark, France, and 
Spain, each possessing different characteristics of form, color, 
and use, and bred, as our common stock has usually been, 
indiscriminately together, with no special object in view, 
with no attempt to obtain any particular type or form, or to 
secure adaptation for any particular purpose — frequent op- 
portunities are afforded of witnessing the results of this law 
if hereditary transmission. So common, indeed, is its occur- 



CROSSING AND BREEDING. 85 

rence, that the remark is often made, that, however good a 
cow may be, there is no telling beforehand what sort of a 
calf she may have. The fact is sufficiently obvious, that 
certain peculiarities often lie dormant for a generation or two 
and then reappear in subsequent progeny. Stockmen often 
speak of it as " breeding back," or " crying back." 

The lesson taught by this law is very plain. It shows the 
importance of seeking thorough-bred or well-bred animals ; 
and by these terms are simply meant such as are descended 
from a line of ancestors in which for many generations the de- 
sirable forms, qualities, and characteristics have been uni- 
formly shown. In such a case, even if ancestral influence does 
come in play, no material difference appears in the offspring, the 
ancestors being all essentially alike. From this stand-point 
we best perceive in what consists the money value of a good 
"pedigree." This is valuable, in proportion as it shows an 
animal to be descended, not only from such as are purely of 
its own race or breed, but also from such individuals of that 
breed as were specially noted for the excellencies for which 
that particular breed is esteemed. 

Probably the most distinctly marked evidence of ancestral 
influence among us, is to be found in the ill-begotten, round- 
headed calves, not infrequently dropped by cows of the 
common mixed kind, which, if killed early, make very blue 
veal, and if allowed to grow up, become exceedingly profit- 
less and unsatisfactory beasts ; the heifers being often barren, 
the cows poor milkers, the oxen dull, mulish beasts, yielding 
flesh of very dark color, of ill flavor and destitute of fat. 

The relative influence of the male and female parents 
upott the characteristics of progeny has long been a fruitful 



86 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

subject of discussion among breeders. It is found in experi- 
ence that progeny sometimes resembles one parent more 
than the other — sometimes there is an apparent blending of 
the characteristics of both — sometimes a noticeable dissimi- 
larity to either, though always more or less resemblance 
somewhere — and sometimes the impress of one may be seen 
upon a portion of the organization of the offspring, and that 
of the other parent upon another portion ; yet we are not 
authorized from such discrepancies to conclude that it is a 
matter of chance ; for all of nature's operations are conducted 
in accordance with fixed laws, whether we be able fully to 
discover them or not. The same causes always produce the 
same results. In this case, not less than in others, there are, 
beyond all doubt, certain fixed laws ; and the varying results 
which we see are easily and sufficiently accounted for by the 
existence of conditions or modifying influences not fully open 
to our observation. 

It may be stated, on the whole — as a result of the varied 
investigations to which this question has given rise — that 
the evidence, both from observation and the testimony of the 
best practical breeders, goes to show that each parent usually 
contributes certain portions of the organization to the off- 
spring, and that each has a modifying influence upon the 
other. Facts also show that the same parent does not 
always contribute the same portions, but that the order is at 
times, and not rarely, reversed. Where animals are of 
distinct species or breeds, transmission is usually found to be 
in harmony with the principle, that the male gives mostly 
the outward form and locomotive system, and the female 
chiefly the interior system, constitution and the like. Where 



CROSSING AND BREEDING, 8T 

the parents are of the same breed, it appears that the propor- 
tions contributed by each are governed, in a large measure, 
by the condition of each in regard to age and vigor, or by 
virtue of individual potency or superiority of physical endow- 
ment. This potency or power of transmission, seems to be 
legitimately connected with high breeding, or the concentra- 
tion of fixed qualities, obtained by continued descent for 
many generations from such only as possess in the highest 
degree the qualities desired. 

Practically, the knowledge obtained dictates in a most 
emphatic manner that every stock-grower use his utmost 
endeavor to obtain the services of the best sires ; that is, the 
best for the ends and purposes in view — that he depend 
chiefly on the sire for outward form and symmetry — and 
that he select dams best calculated to develop the good quali- 
ties of the male, depending chiefly upon these for freedom 
from internal disease, for hardihood and constitution, and, 
generally, for all qualities dependent upon the vital or nutri- 
tive system. The neglect of the qualities of the dam, which 
is far too common — miserably old and inferior animals being 
often employed — cannot be too strongly censured. 

With regard to the laws which regulate the sex of the 
progeny very little is known. Many and extensive observa- 
tions have been made, without reaching any definite conclu- 
sion. Nature seems to have provided that the number of 
each sex produced, shall be nearly equal ; but by what means 
this result is attained, has not as yet been discovered. 

It has long been a disputed point, whether the system of 
breeding in-and-in, or the opposite one of frequent crossing, 
has the greater tendency to improve the character of stock. 



g3 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

This term, in-and-in, is often very loosely used and as vari- 
ously understood. Some confine the phrase to the coupling 
of those of exactly the same blood, as brothers and sisters, 
while others include in it breeding from parents and off- 
eprings ; and others still employ it to embrace those of a 
more distant relationship. For the last, the term breeding- 
in, or close breeding, is generally deemed more suitable. 

The current opinion is decidedly against the practice of 
breeding from any near relatives ; it being usually found that 
degeneracy follows, and often to a serious degree ; but it is 
not proved that this degeneracy, although very common and 
even usual, is yet a necessary consequence. That ill effects 
follow, in a majority of cases, is not to be doubted ; but this 
is easily and sufficiently accounted for upon quite other 
grounds. Perhaps, however, the following propositions may 
be safely stated : That in general practice, with the grades 
and mixed animals common in the country, close-hreedmg 
should be scrupulously avoided as highly detrimental. It is 
better always to avoid breeding from near relatives whenever 
stock-getters of the same breed and of equal merit can be 
obtained which are not related. Yet, where this is not 
possible, or where there is some desirable and clearly defined 
purpose in view — as the fixing and perpetuating of some 
valuable quality in a particular animal not common to the 
breed — and the breeder possesses the knowledge and skill 
needful to accomplish his purpose, and the animals are 
perfect in health and development, close breeding may be 
practised with advantage. 

The practice of crossing, like that of close breeding, has 
its strong and its weak side. Judiciously practised, it offers 



CKOSSING AND BREEDING. 



89 



a means of providing animals /or the bulcher, often superior 
to, and more profitable than, those of any pure breed. It is 
also admissible as the foundation of a systematic and well- 
considered attempt to establish a new breed. But when 
crossing is practised injudiciously and indiscriminately, and 
especially when so done for the purpose of procuring breeding 
animals, it is scarcely less objectionable than careless in-and- 
in breeding. 

The profitable style of breeding for the great majority of 
farmers to adopt, is neither to cross nor to breed from close 
afiinities — ex- q^. 



cept in rare in- 
stances, and for 
some specific and 
clearly under- 
stood purpose — 
but to breed in -!: 
ihe line ; that is, 
to select the 
breed or race best adapt- 
ed to fulfil the require- 




A SPRIGHTLY YOUTH. 



ment demanded, whether it be for the dairy, for labor, or for 
such combination of these as can be had without too great a 
sacrifice of the principal requisite, and then to procure a 
2')ure-bred male of the kind determined upon, and breed him 
to the females of the herd ; and if these be not such as are 
calculated to develop his qualities, endeavor by purchase or 
exchange to procure such as will. Let the progeny of these 
be bred to another pure-bred male of the same breed, but as 
distantly related to the first as may be. Let this plan be 



90 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

faithfully pursued, and, although we cannot, without the 
intervention of well-bred females, procure stock purely of the 
kind desired, yet in several generations — if proper care be 
given to the selection of males, that each one be such as to 
retain and improve upon the points gained by his predeces 
sor — the stock, for most practical purposes, will be as good 
as if thorough-bred. If this plan were generally adopted, and 
a system of letting or exchanging males established, the cost 
might be brought within the means of most persons, and 
the advantages which would accrue would be almost beyond 
belief. 

A brief summing-up of the foregoing principles may not 
be inappropriate here. 

The law of similarity teaches us to select animals for 
breeding which possess the desired forms and qualities in the 
greatest perfection and best combination. 

Regard should be had, not only to the more obvious 
characteristics, but also to such hereditary traits and tenden- 
cies as may be hidden from cursory observation and demand 
careful and thorough investigation. 

From the hereditary nature of all characteristics, whether 
good or bad, we learn the importance of having all desirable 
qualities thoroughly inbred ; or, in other words, so firmly in 
each generation that the next is warrantably certain to 
present nothing worse — that no ill results follow from breed- 
ing back to some inferior ancestor — that all undesirable traits 
or points be, so far as possible, bred-out. 

So important is this consideration, that, in practice, it is 
decidedly preferable to employ a male of ordinary external 
appearance — provided his ancestry be all which is desired — 



CEOSSINQ AND BREEDING. 91 

rather than a grade, or cross-bred animal, although the 
latter be greatly his superior in personal beauty. 

A knowledge of the law of variation leaches us to avoid, 
for breeding purposes, such animals as exhibit variations 
unfavorable to the purpose in view; to endeavor to perpetu 
ate every real improvement gained ; as well as to secure, as 
far as practicable, the conditions necessary to induce or 
continue any improvement, such as general treatment, food, 
climate, habits, and the like. 

Where the parents do not possess the perfections desired, 
selections for coupling should be made with critical reference 
to correcting the faults or deficiencies of one by correspond- 
ing excellencies in the other. 

To correct defects, too much must not be attempted at 
once. Pairing those very unlike oftener results in loss than 
gain. Avoid all extremes, and endeavor by moderate 
degrees to attain the end desired. 

Crossing, between different breeds, for the purpose of 
obtaining animals for the shambles, may be advantageously 
practised to a considerable extent, but not for the production 
of breeding animals. As a general rule, cross-bred males 
should not be employed for propagation, and cross-bred 
females should be served by thorough-bred males. 

In ordinary practice, breeding from near relatives is to be 
scrupulously avoided. For certain purposes, under certain 
conditions and circumstances, and in the hands of a skillful 
breeder, it may be practised with advantage — but not other- 
wise. 

In a large majority of cases — other things being equal — 
we may expect in progeny the outward form and general 



92 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

structure of the sire, together with the internal qualities, 
constitution, and nutritive system of the dam ; each, how- 
ever, modified by the other. 

Particular care should always be taken that the male by 
which the dam first becomes pregnant is the best which can 
oe obtained ; also, that at the time of sexual congress both 
are in vigorous health. 

Breeding animals should not be allowed to become fat, but 
always kept in thrifty condition ; and such as are intended 
for the butcher should never be fat but once. 

In deciding with what breeds to stock a farm, endeavor to 
select those best adapted to its surface, climate, and degree 
of fertility ; also, with reference to probable demand and 
proximity to markets. 

No expense incurred in procuring choice animals for 
propagation, no amount of skill in breeding, can supersede, 
or compensate for, a lack of liberal feeding and good treat- 
ment. The better the stock, the better care they deserve. 



PREGNANCY 

The symptoms of pregnancy in its early stage were 
formerly deemed exceedingly unsatisfactory. The period of 
being in season — which commonly lasts three or four days, 
and then ceases for a while, and returns in about three 
weeks — might entirely pass over ; and, although it was then 
probable that conception had taken place, yet in a great 
many instances the hopes of the breeder were disappointed. 
It was not until between the third and fourth month, when 
the belly began to enlarge — or, in many cases, considerably 
later — and when the motions of the fcetus might be seen, or, 



TREATMENT BEFORE CALVING. 93 

at all events, felt by pressing on the right flank, that the 
farmer could be assured that his cow was in calf. 

That greatest of improvements in veterinary practice, the 
application of the ear to the chest and belly of various 
animals, in order to detect by the different sounds — which, 
after a short time, will be easily recognized — the state of the 
circulation through most of the organs, and consequently, 
the precise seat and degree of inflammation and danger, has 
now enabled the breeder to ascertain the existence of preg- 
nancy at as early a stage as six or eight weeks. The beating 
of the heart of the calf may then be distinctly heard, twice, 
or more than twice, as frequent as that of the mother ; and 
each pulsation will betray the singular double beating of the 
foetal heart. This will also be accompanied by the audible 
rushing of the blood through the vessels of the placenta. 
The ear should be applied to the right flank, beginning on 
the higher part of it, and gradually shifting downward and 
backward. These sounds will thus soon be heard, and 
cannot be mistaken. 



TREATMENT BEFOEE CAliVlNOt. 

Little alteration needs to be made in the management of 
the cow for the first seven months of pregnancy ; except 
that, as she has not only to yield milk for the profit of the 
farmer, but to nourish the growing foetus within, she shoul 
be well, yet not too luxuriantly, fed. The half-starved cow 
will not adequately discharge this double duty, nor provide 
sufficient nutriment for the calf when it has dropped ; while 
the cow in high condition will be dangerously disposed to 
inflammation and fever, when, atthe time of parturition, she is 



y4 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

otherwise so susceptible of the power of every stimulus. It 
the season and the convenience of the farmer will allow, sh 
will be better at pasture, at least for some hours each day 
than when confined altogether to the cow-house. 

At a somewhat uncertain period before she calves, there 
will be a new secretion of milk for the expected little one j 
and under the notion of somewhat recruiting her strength, 
in order better to enable her to discharge her new duty — but 
more from the uniform testimony of experience that there is 
danger of local inflammation, general fever, garget in the 
udder, and puerperal fever, if the new milk descends while 
the old milk continues to flow — it has been usual to let the 
cow go dry for some period before parturition. Farmers and 
breeders have been strangely divided as to the length of this 
period. It must be decided by circumstances. A cow in 
good condition may be milked for a much longer period than 
a poor one. Her abundance of food renders a period of 
respite almost unnecessary ; and all that needs to be taken 
care of, is that the old milk should be fairly gone before "the 
new milk springs. In such a cow, while there is danger of 
inflammation from the sudden rush of new milk into a bag 
already occupied, there is almost always considerable danger 
of indurations and tumors in the teats from the habit of secre- 
tion being too long suspended. The emaciated and over- 
milked beast, however, must rest a while before she can 
again advantageously discharge the duties of a mother. 

If the period of pregnancy were of equal length at all times 
and in all cows, the one that has been well fed might be 
milked until within a fortnight or three weeks of parturition, 
while a holiday of two months should be granted to the 



TREATMENT BEFORE CALVING. 95 

poorer beast ; but as there is much irregularity about the 
time of gestation, it may be prudent to take a month or five 
weeks, as the average period. 

The process of parturition is necessarily one that is accom- 
panied with a great deal of febrile excitement ; and, therefore, 
when it nearly approaches, not only should a little care be 
taken to lessen the quantity of food, and to remove that 
which is of a stimulating action, but a mild dose of physic, 
and a bleeding regulated by the condition of the animal, will 
be very proper precautionary measures. 

A moderately open state of the bowels is necessary at the 
period of parturition in the cow. During the whole time of 
pregnancy her enormous stomach sufficiently presses upon and 
confines the womb ; and that pressure may be productive of 
injurious and fatal consequences, if at this period the rumen 
's sufiered to be distended by iunutritious food, or the many- 
plus takes on that hardened state to which it is occasionally 
subject. Breeders have been sadly negligent in this respect. 

The springing of the udder, or the rapid enlargement of it 
from the renewed secretion of milk — the enlargement of the 
external parts of the bearing (the former, as has been said by 
some, in old cows, and the latter in young ones) — the ap- 
pearance of a glaring discharge from the bearing — the 
evident dropping of the belly, with the appearance of lean- 
ness and narrowness between the shape and the udder — a 
degree of uneasiness land fidgetiness — moaning occasion- 
ally — accelerated respiration — all these symptoms will an- 
nounce that the time of calving is not far ofi". The cow 
should be brought near home, and put in some quiet, sheltered 
place. In cold or stormy weather she should be housed. 



96 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

Her uneasiness will rapidly increase — she will be continually 
getting up and lying down — her tail will begin to be elevated 
and the commencement of the labor-pains will soon be 
evident. 

In most cases the parturition will be natural and easy, and 
the less the cow is disturbed or meddled with, the better. 
She will do better without help than with it ; but she should 
be watched, in order to see that no difficulty occurs which 
may require aid and attention. In cases of difficult parturi- 
tion the aid of a skillful veterinary surgeon may be required. 



-'-. Ill— I ■^^■^'■—-■^'■■•■"-^^^■■'■mi.-^i^nr'. 




rx^ No braticli of 
dairy farming can 
compare in importance 
with the management 
of cows. The highest success will depend upon it, whatever 
breed be selected, and whatever amount of care and attention 
be given to the points of the animals ; for experience will 
show that very little milk comes out of the bag, that is not 
first put into the throat. It is poor economy, therefore, to 
attempt to keep too many cows for the amount of feed one 
has ; for it will generally be found that one good cow well- 
bred and well fed Avill yield as much as two ordinary cows 
7 ' 97 



98 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

kept in the ordinary way ; while a saving is effected both in 
labor and rx)om required, and in the risks on the capital 
invested. If an argument for the larger number on poorer 
feed is urged on the ground of the additional manure — which 
s the only basis upon which it can be put — it is enough to 
say that it is a very expensive way of making manure. It is 
not too strong an assertion, that a proper regard to profit 
and economy would require many an American farmer to 
sell off nearly half of his cows, and to feed the whole of his 
hay and roots hitherto used into the remainder. 

An animal, to be fully fed and satisfied, requires a quantity 
of food in proportion to its live weight. No feed is complete 
that does not contain a sufficient amount of nutritive 
elements; hay, for example, being more nutritive than straw, 
and grains than roots. The food, too, must possess a bulk 
sufficient to fill up to a certain degree the organs of digestion 
of the stomach ; and, to receive the full benefit of its food, 
the animal must be wholly satisfied — since, if the stomach is 
not sufficiently distended, the food cannot be properly 
digested, and of course many of the nutritive principles 
which it contains cannot be perfectly assimilated. An 
animal regularly fed eats till it is satisfied, and no more than 
is requisite. A part of the nutritive elements in hay and 
other forage plants is needed to keep an animal on its feet — 
that is, to keep up its condition — and if the nutrition of its 
food is insufficient for this, the weight decreases, and if it is 
more than sufficient the weight increases, or else this excess 
is consumed in the production of milk or in labor. About 
one sixtieth of their live weight in hay, or its equivalent, 
will keep horned cattle on their feet ; but, in order to be 



FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 



99 



completely nourished, they require about one thirtieth in dry 
substances, and four thirtieths in water, or other liquid 
contained in their food. The excess of nutritive food over 
and above what is necessary to sustain life will go, in milch 
cows, generally to the production of milk, or to the growth 
of the foetus, but not in all cows to an equal extent ; the 
tendency to the secretion of milk being much more developed 
in some than in others. 

With regard, however, to the consumption of food in pro- 
portion to the live weight of the animal, it must be taken, in 
common with all general principles, with some qualifications. 
The proportion is probably not uniform as applied to all breeds 
indiscriminately, though it maybe more so as applied t^ 
animals of the same breed. The idea of some celebrated 
stock-raisers has been that the quantity of food required 
depends much upon the shape of the barrel ; and it is well 
known that an animal of a close, compact, well-rounded 
barrel, will consume less than one of an opposite make. 

The variations in the yield of milch cows are caused more 
by the variations in the nutritive elements of their food than 
by a change of the form in which it is given. A cow, kept 
through the winter on mere straw, will cease to give milk ; 
and, when fed in spring on green forage, will give a fair 
quantity of milk. But she owes the cessation and restora- 
tion of the secretion, respectively, to the diminution and 
increase of her nourishment, and not at all to the change of 
form, or of outward substance in which the nutriment is 
administered. Let cows receive through winter nearly as 
large a proportion of nutritive matter as is contained in the 
clover, lucerne, and fresh grass which they eat in summer, 



100 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

and, no matter in what precise substance or mixture that 
matter be contained, they will yield a winter's produce of 
milk quite as rich in caseine and butyraceous ingredients as 
the summer's produce, and far more ample in quantity than 
almost any dairyman with old-fashioned notions would imagine 
to be possible. The great practical error on this subject 
consists, not in giving wrong kinds of food, but in not so 
proportioning and preparing it as to render an average ration 
of it equally rich in the elements of nutrition, and especially 
in nitrogenous elements, as an average ration of the green 
and succulent food of summer. 

We keep too much stock for the quantity of good and 
nutritious food which we have for it ; and the consequence 
is, that cows are, in nine cases out of ten, poorly wintered, 
and come put in the spring weakened, if not, indeed, posi- 
tively diseased, and a long time is required to bring them 
into a condition to yield a generous quantity of milk. 

It is a hard struggle for a cow reduced in flesh and in 
blood to fill up the wasted system with the food which would 
otherwise have gone to the secretion of milk ; but, if she is 
well fed, well housed, well littered, and well supplied with 
pure, fresh water, and with roots, or other moist food, and 
properly treated to the luxury of a frequent carding, and 
constant kindness, she comes out ready to commence the 
manufacture of milk under favorable circumstances. 

Keep the coics constantly in good condition, ought, there- 
fore, to be the motto of every dairy farmer, posted up over the 
barn, and on and over the stalls, and over the milk-room, 
and repeated to the boys whenever there is danger of for- 
getting it. It is the great secret of success ; and the difference 



FEEDINa AND MANAGEMENT. 101 

between success and failure turns upon it. Cows In milk 
require more food in proportion to their size and weight 
than either oxen or young cattle. 

In order to keep cows in milk well and economically, regu- 
larity is next in importance to a full supply of wholesome 
and nutritious food. The animal stomach is a very nice 
chronometer, and it is of the utmost importance to observe 
regular hours in feeding, cleaning, and milking. This is a 
point, also, in which very many farmers are at fault — feeding 
whenever it happens to be convenient. The cattle are thus 
kept in a restless condition, constantly expecting food when 
the keeper enters the barn ; while, if regular hours are 
strictly adhered to, they know exactly when they are to be 
fed, and they rest quietly till the time arrives. If one goes 
into any well-regulated dairy establishment an hour before 
feeding, scarcely an animal will rise to its feet ; while, if 
it happens to be the hour of feeding, the whole herd will be 
likely to rise and seize their food with an avidity and relish 
not to be mistaken. 

With respect to the exact nurture to be pursued, no rtile 
could be prescribed which would apply to all cases; and 
each individual must be governed much by circumstances, 
both regarding the particular kinds of feed at different seasons 
of the year, and the system of feeding. It has been found — 
it may be stated — in the practice of the most successful 
dairymen, that, in order to encourage the largest secretion 
of milk in stalled cows, one of the best courses is, to feed in 
the morning, either at the time of milking — which is preferred 
by many — or immediately after, with cut feed, consisting of 
hay, oats, millet, or cornstalks, mixed with shorts, and Indian, 



102 



CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 



linseed, or cotton-seed meal, thoroughly moistened with 
water. If in winter, hot or warm water is far better than 
cold. If given at milking-time, the cows will generally give 
down their milk more readily. The stalls and mangers 
should first be thoroughly cleansed. 

Roots and long hay may be given during the day; and at 
the evening milking, or directly after, another generous meal 

of cut feed, well 
moistened and 
mixed, as in the 
morning. No very 
concentrated food, 
like grains alone, or 
oil-cakes, should be 
fed early in the 
morningon an empty 
stomach, although it is sanctioned by the practice in the 
London milk-dairies. The processes of digestion go on best 
when the stomach is sufficiently distended ; and for this 
purpose the bulk of food is almost as important as the nutri- 
tive qualities. The flavor of some roots, as cabbages and 
turnips, is more apt to be imparted to the flesh and milk 
when fed on an empty stomach than otherwise. After the 
cows have been milked and have finished their cut feed, they 
are carded and curried down, in well-managed dairies, and 
then either watered in the stall — which, in very cold or 
stormy weather, is far preferable — or turned out to water in 
the yard. While they are out, if they are let out at all, the 
stables are put in order ; and, after tying them up, they are 
fed with long hay, and left to themselves till the next feeding 




THE FAMILT PETS. 



FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 103 

time. This may consist of roots — such as cabbages, beets, 
carrots, or turnips sliced — or of potatoes, a peck, or — if the 
cows are very large — a half-bushel each, and cut feed again 
at the evening milking, as in the morning ; after which, water 
in the stall, if possible. 

The less cows are exposed to the cold of winter, the better. 
They eat less, thrive better, and give more milk, when kept 
housed all the time, than when exposed to the cold. A case 
is on record, where a herd of cows, which had usually been 
supplied from troughs and pipes in the stalls, were, on 
account of an obstruction in the pipes, obliged to be turned 
out thrice a day to be watered in the yard. The quantity of 
ijiilk instantly decreased, and in three days the diminution 
became very considerable. After the pipes were mended, 
and the cows again watered, as before, in their stalls, the 
flow of milk returned. This, however, must be governed 
much by the weather ; for in very mild and warm days it 
may be judicious not only to let them out, but to allow them 
to remain out for a short time, for the purpose of exercise. 

Any one can arrange the hour for the several processes 
named above, to suit himself; but, when once fixed, it should 
be rigidly and regularly followed. If the regular and full 
feeding be neglected for even a day, the yield of milk will 
immediately decline, and it will be very difficult to restore it. 
It may be safely asserted, as the result of many trials and 
long practice, that a larger flow of milk follows a complete 
system of regularity in this respect than from a higher feed- 
ing where this system is not adhered to. 

One prime object which the dairyman should keep con- 
stantly in view is, to maintain the animal in a sound and 



104 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

healthy condition. "Without this, no profit can be expected 
from a milch cow for any considerable length of time ; and, 
with a view to this, there should be an occasional change of 
food. But, in making changes, great care is requisite in 
order to supply the needful amount of nourishment, or the 
cow will fall off in flesh, and eventually in milk. It should, 
therefore, be remembered that the food consumed goes not 
alone to the secretion of milk, but also to the growth and 
maintenance of the bony structure, the flesh, the blood, the 
fat, the skin, and the hair, and in exhalations from the body. 
These parts of the body consist of different organic constitu- 
ents. Some are rich in nitrogen, as the fibrin of the blood 
and albumen ; others destitute of it, as fat ; some abound in 
inorganic salts, phosphate of lime, and salts of potash. To 
explain how the constant waste of these substances may be 
supplied, a celebrated chemist observes that the albumen, 
gluten, caseine, and other nitrogenized principles of food, 
supply the animal with the materials requisite for the forma- 
tion of muscle and cartilage ; they are, therefore, called flesh- 
forming principles. 

Fats, or oily matters of the food, are used to lay on fat, or 
for the purpose of sustaining respiration. 

Starch, sugar, gum, and a few other non-nitrogenized 
substances, consisting of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, 
supply the carbon given off in respiration, or they are used 
for the production of fat. 

Phosphate of lime and magnesia in food principally furnish 
the animal with the materials of which the bony skeleton of 
its body consists. 

Saline substances — chlorides of sodium and potassium, 



FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 105 

sulphate and phosphate of potash and soda, and some other 
mineral matters occurring in food — supply the blood, juice of 
flesh, and various animal juices, with the necessary mineral 
constituents. 

The healthy state of an animal can thus only be preserved 
by a mixed food ; that is, food which contains all the proxi- 
mate principles just noticed. Starch or sugar alone cannot 
sustain the animal body, since neither of them furnishes the 
materials to build up the fleshy parts of the animal. When 
fed on substances in which an insufficient quantity of phos- 
phates occurs, the animal will become weak, because it does 
not find any bone-producing principle in its food. Due 
attention should, therefore, be paid by the feeder to the 
selection of food which contains all the kinds of matter 
required, nitrogenized as well as non-nitrogenized, and 
mineral substances ; and these should be mixed together in 
the proportion which experience points out as best for the 
different kinds of animals, or the particular purpose for which 
they are kept. 

Relative to the nutrition of cows for dairy purposes, milk 
may be regarded as a material for the manufacture of butter 
and cheese ; and, according to the purpose for which the 
milk is intended to be employed, whether for the manufacture 
of butter or the production of cheese, the cow should be 
differently fed. 

Butter contains carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, and no 
nitrogen. Cheese, on the contrary, is rich in nitrogen. 
Food which contains much fatty matter, or substances which 
in the animal system are readily converted into fat, will tend 
to increase the proportion of cream in milk. On the other 



106 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

hand, the proportion of caseine or cheesy matter in millc is 
increased by the use of highly nitrogenize'd food. Those, 
then, who desire much cream, or who produce cream for the 
manufacture of butter, select food likely to increase the pro- 
portion of butter in the milk. On the contrary, where the 
principal object is the production of milk rich in curd — that 
is, where cheese is the object of the farmer — clover, peas, 
bran-meal, and other plants which abound in legumine — a 
nitrogenized organic compound, almost identical in properties 
and composition with caseine, or the substance which forms 
the curd of milk — will be selected. 

And so the quality, as well as the quantity, of butter in 
the milk, depends on the kind of food consumed and on the 
general health of the animal. Cows fed on turnips in the 
stall always produce butter inferior to that of cows living 
upon the fresh and aromatic grasses of the pastures. 

Succulent food in which water abounds — the green grass 
of irrigated meadows, green clover, brewers' and distillers' 
refuse, and the like — increases the quantity, rather than the 
quality, of the milk ; and by feeding these substances the 
milk-dairyman studies his own interest, and makes thin milk 
without diluting it with water — though, in the opinion of 
some, this may be no more legitimate than watering the milk. 

But. though the yield of milk may be increased by succu- 
knt or watery food, it should be given so as not to interfere 
with the health of the cow. 

Food rich in starch, gum, or sugar, which are the respira- 
tory elements, an excess of which goes to the production of 
%tty matters, increases the butter in milk. Quietness pro- 
motes the secretion of fat in animals and increases the butter. 



FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT. lOY 

Cheese will be increased by food rich in albumen, such as 
the leguminous plants. 

The most natural, and of course the healthiest, food for 
milch cows in summer, is the green grass of the pastures ; 




BDTINO CATTLE. 

and when these fail from drought or over-stocking, the 
complement of nourishment may be made up with green 
clover, green oats, barley, millet, or corn-fodder and cabbage- 
leaves, or other succulent vegetables ; and if these are 
wanting, the deficiency may be partly supplied with shorts, 
Indian-meal, linseed or cotton-seed meal. Green grass is 
more nutritious than hay, which always loses somewhat of 
its nutritive properties in curing ; the amount of the loss 
depending chiefly on the mode of curing, and the length of 
exposure to sun and rain. But, apart from this, grass is 
more easily and completely digested than hay, though the 
digestion of the latter may be greatly aided by cutting and 
moistening, or steaming; and by this means it is rendered 
more readily available, and hence far better adapted to 
promote a large secretion of milk — a fact too often overlooked 
even by many intelligent farmers. 

In autumn, the best feed will be the grasses of the pastures. 



108 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

SO far as they are available, green-corn fodder, cabbage, 
carrot, and turnip leaves, and an addition of meal or shorts. 
Toward the middle of autumn, the cows fed in the pastures 
will require to be housed regularly at night, especially in the 
more northern latitudes, and put, in part at least, upon hay. 
But every farmer knows that it is not judicious to feed out 
the best part of his hay when his cattle are first put into the 
barn, and that he should not feed so well in the early part of 
winter that he cannot feed better as the winter advances. 

At the same time, it should always be borne in mind that 
the change from grass to a poor quality of hay or straw, for 
cows in milk, should not be too sudden. A poor quality of 
dry hay is far less palatable in the early part of winter, after 
the cows are taken from grass, than at a later period ; and, 
if it is resorted to with milch cows, will invariably lead to a 
falling off in the milk, which no good feed can afterward 
•wholly restore. 

It is desirable, therefore, for the farmer to know what can 
be used instead of his best English or upland meadow hay, 
and yet not suffer any greater loSfe in the flow of milk, or in 
condition, than is absolutely necessary. In some sections of 
the Eastern States, the best quality of swale hay will be 
used ; and the composition of that is as variable as possible, 
depending on the varieties of the grasses of which it was 
made, and the manner of curing. But, in other sections, 
many will find it necessary to use straw and other substitutes. 
Taking good English or meadow hay as the standard of 
comparison, and calling that one, 4.79 times the weight of 
rye-straw, or 3.83 times the weight of oat-straw, contains 
the same amount of nutritive matter ; that is, it would take 



FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 109 

4.19 times as good rye-straw to produce the same result as 
good meadow hay. 

In winter, the best food for cows in milk will be good 
sweet meadow hay, a part of which should be cut and 
moistened with water — as all inferior hay or straw should 
be — with an addition of root-crops, such as turnips, carrots, 
parsnips, potatoes, mangold-wurtzel, with shorts, oil-cake, 
Indian meal, or bean meal. 

It is the opinion of most successful dairymen that the 
feeding of moist food cannot be too highly recommended for 
cows in milk, especially to those who desire to obtain the 
largest quantity. Hay cut and thoroughly moistened becomes 
more succulent and nutritive, and partakes more of the nature 
of green grass. 

As a substitute for the oil-cake, hitherto known as an 
exceedingly valuable article for feeding stock, there is pro- 
bably nothing better than cotton-seed meal. This is an 
article whose economic value has been but recently made 
known, but which, from practical trials already made, has 
proved eminently successful as food for milch cows. Chemists 
have decided that its composition is not inferior to that of 
the best flaxseed cake, and that in some respects its agricul- 
tural value surpasses that of any other kind of oil-cake. 

It has been remarked by chemists, in this connection, tliat 
the great value of linseed-cake, as an adjunct to hay, for fa 
cattle and milch cows, has been long recognized ; and that it 
is undeniably traceable, in the main, to three ingredients of 
the seeds of the oil-yielding plants. The value of food 
depends upon the quantities of matters it contains which may 
be appropriated by the animal which consumes the food 



110 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

Xow, it is proved that the fat of animals is derived from the 
starch, gum, and sugar, and more directly and easily from 
the oil of the food. These four substances, then, are fat- 
formers. The muscles, nerves, and tendons of animals, the 
brine of their blood and the curd of their milk, are almost 
identical in composition v^^ith, and strongly similar in many 
of their properties to, matters found in all vegetables, but 
chiefly in such as form the most concentrated food. These 
blood (and muscle) formers are characterized by containing 
about fifteen and a half per cent, of nitrogen ; and hence are 
called nitrogenous substances. They are, also, often desig- 
nated as the albuminous bodies. 

The bony framework of the animal owes its solidity to 
phosphate of lime, and this substance must be furnished by 
the food. A perfect food must supply the aninial with these 
three classes of bodies, and in proper proportions. The 
addition of a small quantity of a food, rich in oil and albu- 
minous substances, to the ordinary kinds of feed, which 
contain a large quantity of vegetable fibre or woody matter, 
more or less indigestible, but, nevertheless, indispensable to 
the herbivorous animals, their digestive organs being adapted 
to a bulky food, has been found highly advantageous in 
practice. Neither hay alone nor concentrated food alone 
gives the best results, A certain combination of the two 
presents the most advantages. 

Some who have used cotton-seed cake have found difficulty 

in inducing cattle to eat it. By giving it at first in small 

doses, mixed with other palatable food, they soon learn to 

* eat it with relish. Cotton-seed cake is much richer in oils 

and albuminous matters than the linseed cake. A corre- 



FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT. Ill 

spondingly less quantity will therefore be required. Three 
pounds of this cotton-seed cake are equivalent to four of 
linseed cake of average quality. 

During the winter season, as has been already remarked, 
a frequent change of food is especially necessary, both as 
contributions to the general health of animals, and as a means 
of stimulating the digestive organs, and thus increasing the 
secretion of milk. A mixture used as cut feed and well 
moistened is now especially beneficial, since concentrated 
food, which would otherwise be given in small quantities, 
may be united with larger quantities of coarser and less 
nutritive food, and the complete assimilation of the whole be 
better secured. On this subject it has been sensibly observed 
that the most nutritious kinds of food produce little or no 
efifect when they are not digested by the stomach, or if the 
digested food is not absorbed by the lymphatic vessels, and 
not assimilated by the various parts of the body. Now, the 
normal functions of the digestive organs not only depend 
upon the composition of the food, but also on its volume. 
The volume or bulk of the food contributes to the healthy 
action of the digestive organs, by exercising a stimulating 
effect upon the nerves which govern them. Thus the whole 
organization of ruminating animals necessitates the supply of 
bulky food, to keep the animal in good condition. 

Feed sweet and nutritious food, therefore, frequently, regu- 
larly, and in small quantities, and change it often, and the 
best results may be confidently anticipated. If the cows are 
not in milk, but are to come in in the spring, the difi'erence 
in feeding should be rather in the quantity than the quality, 



112 



CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 



if the highest yield is to be expected from them during the 
coming season. 

The most common feeding is hay alone, and oftentimes 
very poor hay at that. The main point is to keep the animal 
in a healthy and thriving condition, 
and not to suffer her to fail in flesh ; 
and with this object, some change 

and 
variety 
of food 
are high- 
ly im- 
portant. 
T o - 
ward the 
close of 
winter, 
a herd 
of cows 
will be- 
gin to come in, or approach their time of calving. Care 
should then be taken not to feed too rich or stimulating food 
for the last week or two before this event, as it is often 
attended with ill consequences. A plenty of hay, a few 
potatoes or shorts, and pure water will suffice. 

In spring, the best feeding for dairy cows will be much 
the same as that for winter ; the roots in store over winter, 
such as carrots, mangold wurtzel, turnips, and parsnips, 
furnishing very valuable aid in increasing the quantity and 
improving the quality of milk. Toward the close of this 




CALLINa IN THE CATTLE. 



FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 113 

Beason, and before the grass of pastures is sufficiently grown 
to make it judicious to turn out the cows, the best dairymen 
provide a supply of green fodder in the shape of winter rye, 
which, if cut while it is tender and succulent, and before it 
is half grown, will be greatly relished. TJnless cut young; 
however, its stalk soon becomes hard and unpalatable. 

All practical dairymen agree in saying that a warm and 
well-ventilated barn is indispensable to the promotion of the 
highest yield of milk in winter ; and most agree that cows in 
milk should not be turned out, even to drink, in cold weather ; 
all exposure to cold tending to lessen the yield of milk. 

In the London dairies, in which, of course, the cows are 
fed so as to produce the largest flow of milk, the treatment 
is as follows : The cows are kept at night in stalls. About 
three A. M. each has a half-bushel of grains. When milking 
is finished, each receives a bushel of turnips (or mangolds), 
and shortly afterward, one tenth of a truss of hay of the best 
quality. This feeding occurs before eight A. M., when the 
animals are turned into the yard. Four hours after, they 
are again tied up in their stalls, and have another feed of 
grains. When the afternoon milking is over (about three 
P. M.), they are fed with a bushel of turnips, and after the 
lapse of an hour, hay is given them as before. This mode of 
feeding usually continues throughout the cool season, or 
from November to March. During the remaining months 
they are fed with grains, tares, and cabbages, and a propor- 
tion of rowen, or second-cut hay. They are supplied regu 
larly until they are turned out to grass, when they pass the 
whole of the night in the field. The yield is about six 
hundred and fifty gallons a year for each cow. 



114 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

Mr. Harley — whose admirable dairy establishment was 
erected for the purpose of supplying the city of Glasgow 
with a good quality of milk, and which has contributed more 
than any thing else to impro\e the quality of the milk 
arnished to all the principal cities of Great Britain — adopted 
he following system of feeding with the greatest profit: In 
the early part of the summer, 3'oung grass and green barley, 
the first cutting especially, mixed with a large proportion of 
old hay or straw, and a good quantity of salt to prevent 
swelling, were used. As summer advanced, less hay and 
straw were given, and as the grass approached ripeness, 
they were discontinued altogether; but young and wet clover 
was never given without an admixture of dry provender. 
When grass became scarce, young turnips and turnip leaves 
were steamed with hay, and formed a good substitute. As 
gra.ss decreased, the turnips were increased, and at length 
became a complete substitute. As the season advanced, a 
large proportion of distillers' grains and wash was given with 
other food, but these were found to have a tendency to make 
the cattle grain-sick ; and if this feeding were long-continued, 
the health of the cows became affected. Boiled linseed and 
short-cut wheat-straw mixed with the grains, were found to 
prevent the cows from turning sick. As spring approached, 
Swedish turnips, when cheap, were substituted for yellow 
turnips. These two roots, steamed with hay and other 
mixtures, afforded safe food till grass was again in season. 
When any of the cows were surfeited, the food was withheld 
till the appetite returned, when a small quantity was given, 
and increased gradually to the full allowance. 

But the most elaborate and valuable experiments in the 



TREATMENT AND MANAGEMENT. 115 

feeding and management of milch cows, are those made, not 
long since, by Mr. T. Horsfall, of England, and published 
in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society. His 
practice, though adapted more especially, perhaps, to his own 
section, is nevertheless of such general application and im- 
portance as to be worthy of attention. By his course of 
treatment he found that he could produce as much and as 
rich butter in winter as in summer. 

His first object was to afford a full supply of the elements 
of food adapted to the maintenance, and also to the produce 
of the animal ; and this could not be effected by the ordinary 
food and methods of feeding, since it is impossible to induce 
a cow to consume a quantity of hay requisite to supply the 
waste of the system, and keep up, at the same time, a full 
yield of the best quality of milk. He used, to some extent, 
cabbages, kohl rabi, mangolds, shorts, and other substances, 
rich in the constituents of cheese and butter. " My food for 
milch cows," says he, "after having undergone various modi- 
fications, has for two seasons consisted of rape cake five 
pounds, and bran two pounds, for each cow, mixed with a 
sufficient quantity of bean-straw, oat-straw, and shells of oats, 
in equal proportions, to supply them three times a day 
with as much as they will eat. The whole of the materials 
are moistened and blended together, and, after being well 
steamed, are given to the animal in a warm state. The 
attendant is allowed one pound to one pound and a half per 
cow, according to circumstances, of bean-meal, which he is 
charged to give to each cow in proportion to the yield of 
milk ; those in full milk getting each two pounds per day, 
others but little. It is dry, and mixed with the steamed 



116 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

food on its being dealt out separately. When this is eaten 
up, green food is given, consisting of cabbages, from October 
to December, kohl rabi till February, and mangold till grass 
time, with a view to nicety of flavor. I limit the quantity 
of green food to thirty or thirty-five pounds per day for each. 
After each feed, four pounds of meadow hay, or twelve pounds 
per day, is given to each cow. They are allowed water 
twice a day, to the extent which they will drink." 

Bean-straw uncooked having been found to be hard and 
unpalatable, it was steamed to make it soft and pulpy, when 
it possessed an agreeable odor, and imparted its flavor to the 
whole mass. It was cut for this purpose just before ripening, 
but after the bean was fully grown, and in this state was 
found to possess nearly double the amount of albuminous 
matter, so valuable to milch cows, of good meadow or upland 
hay. Bran or shorts is also vastly improved by steaming or 
soaking with hot water, when its nutriment is more readily 
assimilated. It contains about fourteen per cent, of albumen, 
and is rich in phosphoric acid. Rape-cake was found to be 
exceedingly valuable. Linseed and cotton-seed cake may 
probably be substituted for it in this country. 

Mr. Horsfall turned his cows in May into a rich pasture, 
housing them at night, and giving them a mess of the steamed 
mixture and some hay morning and night ; and from June to 
October they had cut grass in the stall, besides what they 
got in the pasture, and two feeds of the steamed mixture a 
day. After the beginning of October the cows were kept 
housed. With such management his cows generally yielded 
from twelve to sixteen quarts of milk (wine measure) a day, 
for about eight months after calving, when they fell off in 




FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 117 

milk, but gained in flesh, up to calving-time. In this course 
of treatment the manure was far better than the average, and 
his pastures constantly improved. The average amount of 
butter from 
every six- 
teen quarts 
of milk was 
twenty-five 
ounce s — a 
proportion 
far larger 
than the average. 

How widely does this course "on the rampage." 

of treatment differ from that of most farmers ! The object 
with many seems to be, to see with how little food they can 

keep the cow alive. From a correct point of view, the milch 

» 
cow should be regarded as an instrument of transformation. 

The question should be — with so much hay, so much grain, 

so many roots, how can the most milk, or butter, or cheese, 

be made ? The conduct of a manufacturer who owned good 

machinery, and an abundance of raw material, and had the 

labor at hand, would be considered very senseless, if he 

hesitated to supply the material, and keep the machinery at 

work, at least so long as he could run it with profit. 

Stimulate the appetite, then, and induce the cow to eat, 

by a frequent change of diet, not merely enough to supply 

the constant waste of her system, but enough and to spare, 

of a food adapted to the production of milk of the quality 

desired. 



118 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

SOILING, 

Of the advantages of soiling milch cows — that is, feeding 
exclusively in the barn — there are yet many conflicting 
opinions. As to its economy of land and feed there can be 
no question, it being generally admitted that a given number 
of animals may be abundantly fed on a less space ; nor is 
there much question as to the increased quantity of milk 
yielded in stall feeding. Its economy, in this country, turns 
rather upon the cost of labor and time ; and the question 
raised by the dairyman is, whether it will pay — whether its 
advantages are sufficient to balance the extra expense of 
cutting and feeding, over and above cropping on the pasture. 
The importance of this subject has been strongly impressed 
upon the attention of farmers in many sections of the 
country, by a growing conviction that something must be 
done to improve the pastures, or that they must be abandoned 
altogether. 

Thousands of acres of neglected pasture-land in the older 
States are so poor and worn out that from four to eight acres 
furnish but a miserable subsistence for a good-sized cow. 
No animal can flourish under such circumstances. The labor 
and exertion of feeding are too great, to say nothing of the 
vastly inferior quality of the grasses in such pastures, com- 
pared with those on more recently seeded lands. True 
economy would dictate that such pastures should either be 
allowed to run to wood, or be devoted to sheep-walks, or 
ploughed and improved. Cows, to be able to yield well, 
must have plenty of food of a sweet and nutritious quality ; 



SOILING. 119 

and, unless they find it, they wander over a large space, if at 
liberty, and thus deprive themselves of rest. 

If a farmer or dairyman unfortunately owns such pastures, 
there can be no question that, as a matter of real economy, 
he had better resort to the soiling system for his milch cows ; 
by which means he will largely increase his annual supply 
of good manure, and thus have the means of improving, and 
bringing his land to a higher state of cultivation. A very 
successful instance of this management occurs in the report 
of the visiting committee of an agricultural society in Massa- 
chusetts, in which they say : " We have now in mind a 
farmer in this county who keeps seven or eight cows in the 
stable through the summer, and feeds them on green fodder, 
chiefly Indian corn. We asked him his reasons for it. His 
answer was : 1. That he gets more milk than he can by any 
other method. 2. That he gets more manure, especially 
liquid manure. 3. That he saves it all, by keeping a supply 
of mud or mould under the stable, to be taken out and re- 
newed as often as necessary. 4. That it is less troublesome 
than to drive his cows to pasture ; that they are less vexed 
by flies, and have equally good health. 5. That his mowing 
land is every year growing more productive, without the 
expense of artificial manure. — He estimates that on an acre 
of good land twenty tons of green fodder may be raised. 
That which is dried is cut fine, and mixed with meal or 
shorts, and fed with profit. He believes that a reduced and 
worn-out form — supposing the land to be naturally good — 
could be brought into prime order in five years, without any 
extra outlay of money for manure, by the use of green fodder 
in connection with the raising and keeping of pigs ; not fat- 



120 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

tening them, but selling at the age of four or five months." 
He keeps most of his land in grass, improving its quality and 
productiveness by means of top-dressing, and putting money 
in his pocket — which is, after all, the true test both for theory 
nd practice. 

Another practical case on this point is that of a gentleman 
in the same State who had four cows, but not a rod of land 
on which to pasture them. They were, therefore, never out 
of the barn — or, at least, not out of the yard — and were fed 
with grass, regularly mown for them ; with green Indian 
corn and fodder, which had been sown broadcast for the 
purpose ; and with about three pints of meal a day. Their 
produce in butter was kept for thirteen weeks. Two of them 
were but two years old, having calved the same spring. 
All the milk of one of them was taken by her calf for six 
weeks out of the thirteen, and some of the milk of the other 
was taken for family use, the quantity of which was not 
measured. These heifers could not, therefore, be estimated 
as equal to more than one cow in full milk. And yet from 
these cows no less than three hundred and eighty-nine 
pounds of butter were made in the thirteen weeks. Another 
pound would have made an average of thirty pounds a week 
for the whole time. 

It appears from these and other similar instances of soiling, 
or stall-feeding in summer on green crops cut for the 
purpose, that the largely increased quantity of the yield fully 
compensates for the slightly deteriorated quality. And 
not only is the quantity yielded by each cow increased, but 
the same extent of land, under the same culture, will carry 
double or treble the number of ordinary pastures, and keep 



SOILING. 121 

them in better condition. There is also a saving of manure. 
But with us the economy of soiling is the exception, and not 
the rule. 

In adopting this system of feeding, regularity is required 
as much as in any other, and a proper variety of food. A 
succession of green crops should be provided, as near as 
convenient to the stable. The first will naturally be winter 
rye, in the Northern States, as that shoots up with great 
luxuriance. Winter rape would probably be an exceedingly 
valuable addition to the plants usually cultivated for soiling 
in this country, in sectioris where it would withstand the 
severity of the winter. Cabbages, kept in the cellar or pit, 
and transplanted early, will also come in here to advantage, 
and clover will very soon follow them ; oats, millet, and 
green Indian-corn, as the season advances ; and, a little later 
still, perhaps, the Chinese sugar-cane, which should not be 
cut till headed out. These plants, in addition to other culti- 
vated grasses, will furnish an unfailing succession of si. ecu- 
lent and tender fodder ; while the addition of a little Itdian, 
linseed, or cotton-seed meal will be found economical. 

In the vicinity of large towns and cities, where the object 
is too often to feed for the largest quantity, without reference 
to quality, an article known as distillers' swill, or still-slop, is 
extensively used. This, if properly fed in limited quantities, 
n combination with other and more bulky food, may be a 
valuable article for the dairyman ; but, if given — as it too 
often is — without the addition of other kinds of food, it soon 
affects the health and constitution of the animals fed on it. 
This swill contains a considerable quantity of water, some 
nitrogenous compounds, and some inorganic matter, in the 



122 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

shape of phosphates and alkaline salts found in the diffei'ent 
kinds of grain of which it is made up, as Indian corn, wheat, 
barley, rye, and the like. Where this forms the principal 
food of milch cows, the milk is of a very poor quality — blue 
in color, and requiring the addition of coloring substances t 
make it saleable. It contains, often, less than one per cent. 
of butter, and seldom over one and three-tenths or one and a 
half per cent. — while good, saleable milk should contain from 
three to five per cent. • It will not coagulate, it is said, in less 
than five or six hours ; while good milk will invariably coagu- 
late in an hour or less, under the same conditions. Its effect 
on the system of young children is, therefore, very destruc- 
tive, causing diseases of various kinds, and, if continued, 
death. 

So pernicious have been the consequences resulting from 
the use of this "swill-milk," as it is called, in the largest city 
of this country, that the Legislature of the State of New 
York, at a recent session (1861-2), interfered in behalf of 
the community by making the sale of the article a penal 
offence. 

CULTUKE OF GBASSES FOR FODDER. 

As has been already stated, the grasses in summer, and 
hay in winter, form the most natural and important food for 
milch cows ; and, whatever other crops come in as additional, 
these will form the basis of all systems of feeding. 

The nutritive qualities of the grasses differ widely ; and 
their value as feed for cows will depend, to a considerable 
extent, on the management of pastures and mowing-lands. 
Some considerations bearing upon the subject of the proper 



CULTURE OP GRASSES FOR FODDER. 123 

cultivation of these leading ai'ticles of food are, therefore, 
proposed in this article. 

If the turf of an old pasture is. carefully examined, it will 
be found to contain a large variety of plants and grasses 

constituents 

PATIENTLY WAITING. 

than others, are 

particularly esteemed for an early and luxuriant growth, 
furnishing sweet feed in early spring, before other grasses 
appear ; some of them, for starting more rapidly than others, 
after having been eaten oflF by cattle, and, consequently, of 
great value as pasture grasses. Most grasses will be found 
to be of a social character, and to do best in a large mixture 
with other varieties. 

In forming a mixture for pasture grasses, the peculiar 
qualities of each species should, therefore, be regarded : as 
the time of flowering, the habits of growth, the soil and 
location on which it grows best, and other characteristics. 

Among the grasses found on cultivated lands in this 
country, the following are considered as among the most 
valuable for ordinary farm cultivation ; some of them being 



124 CATTLE AND THEIR. DISEASES. 

adapted to pastures, and others almost exclusively to mowing 
and the hav-crop : Timothy, Meadow Foxtail, June or Ken- 
tucky Blue Grass, Fowl Meadow, Rough-stalked Meadow, 
Orchard Grass, Perennial Eye Grass, Italian Eye Grass, 
Redtop, English Bent, Meadow Fescue, Tall Oat Grass, 
Sweet-scented Yernal, Hungarian Grass, Red Clover, White 
or Dutch Clover, and some others. 

Of these, the most valuable, all things considered, is 
Timothy. It forms a large proportion of what is commonly 
called English, or in some sections meadow, hay, though it 
originated and was first cultivated in this country. It 
contains a large percentage of nutritive matter, in comparison 
with other agricultural grasses. It thrives best on moist, 
peaty, or loamy soils, of medium tenacity, and is not well 
suited to very light, sandy lands. On very moist soils, its 
root is almost always fibrous ; while on dry and loamy ones 
it is bulbous. On soils of the former description, which it 
especially affects, its growth is rapid, and its yield of hay 
large, sometimes amounting to three or four tons the acre, 
depending much, of coui'se, upon cultivation. But, though 
very valuable for hay, it is not adapted for pasture, as it will 
neither endure severe grazing, nor is its aftermath to be 
compared with that of meadow foxtail, and some of the othnr 
grasses. 

June Grass, better known in some sections as Kentucky 
Blue Grass, is very common in most sections of the country, 
especially on limestone lands, forming a large part of the turf, 
wherever it flourishes, and being held in universal esteem 
as a pasture grass. It starts early, but varies much in size 
and appearance, according to the soil; growing in somo 



CULTURE OF GRASSES FOR FODDER. 125 

places with the utmost luxuriance, and forming the predomi- 
nant grass ; in others, yielding to the other species. If cut 
at the time of flowering, or a few days after, it makes a good 
and nutritious hay, though it is surpassed in nutritive quali- 
ties by several of the other grasses. It starts slowly after 
having been cut, especially if not cut very early. But its 
herbage is fine and uniform, and admirably adapted to lawns, 
growing well in almost all soils, though it does not endure 
very severe droughts. It withstands, however, the frosts, of 
winter better than most other grasses. 

In Kentucky — a section where it attains its highest per- 
fection and luxuriance, ripening its seeds about the tenth of 
June — and in latitudes south of that, it sometimes continues 
green through the mild winters. It requires three or four 
years to become well set, after sowing, and it does not attain 
its highest yield as a pasture grass till the sod is even older 
than that. It is not, therefore, suited to alternate husbandry, 
where land usually remains in grass but two or three years 
before being ploughed up. In Kentucky, it is sown any 
time in winter when the sun is on the ground, three or four 
quarts of seed being used to the acre. In spring the seeds 
germinate, when the sprouts are exceedingly fine and delicate. 
Stock is not allowed on it the first year. 

The Meadow Foxtail is also an excellent pasture grass 
It somewhat resembles Timothy, but is earlier, has a softei 
spike, and thrives on all soils except the dryest. Its growth 
is rapid, and it is greatly relished by stock of all kinds. Its 
stalks and leaves are too few and light for a field crop, and it 
shrinks too much in curing to be valuable for hay. It 
flourishes best in a rich, moist, and rather strong soil, sending 



126 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

up a luxuriant aftermath wlien cut or grazed off, which is 
much more valuable, both in quality and nutritive value, 
than the first crop. In all lands designed for permanent 
pasture, therefore, it should form a considerable part of a 
mixture. It will endure almost any amount of forcing, by 
liquid manures or irrigation. It requires three or four years, 
after soiling, to gain a firm footing in the soil. The seed is 
covered with the soft and woolly husks of the flower, and is 
consequently light ; weighing but five pounds to the bushel, 
and containing seventy-six thousand seeds to the ounce. 

The Orchard Grass, or Rough Cocksfoot, for pastures, 
stands pre-eminent. This is a native of this country, and 
was introduced into England, from Virginia, in 1164, since 
which time its cultivation has extended into every country 
of Europe, where it is universally held in very high estima- 
tion. The fact of its being very palatable to stock of all 
kinds, its rapid growth, and the luxuriance of its aftermath, 
with its power of enduring the cropping of cattle, have given 
it a very high reputation, especially as a pasture grass. It 
blossoms earlier than Timothy ; when green, is equally 
relished by milch cows ; requires to be fed closer, to prevent 
its forming tufts and growing up to seed, when it becomes 
hard and wiry, and loses much of its nutritive quality. As 
it blossoms about the same time, it forms an admirable 
mixture with red clover, either for permanent pasture or 
mowing. It resists drought, and is less exhausting to the 
soil than either rye grass or Timothy. The seed weighs 
twelve pounds to the bushel, and when sown alone requires 
about two bushels to the acre. 

The Rough- Stalked Meadow Grass is somewhat less 



CULTURE OF GRASSES FOR FODDER. 12T 

common than the June grass, but is considered equally 
valuable. It grows best on moist, sheltered meadows, where 
it flowers in June and July. It is readily distinguished from 
June grass by its having a rough sheath, while the latter has 
a smooth one, and by having a fibrous root, while the root 
of the other is creeping. It possesses very considerable 
nutritive qualities, and comes to perfection at a desirable 
time, and is exceedingly relished by cattle, horses and sheep. 
For suitable soils it should form a portion of a mixture of 
seeds, producing, in mixture with other grasses which serve 
to shelter it, a large yield of hay, far above the average of 
grass usually sown on a similar soil. It should be cut when 
the seed is formed. Seven pounds of seed to the acre will 
make a good sward. The grass loses about seventy per 
cent, of its weight in drying. The nutritive qualities of its 
aftermath exceed very considerably those of the crop cut in 
the flower or in the seed. 

Fowl Meadow Grass is another indigenous species, of 
great value for low and marshy grounds, where it flourishes 
best ; and, if cut and properly cured, makes a sweet and 
nutritious hay, which, from its fineness, is eaten by cows 
without waste. According to Sinclair — who experimented, 
with the aid of Sir Humphrey Davy, to ascertain its com- 
parative nutritive properties — it is superior in this respect to 
either meadow foxtail, orchard grass, or tall meadow oat 
grass ; but it is probable that he somewhat overrates it. If 
allowed to stand till nearly ripe, it falls down, but sends up 
innumerable flowering stems from the joints, so that it con- 
tinues green and luxuriant till late in the season. It thrives 
best in mixture with other grasses, and deserves a prominent 



128 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

place in all mixtures for rich, moist pastures, and low mow- 
ing-lands. 

Rt£ Grass has a far higher reputation abroad than in this 
country, and probably with reason ; for it is better adapted 
to a wet and uncertain climate than to a dry and hot one. 
It varies exceedingly, depending much on soil and culture ; 
but, when cut in the blossom to make into hay, it possesses 
very considerable nutritive power. If allowed to get too 
ripe, it is hard and wiry, and not relished by cows. The 
change from a juicy and nutritious plant to a woody fibre, 
containing but little soluble matter, is very rapid. Properly 
managed, however, it is a tolerably good grass, though not 
to be compared to Timothy, or orchard grass. 

Redtop is a grass familiar to every farmer in the country. 
It is the Herd's grass of Pennsylvania, while in New York 
and New England it is known by a great variety of names 
and assumes a great variety of forms, according to the soil in 
which it grows. It is well adapted to almost every soil, 
though it seems to prefer a moist loam. It makes a profita- 
ble crop for spending, in the form of hay, though its yield is 
less than that of Timothy. It is well suited to our perma- 
nent pastures, where it should be fed close, otherwise it 
becomes wiry and innutritions, and cattle refuse it. It 
stands the climate of the country as well as any other grass, 
and so forms a valuable part of any mixture for pastures and 
permanent mowing-lands ; but it is, probably, rather over- 
rated by us. 

English Bent, known also by a number of other names, 
is largely cultivated in some sections. It closely resembles 
redtop, but may be distinguished from it by the roughness of 



CULTURE OF GRASSES FOR FODDER. 



129 



the sheaths when the hand is drawn from above downward. 
It possesses about the same qualities as redtop. 

Meadow Fescue is one of the most common of the* fescue 
grasses, and is said to be the Randall grass of Virginia. It 
is an excellent pastui-e grass, forming a very considerable 
portion of the turf of old pasture lands and fields ; and is 
more extensively propagated and diffused from the fact that 
it ripens its seeds before most other grasses are cut, and 
sheds them to spring up and cover the ground. Its long and 
tender leaves are much relished by cattle. It is rarely sown 
in this country, notwithstanding its great and acknowledged 
value as a pasture grass. If sown at all, it should be in 
mixture with other grasses, as orchard grass, and rye grass, 
or June grass. It is of much greater value at the time of 
flowering than when the seed is ripe. 

The Tall Oat Grass is the Ray grass of France. It 
furnishes a luxuriant supply of foliage, is valuable either for 




A CHANCE FOR A SELECTION. 



hay or for pasture, and has been especially recommended for 
soiling purposes, on account of its early and luxuriant 
9 



130 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

growth. It is often found on the borders of fields and 
hedges, woods and pastures, and is sometimes very plenty in 
mowing-lands. After having been mown it shoots up a very 
thick aftermath, and, on this account, partly, is regarded of 
nearly equal excellence with the common foxtail. 

It grows spontaneously on deep, sandy soils, when once 
naturalized. It has been cultivated to a considerable extent 
in this country, and is esteemed by those who know it mainly 
for its early, rapid, and late growth, making it very well 
calculated as a permanent pasture grass. It will succeed on 
tenacious clover soil. 

The Sweet- Scented Yernal Grass is one of the earliest 
in spring and one of the latest in autumn ; and this habit of 
growth is one of its chief excellencies, as it is neither a 
nutritious grass, nor very palatable to stock of any kind, nor 
does it yield a very good crop. It is very common in New 
England and all over the Middle States, coming into old 
worn-out fields and moist pastures spontaneously, and along 
every roadside. It derives its name from its sweetness of 
odor when partially wilted or crushed in the hand, and it is 
this chiefly which gives the delicious fragrance to all new- 
mown hay. It is almost the only grass that possesses a 
strongly-marked aromatic odor, which is imparted to other 
grasses with which it is cured. Its seed weighs eight pounds 
to the bushel. In mixtures for permanent pastures it may be 
of some value. 

Hungarian Grass, or millet, is an annual forage plant, 
introduced into France in 1815, and more recently into this 
country. It germinates readily, and withstands the drought 
remarkably, remaining green when other grasses are parched 



CULTURE OP GRASSES FOR FODDER. 131 

and dried up. It has Dumerous succulent leaves which 
furnish an abundance of sweet fodder, greatly relished by 
stock of all kinds. It attains its greatest luxuriance on soils 
of medium consistency and richness, but does very well on 
light and dry plains. 

Red Clover is an artificial grass of the leguminous family, 
and one of the most valuable cultivated plants for feeding to 
dairy cows. It flourishes best on tenacious soils and stiff 
loams. Its growth is rapid, and a few months after sowing 
are sufficient to supply an abundant sweet and nutritious 
food. In the climate of New England, clover should be 
sown in the spring of the year, while most of the natural 
grasses do far better when sown in the fall. It is often sown 
with perfect success on the late snows of March or April, 
and soon finds its way down into the soil and takes a vigor- 
ous hold with its root. It is valuable not only as a forage 
plant, but as shading the ground, and thereby increasing its 
fertility. 

The introduction of clover among the cultivated plants of 
the farm has done more, perhaps, for modern agriculture than 
that of any other single plant. It is now considered indis- 
pensable in all good dairy districts. 

White Clover, often called Honeysuckle, is also widely 
diffused over this country, to which it is undoubtedly indig- 
enous. As a mixture in all pasture grasses it holds a very 
high rank, as it is exceedingly sweet and nutritious, and 
relished by ail kinds of stock. It grows most luxuriantly in 
moist grounds and moist seasons, but easily accommodates 
itself to a great variety of circumstances. 

With respect to the mixtures of grass-seeds most profitable 



132 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

for the dairy farmer, no universal rule can be given, as they 
depend very much upon the nature of the soil and the 
locality. The most important point to be observed, and the 
one as to which, probably, the greatest deficiency exists, is 
to use a large number of species, with smaller quantities of 
each than those most commonly used. This is Nature's rule ; 
for, in examining the turf of a rich old pasture, a large 
number of different species will be found growing together, 
while, if the turf of a field sown without two or three species 
is examined, a far less number of plants is found to the 
square foot, even after the sod is fairly set. In the opinion 
of the most competent judges, no improvement in grass 
culture is more important than this. 

As an instance of what he would consider an improvement 
on the ordinary mixtures for permanent pastures, Mr. Flint, 
m his " Milch Cows and Dairy Farming," suggests the 
following as likely to give satisfactory results, dependent, of 
course, to a considerable extent, on the nature and prepara- 
tion of the soil : 

Meadow Foxtail, flowering in May and June, 2 pounds. 



Orchard Grass, " 


(( 


<< (( 


6 


Sweet-scented Yernal, " 


(( 


April and May, 


1 


Meadow Fescue, " 


<( 


May and June, 


2 


Redtop, " 


(( 


June and July, 


2 


June Grass, " 


« 


May and June, 


4 


Italian Rye Grass, " 


(( 


June, 


4 


Perennial do., " 


(( 


It (I 


6 


Timothy, 


11 


June and July, 


3 


Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, 


(( <( 


2 


Perennial Clover, flowering 


in 


June, 


3 



White Clover, " " Mayto September 5-40" 



CULTURE OP GRASSES FOR FODDER. 133 

For mowing-lands the mixture would, of course, be some- 
what changed. The meadow foxtail and sweet-scented 
vernal would be left out entirely, and some six or eight 
pounds added to the Timothy and red clover. The proper 
time to lay down lands to grass in the latitude of New 
England is August or September, and no grain crop should 
be sown with the seed. 

Stiff or clayey pastures should never be overstocked, but 
when fed pretty close the grasses are far sweeter and more 
nutritious than when they are allowed to grow up rank and 
coarse ; and if, by a want of sufficient feeding, they get the 
start of the stock, and grow into rank tufts, they should be 
cut and removed, when a fresh grass will start up, similar to 
the aftermath of mowing-lands, which will be eaten with 
avidity. Grasses for curing into hay should be cut either at 
the time of flowering, or just before, especially if designed for 
milch cows. They are then more succulent and juicy, and, 
if properly cured, form the sweetest food. 

Grass cut in the blossom will make more milk than if 
alloM^ed to stand later. Cut a little before the blossoming ; it 
will make more than when in blossom, and the cows prefer 
it, which is by no means an unimportant consideration, since 
their tastes should always be consulted. Grass cut some- 
what green, and properly cured, is next to fresh, green grass 
in palatable, nutritive qualities. Every farmer knows the 
milk-producing properties of rowen, or second crop, which is 
generally cut before it ripens. 

No operation on the farm is of greater importance to the 
dairyman than the cutting of his grass and the manner of 
curing hay ; and in this respect the practice over the country 



134 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

generally is susceptible of very marked improvement. The 
chief object is to preserve the sweetness and succulence of 
the grass in its natural state, so far as possible ; and this 
object cannot be attained by exposing it too long to the 
scorching suns and drenching rains to which our climate is 
liable. As a general thing, farmers try to make their hay 
too much. 

As to the best modes of curing clover, the following, 
among others, is adopted by many successful farmers : What 
is mown in the morning is left in the swath, to be turned 
over early in the afternoon. At about four o'clock, or while 
it is still warm, it is put into small cocks with a fork, and, if 
the weather is favorable, it may be housed on the fourth or 
fifth day, the cocks being turned over on the morning of the 
day in which it is to be carted. By this method all the 
heads and leaves are saved, and these are more valuable than 
the stems. For new milch cbws in winter scarcely any food 
is better. It will cause them to give as great a flow of milk 
as any hay, unless it be good rowen. 

Indian Corn makes an exceedingly valuable fodder, both 
as a means of carrying a herd of milch cows through our 
severe droughts of summer, and as an article for soiling cows 
ktpt in the stall. No dairy farmer will neglect to sow an 
extent in proportion to the number of cows which he keeps. 
The most common practice is, to sow in drills from two and a 
half to three feet apart, on land well tilled and thoroughly 
manured, making the drills from six to ten inches wide with 
the plough, manuring in the furrow, dropping the kernels 
about two inches apart, and covering with the hoe. In this 
mode of culture, the cultivator may be used between the 



CULTURE OP GRASSES FOR FODDER. 135 

rows when the corn is from six to twelve inches high, and, 
unless the ground is very weedy, no other after culture is 
needed. The first sowing usually takes place about the 
middle of May, and this is succeeded by other sowings, at 
intervals of a week or ten days, till July, in order to have a 
succession of green fodder ; but, if it is designed to cut it 
up to cure for winter use, an early sowing is generally pre- 
ferred, in order to be able to cure it in warm weather, in 
August or early in September. Sown in this way, about 
three or four bushels of corn are required for an acre ; since, 
if sown thickly, the fodder is better, the stalks smaller, and 
the waste less. 

The chief difficulty in curing corn cultivated for this 
purpose, and after the methods just spoken of, arises from 
the fact that it comes at a season when the weather is often 
colder, the days shorter, and the dews heavier, than when 
the curing of hay takes place. Nor is the curing of corn cut 
up green so easy and simple as that of the drying of stalks of 
Indian corn cut above the ear, as in the common practice 
of topping. The plant is then riper, less juicy, and cures 
more readily. 

The method sometimes adopted is to cut and tie into small 
bundles, after it is somewhat wilted, and then to stock upon 
the ground, where it is allowed to stand, subject to all the 
changes of weather, with only the protection of the stook 
itself. The stooks consist of bunches of stalks first bound 
into small bundles, and are made sufficiently large to prevent 
the wind from blowicg them over. The arms are thrown 
around the tops to bring them as closely together as possible, 
when the tops are broken over or twisted together, or other- 



136 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

wise fastened, in order to make the stook " shed tne rain" as 
well as possible. In this condition they remain out until 
they are sufficiently dried to be put in the barn. Corn fodder 
is very excellent for young dairy stock. 

Common Millet is another very valuable crop for fodder 
in soiling, or to cure for winter use, but especially to feed 
out during the usual season of drought. Many vai'ieties of 
millet are cultivated in this country, the ground being pre- 
pared and treated as for oats. If designed to cut for green 
fodder, half a bushel of seed to the acre should be used ; if 
to ripen seed, twelve quarts, sown broadcast, about the last 
of May or early in June. A moist loam or muck is the best 
soil adapted to millet ; but very great crops have been grown 
on dry upland. It is very palatable and nutritious for milch 
cows, both green and when properly cured. The curing 
should be very much like that of clover, care being taken 
not to over-dry it. For fodder, either green or cured, it is 
cut before ripening. In this state all cattle eat it as readily 
as green corn, and a less extent will feed them. Millet is 
worthy of a widely-extended cultivation, particularly on 
dairy farms. Indian millet is another cultivated variety. 

Rye, as a fodder plant, is chiefly valuable for its early 
growth in spring. It is usually sown in September or 
October — from the middle to the end of September being, 
perhaps, the most desirable time — on land previously culti- 
vated and in good condition. If designed to ripen only, a 
bushel of seed is required to the acre, evenly sown ; but, if 
intended for early fodder in spring, two or two and a half 
bushels of seed per acre should be used. On warm land the 
rye can be cut green the last of April or the first of May. 



CULTURE OF GRASSES FOR FODDER. 131 

Care should be taken to cut early ; since, if it is allowed to 
advance too far towards maturity, the stalk becomes hard 
and unpalatable to cows. 

Oats are also sometimes used for soiling, or for feeding 
green, to eke out a scanty supply of pasture feed ; and for 
this purpose they are valuable. They should be sown on 
well-tilled and well-manured land, about four bushels to the 
acre, towards the last of April or the first of May. If the 
whole crop is to be used as green fodder, five bushels of seed 
will not be too much for good, strong soil. They will be 
sufficiently grown to cut by the first of July, or in some 
sections earlier, depending upon the location. 

The Chinese Sugar-Cane also may deserve attention as a 
fodder plant. Experiments thus far made would seem to 
show that when properly cultivated, and cut at the right 
time, it is a palatable and nutritious plant, while many of the 
failures have been the result of too early cutting. For a 
fodder crop the drill culture is preferable, both on account 
of the larger yield obtained and because it is thus prevented 
from becoming too hard and stalky. 

Of the root crops the Potato is the first to be mentioned. 
This produces a large quantity of milk, though the quality is 
inferior. The market value of this root is, at times, too great 
to allow of feeding extensively with it, even in milk dairies, 
where it is most valuable as a food for cows ; still, there are 
locations where it may be judicious to cultivate this root for 
dairy feed, and in all circumstances there is a certain portion 
of the crop of unmarketable size, which will be of value fed 
to milch cows or swine. It should be planted in April or 
May, but in many sections in June, on good mellow soil, first 



138 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

thoroughly plowed and harrowed, then furrowed three feet 
apart, and manured in the furrows with a mixture of ashes^ 
plaster of Paris, and salt. The seed may be dropped in the 
furrows, one foot apart, after the drill system — or in hills, 
two and a half or three feet apart — to be covered with the 
plough by simply turning the furrows back, after which the 
whole should be rolled with the field-roller, when it can be 
done. 

If the land is not already in good heart from continued 
cultivation, a few loads of barnyard manure may be spread, 
and plowed under by the first plowing. Used in this way 
it is far less liable to cause the rot, than when it is put 
in the hill. If a sufficient quantity of w^ood-ashes is not at 
hand, sifted coal-ashes will answer the purpose, and these are 
said to be valuable as a preventive of rot. In this way, one 
man, two boys, and a horse can plant from three to four acres 
a day on mellow land. 

By another method two acres a day on the sod have been 
planted. The manure is first spread upon the grass, and 
then a furrow made by a yoke of oxen and one man, another 
following after and dropping, a foot apart, along the outer 
edge of the furrow on the grass. By quick work, one hand 
can nearly keep up with the plow in dropping. When 
arrived at the end of the piece, a back furrow is turned up to 
the potatoes, and a good plowman will cover nearly all 
without difficulty. On the return furrow, the man or boy 
who dropped follows after, covering up any that may be left 
or displaced, and smoothing off the top of the back-furrows 
when necessary. Potatoes thus planted have come out 
finely. . 



CULTURE OF GRASSES FOR FODDER. 



139 



The cost of cultivation in this mode, it must be evident, is 
but trifling, compared with the slower method of hand-plant- 
ing. It. requires a skillful ploughman, a quick, active lad, 
and a good yoke of oxen, and the extent of the work will 
depend somewhat upon the state of the turf. The nutritive 
equivalent for potatoes in a hundred pounds of good hay is 
319 pounds ; that is, it will take 3.19 pounds of potatoes to 
afford the same amount of nourishment as one pound of hay. 
The great value of roots is as a change or condiment calcu- 
lated to keep the animal in a healthy condition. 

The Carrot is somewhat extensively fed, and is a valuable 
root for milch cows. This, like the potato, has been culti- 
vated and im- 
proved from a 
wild plant. 
Carrots require 
a deep, warm, 
mellow soil, 
thoroughly cul- 
tivated, but 
clean, and free 
from weed-seed. The difference between a very good profit 
and a loss on the crop depends much upon the use of land 
and manures perfectly free from foul seeds of any kind. 
Ashes, guano, seaweed, ground bones, and other similar 
substances, or thoroughly-rotted and fermented compost, will 
answer the purpose. 

After plowing deep, and harrowing carefully, the seed 
should be planted with a seed-sower, in drills about eighteen 
inches apart, at the rate of four pounds to the acre, abput the 




A WEST HIGHLAND OX. 



140 Cattle and their diseases. 

middle of May. The difference between sowing on "the 
fifteenth of May and on the tenth of June in New England is 
said to be nearly one-third in the crop on an average of years. 
In weeding, a little wheel-hoe is invaluable, as with it a 
large part of the labor of cultivation is saved. A skillful 
hand can run this hoe within a half an inch of the young plants 
without injury, and go over a large space in the course of a 
day, if the land was properly prepared in the first place. 

The American farmer should always plan to economize 
labor, which is the great item of expense upon a farm. By 
this is not meant that lie should strive to shirk or avoid 
work, but that he should make the least amount of work 
accomplish the greatest and most profitable results. Labor- 
saving machinery on the farm is applied, not to reduce the 
number of hours of labor, or to make the owner a man of 
leisure — who is, generally, the unhappiest man in the world — 
but to enable him to accomplish the greatest results in the 
same time that he would be compelled to obtain smaller ones. 

Carrots will continue to grow and increase in size late 
into the fall. When ready to dig, plow around as near to 
the outside rows as possible, turning away the furrow from 
the row. Then take out the carrots, pulling off the tops, and 
throw the carrots and tops into separate heaps on the 
plowed furrows. In this way a man and two boys can 
harvest and put into the cellar upwards of a hundred bushels 
a day. 

The Turnip, and the Swedish turnip, or ruta baga, are 
n.Iso largely cultivated as a field crop to feed to stock ; and 
for this purpose almost numberless varieties are used, furnish- 
ing a great amount of succulent and nutritious food, late into 



CULTURE OF GRASSES FOR FODDER. 141 

winter, and, if well-kept, late into spring. The cliief objec- 
tion to the turnip is, that it taints the milk. This may be 
remedied — to a considerable extent, if not wholly — by the 
use of salt, or salt hay, and by feeding at the time of milking, 
or immediately after, or by steaming before feeding, or put 
ting a small quantity of the solution of nitre into the pail, 
and milking upon it. 

Turnips may be sown any time in June, in rich land, well 
mellowed by cultivation. Yery large crops are obtained, 
sown as late as the middle of July, or the first of August, on 
an inverted sod. The Michigan, or double-mould-board 
plow leaves the land light, and in admirable condition to 
harrow, and drill in turnips. In one instance, a successful 
root-grower cut two tons of hay to the acre, on the twenty- 
third of June, and after it was removed from the land spread 
eight cords of rotten kelp to the acre, and plowed in ; after 
which about three cords of fine old compost manure were 
used to the acre, which was sown with ruta baga seed, in 
drills, three feet apart, plants thinned to eight or ten inches 
in the drill. No after cultivation was required. On the 
fifteenth of November he harvested three hundred and 
seventy bushels of splendid roots to the acre, carefully 
measured off. 

The nutritive equivalent of Swedish turnips as compared 
with good meadow hay is 676, taking hay as a standard a 
100; that is, it would require 6.T6 pounds of turnips to 
furnish the same nutriment as one pound of good hay ; but fed 
in connection with other food — as hay, for example — perhaps 
five pounds of turnips would be about equal to one pound of 
hay 



142 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

The English or round turnip is usually sown broadcast 
after some other crop, and large and valuable returns are 
often obtained. The Swede is sown in drills. Both of these 
varieties are used for the production of milk. 

The chief objection to the turnip crop is that it leaves 
many kinds of soil unfit for a succession of some other crops, 
like Indian corn, for instance. In some sections, no amount 
of manuring appears to make corn do well after turnips or 
ruta bagas. 

The Mangold Wurtzel, a variety of the common beet, is 
often cultivated in this country with great success, and fed to 
cows with advantage, furnishing a succulent and nutritive 
food in winter and spring. The crop is somewhat uncertain. 
When it does well, an enormous yield is often obtained ; but, 
not rarely, it proves a failure, and is not, on the whole, quite 
as reliable as the ruta baga, though a more valuable crop 
when the yield is good. It is cultivated like the common 
beet in moist, rich soils, three pounds of seed to the acre. 
The leaves may be stripped off, towards fall, and fed out, 
without injury to the growth of the root. Both mangolds 
and turnips should be cut with a root-cutter, before being 
fed out. 

The Parsnip is a very sweet and nutritious article of 
fodder, and adds richness and flavor to the milk. It is 
worthy of extended culture in all parts of the country where 
dairy husbandry is pursued. It is a biennial, easily raised 
on deep, rich, well-cultivated and well-manured soils, often 
yielding enormous crops, and possessing the decided advan- 
tage of withstanding the severest winters. As an article of 
spring feeding, therefore, it is exceedingly valuable. Sown 



CULTURE OF GRASSES FOR FODDER. 143 

in April or May, it attains a large growth before winter. 
Then, if desirable, a part of the crop may be harvested for 
winter use, and the remainder left in the ground till the frost 
is out, in March or April, when they can be dug as wanted, 
and are exceedingly relished by milch cows and stock of all 
kinds. They make an admirable feed at the time of milking, 
and produce the richest cream, and the yellowest and finest- 
flavored butter, of any roots used among us. The best 
dairy farmers on the Island of Jersey often feed to their cows 
from thirty to thirty-five pounds of parsnips a day, in addition 
to hay or grass. 

Both practical experiment and scientific analysis prove this 
root to be eminently adapted to dairy stock, where the rich- 
ness of milk or fine-flavored butter is any object. For mere 
milk-dairies, it is not quite so valuable, probably, as the 
Swedish turnip. The culture is similar to that of carrots, a 
rich, mellow, and deep loam being best ; while it has a great 
advantage over ihe carrot in being more hardy, and rather 
less liable to injury from insects, and more nutritive. For 
feeding and fattening stock it is eminently adapted. 

To be sure of a crop, fresh seed must be had, as it cannot 
be depended on for more than one year. For this reason the 
largest and straightest roots should be allowed to stand for 
seed, which, as soon as nearly ripe, should be taken out and 
spread out to dry, and carefully kept for use. For field 
culture, the hollow-crowned parsnip is the best and most 
profitable ; but on thin, shallow soils the turnip-rooted variety 
should be used. Parsnips may be harvested like carrots, 
by plowing along the rows. Let butter or cheese dairy- 



144 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

men give this crop a fair and full trial, and watch its eflTect in 
the quality of the milk and butter. 

The Kohl Rabi is also cultivated to a considerable extent 
in this country for the purpose of feeding stock. It is sup- 
posed to be a hybrid between the cabbage and the turnip 
and is often called the cabbage-turnip, having the root of the 
former, with a turnip-like or bulbous stem. The special 
reason for its more extensive cultivation among us is its 
wonderful indifference to droughts, in which it seems to 
flourish best, and to bring forth the most luxuriant crops. 
It also withstands the frosts remarkably, being a hardy plant. 
It yields a somewhat richer quality of milk than the ordinary 
turnip, and the crop is generally admitted to be as abundant 
and profitable. Very large crops of it have been produced 
by the ordinary turnip or cabbage cultivation. As in cab- 
bage-culture, it is best to sow the seed in March or April, in 
a warm and well-enriched seed-bed ; from which it is trans- 
planted in May, and set out after the manner of cabbages in 
garden culture. It bears transplanting better than most 
other roots. Insects injure it less than the turnip, dry 
weather favors it, and it keeps well through winter. For 
these reasons, it must be regarded as a valuable addition to 
our list of forage plants adapted to dairy farming. It grows 
well on stronger soils than the turnip requires. 

Linseed Meal is the ground cake of flaxseed after the oil 
is pressed out. It is very rich in fat-forming principles, and 
given to milch cows increases the quality of butter, and 
keeps them in condition. Four or five pounds a day are 
sufficient for cows in milk, and this amount will efi'ect a 
great saving in the cost of other food, and at the same time 



CULTURE OP GRASSES FOR FODDER. 145 

make a \ery rich milk. It is extensively manufactured in 
this country, and largely exported, but it is M'orthy of more 
general use here. It must not be fed in too large quantities 
to milch cows, for it would be liable to give too great a 
tendency to fat, and thus affect the quantity of the milk. 

CoTTON-SEED Meal is an article of comparatively recent 
introduction. It is obtained by pressing the seed of the 
cotton-plant, which extracts the oil, when the cake is crushed 
or ground into meal, which has been found to be a very 
valuable article for feeding stock. From analysis it is shown 
to be equal or superior to linseed meal. Practical experi- 
ments only are needed to establish it. It can be procured in 
market at a reasonable price. 

The Manures used in this country for the culture of the 

above named plants are mostly such as are made on the farm, 

consisting chiefly of barnyard composts of various kinds, with 

often a large admixture of peat-mud. There are few farms 

that do not contain substances, which, if properly husbanded, 

would add very greatly to the amount of manure ordinarily 

made. The best of the concentrated manures, which it is 

sometimes necessary to use, for want of time and labor to 

prepare enough upon the farm, is, unquestionably, Peruvian 

guano. The results of this, when properly applied, are well 

known and rehable, which can hardly be said of any other 

artificial manure offered for the farmer's notice. The chief 

objection to depending upon manures made off the farm is, in 

the first place, their great expense ; and in the second — which 

is equally important — the fact, that, though they may be 

made valuable, and produce at one time the best results, a 

want of care in the manufacture, or designed fraud, may 
• 10 



146 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

make them almost worthless, with the impossibility of detect- 
ing the imposition, without a chemical analysis, till it be- 
comes too late, and the crop is lost. 

It is, therefore, safest to rely mainly upon the home manu- 
facture of manure. The extra expense of soiling cattle, 
saving and applying the liquid manure, and thus bringing 
the land to a higher state of cultivation, when it will be 
capable of keeping more stock and furnishing more manure, 
would offer a surer road to success than a constant outlay for 
concentrated fertilizers. 



THE BAEK". 

The farm barn, next to the farm house, is the most im- 
portant structure of the farm itself, in the Northern and 
Middle States ; and even at the South and Southwest, where 
barns are less used, they are of more importance in the 
economy of farm management than is generally understood. 
Indeed, to the eyes of a person of taste, a farm or plantation 
appears incomplete, without good barn accommodations, as 
much as without good household appointments — and without 
them, no agricultural establishment can be complete in all its 
proper economy. 

The most thorough barn structures, perhaps, to be seen in 
the United States, are those of the State of Pennsylvania, 
built by the German farmers of the lower and central coun- 
ties. They are large, and expensive in their construction ; 
and, in a strictly economical point of view, are, perhaps, more 
costly than is required. Yet, there is a substantial durability 
about them, that is exceedingly satisfactory, and, where the 



THE BARN. 147 

pecuniary ability of the farmer will admit, they may well 
furnish models for imitation. 

In the structure of the barn, and in its interior accommo- 
dation, much will depend upon the branches of agriculture to 
which the farm is devoted. A farm cultivated in grain 
chiefly requires but little room for stabling purposes. Storage 
for grain in the sheaf, and granaries, will require its room ; 
while a stock farm requires a barn with extensive hay storage, 
and stables for its cattle, horses, and sheep, in all climates 
which do not admit of such stocks living through the winter 
in the field, as is the case in the great grazing districts west 
of the Alleghanies. Again, there are wide districts of country 
where a mixed husbandry of grain and stock is pursued, 
which require barns and outbuildings accommodating both. 

It may be well here to remark that many designers of 
barns, sheds, and 'other out-buildings for the accommodation 
of farm stock, have indulged in fanciful arrangements for the 
comfort and convenience of animals, which are so compli- 
cated that when constructed, as they sometimes are, the 
practical, common-sense farmer will not use them ; and by 
reason of the learning which is required for their use, they 
are altogether unsuitable for the treatment and use which 
they generally receive from those who have the daily care 
of the stock for which they are intended, and for the rough 
usage which they experience from the animals themselves. 
A very pretty and plausible arrangement of stabling, feeding, 
and all the other requirements of a barn establishment may 
be thus got up by an ingenious theorist at the fireside, which 
will Work charmingly as he dilates upon its good qualities, 
untried ; but, which, when subjected to experiment, will be 



148 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

utterly wortliless for practical use. There can be no doubt 
that the simplest plan of construction, consistent with an 
economical expenditure of the material of food for the con- 
sumption of stock, is by far the most preferable. 

Another item to be considered in this connection, is the 
comparative value of the stock, the forage fed to them, and 
the labor expended in feeding and taking care of them. To 
illustrate : Suppose a farm to lie in the vicinity of a large 
town or city. Its value is, perhaps, a hundred dollars an 
acre. The hay cut upon it is worth fifteen dollars a ton, at 
the barn, and straw and coarse grains in proportion, and 
hired labor ten or twelve dollars a month. Consequently, 
the manager of this farm should use all the economy in his 
power, by the aid of cutting-boxes and other machinery, to 
make the least amount of forage supply the wants of his 
stock ; and the internal economy of his' barn should be 
arranged accordingly, since labor is his cheapest item, and 
food his dearest. Therefore, any contrivance by which to 
work up his forage the closest — by Avay of machinery, or 
manual labor — so that it shall serve the purposes of keeping 
his stock, is true economy; and the making and saving of 
manures are items of the first importance. His buildings 
and their arrangements throughout should, for these reasons, 
be constructed in accordance with his practice. 

If, on the other hand, lands are cheap and productive, and 
labor comparatively dear, a different practice will prevail. 
The farmer will feed his hay from the mow without cutting. 
The straw will be stacked out, and the cattle turned to it, to 
pick what they like of it, and make their beds of the re- 
mainder ; or, if it is housed, he will throw it into racks, and 



THE BARN. 149 

the stock may eat what they choose. To do this requires 
but one-third, or one-half of the labor which is required by 
the other mode, and the saving in this makes up, and perhaps 
more than makes up, for the increased quantity of forage 
consumed. 

Again, climate may equally affect the mode of winter- 
feeding the stock. The winters may be mild. The hay may 
be stacked in the fields when gathered, or put into small 
barns built for hay storage alone ; and the manure, scattered 
over the fields by the cattle, as *hey are fed from either of 
them, may be knocked to pieces with the dung-beetle, in the 
spring, or harrowed and bushed over the ground ; and with 
the very small quantity of labor required in all this, such 
practice will be more economical than any other which can 
be adopted. 

In latitudes, however, in which it becomes necessary to 
stall-feed during several months of the year, barns are indis- 
pensable. These should be warm, and at the same time well 
ventilated. The barn should be arranged in a manner suita- 
ble to keeping hay and other fodder dry and sweet, and with 
reference to the comfort and health of the animals, and the 
economy of labor and manure. The size and finish will, of 
course, depend on the wants and means of the farmer or 
dairyman ; but many little conveniences, it should not be 
forgotten, can be added at comparatively trifling cost. 

The accompanying cut of a barn is given merely as an 
illustration of a convenient arrangement for a medium-sized 
dairy, and not as being adapted to all circumstances or situa- 
tions. This barn is supposed to stand upon a side-hill or an 
inclined surface, where it is easy to have a cellar, if desired ^ 



150 



CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 



and the cattle-room, as shown in the cut, is in the second 
story, or directly over the cellar, the bottom of which should 



n ' H t 



|5^ 



Sk 



rft m r© qi rft 



-H- HI-* r 



••^ 



_iji o n 



rJSjr^l^ 



^i 



►^ 



be somewhat dished, or lower in the middle than around the 
outer sides, and carefully paved, or laid in cement. 



THE BARN. 151 

On the outside is represented an open shed, m, for carts 
and wagons to remain under cover, thirty feet by fifteen, 
while I II II I are bins for vegetables, to be filled through 
scuttles from the floor of the story above, and surrounded by 
solid walls. The area of this whole floor equals one hundred 
feet by fifty-seven, k, is an open space, nearly on a level 
with the cow-chamber, through the door p. s, stairs to the 
third story and to the cellar, ddd, passage next to the 
walls, five feet wide, and nine inches above the dung-pit 
e e e, dung-pit, two feet wide, and seven inches below the 
floor where the cattle stand. The manure drops from this 
pit into the cellar below,, five feet from the walls, and. quite 
around the cellar, c c c, plank floor for cows, four feet six 
inches long. 6 6 6, stalls for three yoke of oxen, on a platform 
five feet six inches long, n n, calf-pens, which may also be 
used for cows in calving, rr, feeding-troughs for calves. 
The feeding-boxes are made in the form of trays, with parti- 
tions between them. "Water comes in by a pipe, to cistern a. 
This cistern is regulated by a cock and ball, and the water 
flows by dotted lines, ooo, to the boxes ; each box being 
connected by lead pipes well secured from frost, so that, if 
desired, each animal can be watered without leaving the 
stall, or water can be kept constantly before it. A scuttle, 
through which sweepings and refuse may be put into the 
cellar, is seen at /. gr is a bin receiving cut hay froni the 
third story, or hay -room, h hhhh h, bins for grain-feed. 
lis a tunnel to conduct manure or muck from the hay-floor 
to the cellar, jj, sliding-doors on wheels. The cows all 
face toward the open area in the centre. 

This cow-room may be furnished with a thermometer, 



152 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

clock, etc., and should always be well ventilated by sliding 
•windows, which at the same time admit the light. 

The next; cut is a transverse section of the same cow-room ; 
a being a walk behind the cows, five feet wide ; 6, dung-pit ; 
c, cattle-stand ; d, feeding-trough, with a bottom on a level 



TRANSVERSE SECTION. 

with the platform where the cattle stand ; k, open area, forty- 
three feet, by fifty-six. 

The story above the cow-room — as represented in the next 
cut — is one hundred feet by forty-two ; the bays for hay, ten 
on each side, being ten feet front and fifteen feet deep ; and 
the open space, p, for the entrance of wagons, carts, etc., 
twelve feet wide. &, hay-scales, c, scale beam, m m m m m ni, 
ladders reaching almost to the roof. 1 1 1, etc., scuttle-holes 
for sending vegetables directly to the bins. III, etc., below. 
a abb, rooms on the corners for storage, d, scuttles ; four 
of which are used for straw, one for cut hay, and one for 
muck for the cellar, n and the other small squares are 
eighteen-feet posts. /, passage to the tool-house, a room 
one hundred feet long by eighteen wide, o, stairs leading to 
the scaffold in the roof of the tool-house, i i, benches, g, 
floor, h, boxes for hoes, shovels, spades, picks, iron bars, 
old iron, etc. jjj, bins for fruit, k, scuttles to put apples 
into wagons, etc., in the shed below. One side of this tool- 
house may be used for plows and large implements, hay- 
rigging, harness, etc. 

Proper ventilation of the cellar and the cow-room avoids 



THE BARN. 



153 



the objection that the hay is liable to injury from noxious 
gases. 



5^ 






G 



D ■ 



80 



n 



.n 



^ 



n 



Q ft 



ri n 



n 



1 — 



c 



The excellent manure-cellar beneath this barn extends only 



154 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

under the cow-room. It has a drive-way through doors on 
each side. No barn-cellar should be kept shut up tight, 
even in cold weather. The gases are constantly escaping 
from the manure, unless held by absorbents, which are liable 
not only to affect the health of the stock, but also to injure 
the quality of the hay. To prevent this, while securing the 
important advantages of a manure-cellar, the barn may be 
furnished with good-sized ventilators on the top, for every 
twenty-five feet of its length, and with wooden tubes leading 
from the cellar to the top. 

There should also be windows on different sides of the 
cellar to admit the free circulation of air. With these pre- 
cautions, together with the use of absorbents in the shape of 
loam and muck, there will be no danger of rotting the 
timbers of the barn, or of risking the health of the cattle or 
the quality of the hay. 

The temperature at which the cow-room should be kept is 
somewhere from fifty to sixty degrees, Fahrenheit. The 
practice and the opinions of successful dairymen differ some- 
what on this point. Too great heat would affect the health 
and appetite of the herd ; while too low a temperature is 
equally objectionable, for various reasons. 

The most economical plan for room in tying cattle in their 
stalls, is to fasten the rope or chain, whichever is used — the 
wooden stanchion, or stanchel, as it is called, to open and 
shut, enclosing the animal by the neck, being objectionable— 
into a ring, which is secured by a strong staple into a post. 
This prevents the cattle from interfering with each other, 
while a partition effectually prevents any contact from the 
animals on each side of it, in the separate stalls. 



iNnLiaNG. 155 

There is no greater benefit for cattle, after coming into 
winter-quarters, than a systematic regularity in every thing 
pertaining to them. Every animal should have its own 
particular stall in the stable, where it should always be kept. 
The cattle should be fed and watered at certain fixed hours 
of the day, as near as may be. If let out of the stables for 
water, unless the weather is very pleasant — when they may 
be permitted to lie out for a short time — they should be 
immediately put back, and not allowed to range about with 
the outside cattle. They are more quiet and contented in 
their stables than elsewhere, and waste less food than if 
permitted to run out ; besides being in every way more 
comfortable, if properly bedded and attended to, as every 
one will find upon trial. The habit which many farmers 
have, of turning their cattle out of the stables in the morning, 
in all weathers — letting them range about in a cold yard, 
hooking and annoying each other — is of no possible benefit, 
unless it be to rid them of the trouble of cleaning the stables, 
which pays more than twice its cost in the saving of manure. 
The outside cattle, which occupy the yard — if there are any 
— are all the better that the stabled ones do not interfere 
with them. They become habituated to their own quarters, 
as do the others, and all are better for being, respectively, in 
their proper places. 



MILKING. 

The manner of milking exerts a more pow^erful and lasting 
influence on the productiveness of the cow than most farmers 
are awar*. That a slow and careless milker soon dries up 
the best of ccvs, every practical farmer and dairyman knows ; 



156 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

but a careful examination of the beautiful structure of the 
udder will serve further to explain the proper mode of milk- 
ing, in order to obtain and keep up the largest yield. 

The udder of a cow consists of four glands, disconnected 
from each other, but all contained within one bag or cellular 
membrane ; and these glands are uniform in structure. Each 
gland consists of three parts: the glandular, or secreting 
part, tubular or conducting part, and the teals, or receptacle, 
or receiving part. The glandular forms by far the largest 
portion of the udder. It appears to the naked eye composed 
of a mass of yellowish grains ; but under the microscope 
these grains are found to consist entirely of minute blood- 
vessels forming a compact plexus, or fold. These vessels 
secrete the milk from the blood. The milk is abstracted from 
the blood in the glandular part; the tubes receive and deposit 
it in the reservoir, or receptacle ; and the sphincter at the end 
of the teat retains it there until it is wanted for use. 

This must not be understood, however, as asserting that 
all the milk drawn from the udder at one milking is contained 
in the receptacle. The milk, as it is secreted, is conveyed to 
the receptacle, and when that is full, the larger tubes begin 
to be filled, and next the smaller ones, until the whole 
become gorged. When this takes place, the secretion of the 
milk ceases, and absorption of the thinner or more watery 
part commences. Now, as this absorption takes place more 
readily in the smaller or more distant tubes, it is, invariably 
found that the milk from these, which comes last into the 
receptacle, is much thicker and richer than what was first 
drawn off. This milk has been significantly styled afterings, 
or strippings; and should this gorged state of the tubes be 



MILKING. 151 

permitted to continue beyond a certain time, serious mischief 
will sometimes occur ; the milk becomes too thick to flow 
through the tubes, and soon produces, first irritation, then 
inflammation, and lastly suppuration, and the function of the 
gland is materially impaired or altogether destroyed. Hence 
the great importance of emptying these smaller tubes regu- 
larly and thoroughly, not merely to prevent the occurrence 
of disease, but actually to increase the quantity of milk ; for, 
so long as the smaller tubes are kept free, milk is constantly 
forming; but whenever, as has already been mentioned, they 
become gorged, the secretion of milk ceases until they are 
emptied. The cow herself has no power over the sphincter 
at the end of her teat, so as to open it, and relieve the over- 
charged udder ; neither has she any power of retaining the 
milk collected in the reservoirs when the spasm of the 
sphincter is overcome. 

Thus is seen the necessity of drawing away the last drop 
of milk at every milking ; and the better milker the cow, the 
more necessary this is. What has been said demonstrates, 
also, the impropriety of holding the milk in cows until the 
udder is distended much beyond its ordinary size, for the 
sake of showing its capacity for holding milk — a device to 
which many dealers in cows resort. 

Thus much of the internal structure of the udder. Its 
external form requires attention, because it indicates differen 
properties. Its form should be spheroidal, large, giving an 
idea of capaciousness ; the bag should have a soft, fine skin, 
and the hind part upward toward the tail be loose and elastic. 
There should be fine, long hairs scattered plentifully over the 
surface, to keep it warm. The teats should not seem to be 



158 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

contracted, or funnel-shaped, at the inset with the bag. In 
the former state, teats are very apt to become corded, or 
spindled ; and in the latter, too much milk will constantly 
be pressing on the lower tubes, or receptacle. They should 
drop naturally from the lower parts of the bag, being neither 
too short, small, or dumpy, or long, flabby, and thick, but, 
perhaps, about three inches in length, and so thick as just to 
fill the hand. They should hang as if all the quarters of the 
udder were equal in size, the front quarters projecting a little 
forward, and the hind ones a little more dependent. Each 
quarter should contain about equal quantities of milk ; 
though, in the belief of some, the hind quarters contain rather 
the most. 

Largely developed milk-veins — as the subcutaneous veins 
along the under part of the abdomen are commonly called — 
are regarded as a source of milk. This is a popular error, 
for the milk-vein has no connection with the udder; yet, 
although the office of these is to convey the blood from the 
fore part of the chest and sides to the inguinal vein, yet a 
large milk-vein certainly indicates a strongly developed vas- 
cular system — one favorable to secretions generally, and to 
that of the milk among the rest. 

Milking is performed in two ways, stripping and handling. 
Slripinng consists in seizing the teat firmly near the root 
between the face of the thumb and the side of the fore-finger, 
the length of the teat passing through the other fingers, and 
in milking the hand passes down the entire lengtli of the 
teat, causing the milk to flow out of its point in a forcible 
stream. The action is renewed by again quickly elevating 
the hand to the root of the teat. Both hands are employed 



MILKING. 



159 



at the operation, each haviog hold of a different teat, and 
being moved alternately. The two nearest teats are coui- 
monl}" first milked, and then the two farthest. Handling is 
done bj grasping the teat at its root with the fore-finger like 
a hoop, assisted by the thumb, which lies horizontally over 
the fore-finger, the rest being also seized by the other fingers. 
Milk is drawn by pressing upon the entire length of the teat 
in alternate jerks with the entire palm of the hand. Both 
hands being thus employed, are made to press alternately, 
but so quickly following each other that the alternate streams 
of milk sound to the ear like one forcible, continued stream. 
This continued stream is also produced by stripping. Strip- 
ping, then, is performed by pressing and passing certain 
fingers along the teat ; handling, by the whole hand doubled, 
or fist, pressing the teat steadily at one place. Hence the 
origin of both 
names. 

Of these two 
modes, hand- 
ling is the pre- 
ferable, since 
it is the more ^ 
natural method 
— imitating, as 
it does, the 

suckling of the the preferable method. 

calf. "When a calf takes a teat into its mouth, it makes the 
tongue and palate by which it seizes it, play upon the teat 
by alternate pressures or pulsations, while retaining the teat 
in the same position. It is thus obvious that handling is 




160 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

somewhat like sucking, whereas stripping is not at all like 
it. It is said that stripping is good for agitating the udder, 
the agitation of which is conducive to the withdrawal of a 
large quantity of milk ; but there is nothing to prevent the 
agitation of the udder as much as the dairymaid pleases, 
while holding in the other mode. Indeed, a more constant 
vibration could be kept up in that way by the vibrations of 
the arms than by stripping. Stripping, by using an uncon- 
strained pressure on two sides of the teat, is much more 
apt to press it unequally, than by grasping the whole teat 
in the palm of the hand ; while the friction occasioned by 
passing the finger and thumb firmly over the outside of the 
teat, is more likely to cause heat and irritation in it than a 
steady and full grasp of the entire hand. To show that this 
friction causes an unpleasant feeling even to the dairymaid, 
she is obliged to lubricate the teat frequently with milk, and 
to wet it at first with water ; whereas the other mode requires 
no such expedients. And as a further proof that stripping is 
a mode of milking which may give pain to the cow, it cannot 
be employed, when the teats are chapped, with so much ease 
to the cow as handling. 

The first requisite in the person that milks is, of course, 
the utmost cleanliness. Without this, the milk is unendura- 
ble. The udder should, therefore, be carefully cleaned before 
the milking commences. 

Milking should be done/as^, to draw away the milk as quickly 
as possible, and it should be continued as long as there is a 
drop of milk to bring away. This is an issue which cannot 
be attended to in too particular a manner. If any milk is 
left, it is re-absorbed into the system, or else becomes caked, 



MILKING. 161 

and diminishes the tendency to secrete a full quantity after- 
ward. Milking as dry as possible is especially necessary 
with young cows with their first calf; as the mode of milking 
and the length of time to which they can be made to hold 
out, will have very much to do with their milking qualities 
as long as they live. Old milk left in the receptacle of the 
teat soon changes into a curdy state, and the caseous matter 
not being at once removed by the next milking, is apt to 
irritate the lining membrane of the teat' during the operation, 
especially when the teat is forcibly rubbed down between the 
fmger and thumb in stripping. The consequence of this 
repeated irritation is the thickening of the lining membrane, 
which at length becomes so hardened as to close up the 
orifice at the end of the teat. The hardened membrane may 
be easily felt from the outside of the teat, when the teat is 
said to be corded. After this the teat becomes deaf, as it is 
called, and no more milk can afterward be drawn from the 
quarter of the udder to which the corded teat is attached. 

The milking-pail is of various forms and of various 
materials. The Dutch use brass ones, which are brilliantly 
scoured every time they are in use. Tin pitchers are used in 
some places, while pails of wood in cooper-work are em- 
ployed in others. A pail of oak, having thin staves bound 
together by bright iron hoops, with a handle formed by a 
stave projecting upward, is convenient for the purpose, and 
may be kept clean and sweet. One nine inches in diameter 
at the bottom, eleven inches at the top, and ten inches deep, 
Avith an upright handle or leg of five inches, has a capacious 
enough rnouth to receive the milk as it descends ; and a 
sufficient height, when standing on the edge of its bottom en 
11 



162 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

the ground, to allow the dairy-maid to grasp it firmly with 
her knees while sitting on a small three-legged stool. Of 
course, such a pail cannot be milked full ; but it should be 
large enough to contain all the milk which a single cow can 
ive at a milking ; because it is undesirable to rise from a 
ow before the milking is finished, or to exchange one dish 
for another while the milking is in progress. 

The cow being a sensitive and capricious creature, is, 
oftentimes so easily offended that if the maid rise from her 
before the milk is all withdrawn, the chances are that she will 
not again stand quietly at that milking ; or, if the vessel used 
in milking is taken away and another substituted in its 
place, before the milking is finished, the probability is that 
she will hold her milk — that is, not allow it to flow. This is 
a curious property which cows possess, of holding up or 
keeping back their milk. How it is effected has never been 
satisfactorily ascertained; but there is no doubt of the fact 
that when a cow becomes irritated, or frightened from any 
cause, she can withhold her milk. Of course, all cows are 
not affected in the same degree ; but, as a proof how sensi- 
tive cows generally are, it may be mentioned that very few 
will be milked so freely by a stranger the first time, as by one 
to whom they have been accustomed. 

There is one side of a cow which is usually called the 
milking side — that is the cow's left side — because, somehow, 
custom has established the practice of milking her from that 
side. It may have been ,adopted for two reasons : one, 
because we are accustomed to approach all the larger domes- 
ticated animals iby what we call the near side — that is, the 
animal's left side — as beinff the most convenient one for 



ivnLKiNa. 163 

ourselves ; and the other reason may have been, that, as 
most people are right-handed, and the common use of the 
right hand has made it the stronger, it is most conveniently 
employed in milking the hinder teats of the cow, which are 
often most difficult to reach on account of the position of the 
hind legs and the length of the hinder teats, or of the breadth 
of the hinder part of the udder. The near side is most 
commonly used in this country and in Scotland ; but in many 
parts of England the other side is preferred. Whichever side 
is selected, that should uniformly be used, as cows are very 
sensitive to changes. 

In Scotland it is a rare thing to see a cow milked by any 
other person than a woman, though men are very commonly 
employed at it in this country and in England. One never 
sees a man milking a cow without being impressed with the 
idea that he is usurping an office which does not become him ; 
and the same thought seems to be conveyed in the terms 
usually applied to the person connected with cows — a dairy- 
maid Implying one who milks cows, as well as performs the 
other duties connected with the dairy — a dairy-wan meaning 
one who owns a dairy. There can be but little question that 
the charge of this branch of the dairy should generally be 
entrusted to women. They are more gentle and winning 
than men. The same person should milk the same cow 
regularly, and not change from one to another, unless there 
are special reasons for it. 

Cows are easily rendered troublesome on being milked ; 
and the kicks and knocks which they usually receive for their 
restlessness, only render them more fretful. If they cannot 
be overcome by kindness, thumps will never make thea. 



164 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

better. The trutli is, restless habits are continued in Iheni 
by the treatment which thej receive at first, when, most 
probably, they have been dragooned into submission. 
Their teats are tender at first; but an unfeeling, horny 
hand tugs at them at stripping, as if the animal had been 
accustomed to the operation for years. Can the creature be 
otherwise than uneasy ? And how can she escape the win- 
cing but by flinging out her heels ? — Then hopples are placed 
on the hind fetlocks, to keep her heels down. The tail 
must then be held by some one, while the milking is going 
on ; or the hair of its tuft be converted into a double cord, to 
tie the tail to the animal's leg. Add to this the many threats 
and scoldings uttered by the milker, and one gets a not very 
exaggerated impression of the " breaking-in." 

Some cows, ho doubt, are very unaccomodating and pro- 
voking ; but, nevertheless, nothing but a rational course 
toward them, administered with gentleness, will ever render 
them less so There are cows which are troublesome to milk 
for a few times after calving, that become quite quiet for the 
remainder of the season ; others will kick pertinaciously at 
the first milking. In this last case the safest plan — instead 
of hoppling, which only irritates — is for the dairy-maid to 
thrust her head against the flank of the cow, and while stand- 
ing on her feet, stretch her hands forward, get hold of the teats 
the best way she can, and send the milk on the ground ; and 
in this position it is out of the power of the cow to hurt her. 
These ebullitions of feeling at the first milking after calving, 
arise either from feeling pain in a tender state of the teat, 
most probably from inflammation in the lining membrane of 
the receptacle ; or they may arise from titillation of the skin 



IkHLKING. 165 

of the udder and teat, which becomes the more sensible Co the 
affection from a heat which is wearing off. 

At the age of two or tliree years the milking glands have 
not become fully developed, and their largest development 
will depend very greatly upon the management after the first 
calf. Cows should have, therefore, the most milk-producing 
food ; be treated with constant gentleness ; never struck, or 
spoken harshly to, but coaxed and caressed ; and in ninety- 
nine cases out of a hundred, they will grow up gentle and 
quiet. The hundredth had better be fatted and sent to the 
butcher. Harshness is worse than useless. Be the cause of 
irritation what it may, one thing is certain, that gentle 
discipline will overcome the most turbulent temper. Nothing 
does so much to dry a cow up, especially a young cow, as the 
senseless treatment to which she is too often subjected. 

The longer the young cow, with her first and second caif, 
is made to hold out, the more surely will this habit be fixed 
upon her. Stop milking her four months before the next 
calf, and it will be difficult to make her hold out to within 
four or six weeks of the time of calving afterward. Induce 
her, if possible, by moist and succulent food, and by careful 
milking, to hold out even up to the time of calving, if you 
desire to milk her so long, and this habit will be likely to be 
fixed upon her for life. But do not expect to obtain the full 
yield of a cow the first year after calving. Some of the very 
best cows are slow to develop their best qualities ; and no 
cow reaches her prime till the age of five or six years. 

The extreme importance of care and attention to these 
points cannot be overestimated. The wild cows grazing on 
the plains of South America, .are said to give not more than 



166 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

three or four quarts a day at the height of the flow ; and 
many an owner of large herds in Texas, it is said, has 
too little milk for family use, and sometimes receives his 
supply of butter from the New York market. There is, 
therefore, a constant tendency in milch cows to dry up ; and 
it must be guarded against with special care, till the habit of 
yielding a large quantity, and yielding it long, becomes fixed 
in the young animal, when, with proper care, it may easily be 
kept up. 

Cows, independently of their power to retain their milk in 
the udder, afford different degrees of pleasure in milking them, 
even in the quietest mood. . Some yield their milk in a 
copious flow, with the gentlest handling that can be given 
them ; others require great exertion to draw the milk 
from them even in streams no larger than a thread. The 
udder of the former will be found to have a soft skin and 
short teats ; that of the latter will have a thick skin, with 
long rough teats. The one feels like velvet ; the other is no 
more pleasant to the touch than untanned leather. To induce 
quiet and persuade the animal to give down her milk freely, 
it is better that she should be fed at milking-time with cut 
feed, or roots, placed within her easy reach. 

If gentle and mild treatment is obsei-ved and persevered in, 
the operation of milking, as a general thing, appears to be a 
pleasure to the animal, as it undoubtedly is ; but, if an 
opposite course is pursued — if at every restless movement, 
caused, perhaps, by pressing a sore teat, the animal is 
harshly spoken to — she will be likely to learn to kick as a 
habit, and it will be difficult to overcome it ever afterward. 

Whatever may be the practice on other occasions, there can 



THE RAISING OP CALVES. 



167 



be no doubt that, for some weeks after calving, and in the 
height of the flow, cows ought, if possible, to be milked regu- 
larly three times a day — at early morning, noon, and night. 
Every practical dairyman knows that cows thus milked give 
a larger quantity of milk than if milked only twice, though it 
may not be quite so rich ; and in young cows, no doubt, it 
has a tendency to promote the development of the udder and 
milk-veins. A frequent milking stimulates an increased 
secretion, therefore, and ought never to be neglected in the 
milk-dairy, either in tlie case of young cows, or very large 
milkers, at the height of the flow, which will commonly be 
for two or three months after calving. 

There being a great difference in the quality as veil as in 
the quantity of the milk of different cows, no dairyman 
should neglect to test the milk of each new addition to his 
dairy stock, whether it be an animal of his own raising or 
one brought from abroad. A lactometer — or instrument for 
testing the comparative richness of different species of milk 
■ — is very convenient for this purpose ; but any one can set 
the milk of each cow separately at first, and give it a thorough 
trial, when the difference will be found to be great. Economy 
will dictate that the cows least to the purpose should be dis- 
posed of, and their places supplied with better ones. 



THE RAISING OF CALVES. 

It has been found in practice that calves properly bred and 
raised on the farm have a far greater intrinsic value for that 
farm, other things being equal, than any that can be pro- 
cured elsewhere ; while ©n the manner in which they are 
raised will depend much of their future usefulness and profit. 



168 



CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 



Tliese considerations should have their proper weight in 
deciding whether a promising calf from a good cow and bull 
shall be kept, or sold to the butcher. But, rather than raise 
a calf at hap-hazard, and simply because its dam was cele- 
brated as a milker, the judicious farmer will prefer to judge 
of the peculiar characteristics of the animal itself. This will 
often save the great and useless outlay which has sometimes 
been incurred in raising calves for dairy purposes, which a 
more careful examination would have rejected as unpromising. 
The method of judging stock which has been recommended 
in the previous pages is of practical utility here, and it is 
safer to rely upon it to some extent, jiarticularly when other 
appearances concur, than to go on blindly. The milk-mirror 
on the calf is, indeed, small, but no smaller in proportion to 
its size than that of the cow ; while its shape and form can 
generally be distinctly seen, particularly at the end of ten 

or twelve weeks. 
'^^ The development 
of the udder, and 
other peculiari- 
ties, will give 
~I^^ some indication 
^^ of the future ca- 
'^''^^ pacities of the 
animal, and these 
should be care- 
fully studied. If 
we except the 
manure of young stock, the calf is the first product of the 
cow, and as such demands our attention, whether it is to be 




MATERNAL AFFECTION. 



THE BAISING OF CALYES. 169 

raised' or hurried off to tlie shambles. The practice adopted 
in raising calves differs widely in different sections of th'» 
country, being governed very much by local circumstances, 
as the vicinity of a milk-market, the value of milk for the 
dairy, the object of breeding, whether mainly for beef, for 
work, or for the dairy, etc. ; but, in general, it may be said, 
that, within the range of thirty or forty miles of good veal- 
markets, which large towns fui-nish, comparatively few are 
raised at all. Most of them are fattened and sold at ages 
varying from thi«ee to eight or ten weeks ; and in milk-dairies 
still nearer large towns and cities they are often hurried off 
at one or two days, or, at most, a week old. In both of 
these cases, as long as the calf is kept it is generally allowed 
to suck the cow, and, as the treatment is very simple, there 
is nothing which particularly calls for remark, unless it be to 
condemn the practice entirely, upon the ground that there is 
a more profitable way of fattening calves for the butcher, and 
to say that allowing the calf to suck the cow at all is objec- 
tionable on the score of economy, except in cases where it is 
rendered necessary by the hard and swollen condition of the 
udder. 

If the calf is so soon to be taken away, it is better that the 
cow should not be suffered to become attached to it at all ; 
since she is inclined to withhold her milk when it is removed, 
and thus a loss is sustained. The farmer will be governed 
by the question of profit, whatever course it is decided to 
adopt. In raising blood-stock, however, or in raising beef 
cattle, without any regard to economy of milk, the system of 
suckling the calves, or letting them run with the cow, may 



170 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

and will be adopted, since it is usually attended with some- 
what less labor. 

The other course, which is regarded as the best wbere the 
calf is to be raised for the dairy, is to bring it up by hand. 
This is almost universally done in all countries where the 
I'aising of dairy cows is best understood — in Switzerland, 
Holland, some parts of Germany, and England. It requires 
rather more care, on the whole ; but it is decidedly preferable, 
since the calves cost less, as the food can be easily modified, 
an(J the growth is not checked, as is usually the case when 
the calf is taken oS from the cow. Allusion is here made; of 
course, to sections where the milk of the cow is of some 
account for the dairy, and where it is too valuable to be 
devoted entirely to nourishing the calf In this case, as soon 
as the calf is dropped the cow is allowed to hck off the 
slimy moisture till it is dry, which she will generally do from 
instinct, or, if not, a slight sprinkling of salt over the body 
of the calf will immediately tempt her. The calf is left to 
* suck once or twice, which it will do as soon as it is able to 
stand. It should, in all cases, be permitted to have the first 
milk which comes from the cow, which is of a turbid, yellow- 
ish color, unfit for any of the purposes of the dairy, but 
somewhat purgative and medicinal, and admirably and wisely 
designed by Nature to free the bowels and intestines of the 
new-born animal from the mucous, excrementitious matter 
always existing in it after birth. Too much of this new milk 
may, however, be hurtful even to the new-born calf, while it 
should never be given at all to older calves. The best course 
would seem to be — and such is in accordance with the expe- 
rience of the most successful stock-raisers — to milk the cow 



THE RAISING OP CALVES, ITl 

dry immediately after the calf has sucked once, especially if 
the udder is painfully distended, which is often the case, and 
to leave the calf with the cow during one day, and after that 
to feed it by putting the fingers into its mouth, and gently 
bringing its muzzle down to the milk in a pail or trough 
when it will imbibe in sucking the fingers. No great dififi- 
culty will be experienced in teaching the calf to drink when 
taken so young, though some take to it much more readily 
than others. What the calf does not need should be given 
to the cow. Some, however, prefer to milk immediately 
after calving ; and, if the udder is overloaded, this may be 
the best course, though the better practice appears to be, to 
leave the cow as quietly to herself as possible for a few 
hours. The less she is disturbed, as a general thing, the 
better. The after-birth should be taken from her immediately 
after it is dropped. It is customary to give the cow, as soon 
as convenient after calving, some warm and stimulating 
drink — a little meal stirred into warm water, with a part of 
the first milk which comes from her, seasoned with a little 
salt. 

In many cases the calf is taken from the cow immediately; 
and before she has seen it, to a warm, dry pen out of her 
sight, and there rubbed till it is thoroughly dry ; and then, 
when able to stand, fed with the new milk from the cow, 
which it should have three or four times a day, regularly, foi 
the first fortnight, whatever course it is proposed to adopt 
afterwards. It is of the greatest importance to give the 
young calf a thrifty start. The milk, unless coming directly 
from the cow, should be warmed. 

Some object to removing the calf from the cow in this way, 



172 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

on the ground of its apparent cruelty. But the objection to 
letting the calf suck the cow for several clays, as they do, or 
indeed of leaving it with the cow for any length of time, is, 
that she invariably becomes attached to it, and frets and 
withholds her milk when it is at last taken from her. She 
probably suffers much more, after this attachment is once 
formed, at the removal of the object of it, than she does at 
its being taken at first out of her sight. The cow's memory 
is far more retentive than many suppose ; and the loss and 
injury sustained by removing the calf after it has been 
allowed to suck her for a longer or shorter period are never 
known exactly, because it is not usually known how much 
milk the calf takes ; but it is, without doubt, very considera- 
ble. If the udder is all right, there seems to be no good 
reason for leaving the calf with the cow for* two or three 
days, if it is then to be taken away. 

The practice in Holland is to remove the calf from its 
mother even before it has been licked, and to take it into a 
corner of the barn, or into another building, out of the cow's 
sight and hearing, put it on soft, dry straw, and rub it dry 
with some hay or straw, when its tongue and gums are 
slightly rubbed with salt, and the mucus and saliva removed 
from the nostrils and lips. After this has been done, the 
calf is made to drink the milk first taken as it comes from 
the mother. It is slightly diluted with water, if taken last 
from the udder ; but, if the first of the milking, it is given 
just as it is. The calf is taught to drink in the same manner 
as in this country, by putting the fingers in its mouth, and 
bringing it down to the milk, and it soon gets so as to drink 
unaided It is fed, at first, from four to six times a day, or 



THE RAISING OF CALVES. 173 

even oftener; but soon only three times, at regular intervals.. 
Its food for two or three weeks is clear milk, as it comes 
warm and fresh from the cow. This is never omitted, as the 
milk during most of that timfe possesses certain qualities 
which are necessary to the calf, and which cannot be effectu 
ally supplied by any other food. In the third or fourth week 
the milk is skimmed, but warmed to the degree of fresh milk ; 
though, as the calf grows a little older, the milk is given cold, 
while less care is taken to give it the milk of its own mother, 
that of other cows now answering equally well. In some 
places, calves are fed on buttermilk at the age of two weeks 
and after ; but the change from new milk, fresh from the cow, 
is made gradually, some sweet skimmed milk and warm 
water being first added to it. 

At three weeks old, or thereabouts, the calf will begin to 
eat a little sweet, fine hay, and potatoes cut fine, and it very 
soon becomes accustomed to this food. Many now begin to 
give linseed-meal mixed into hot water, to which is added 
some skim-milk or buttermilk ; and others use a little bran 
cooked in hay-tea, made by chopping the hay fine and pouring 
on boiling-hot water, which is allowed to stand awhile on it. 
An egg is frequently broken into such a mixture. Others 
still take pains at this age to have fresh linseed-cake, broken 
into pieces of the size of a pigeon's egg ; putting one of these 
into the mouth after the meal of milk has been finished, and 
when it is eager to suck at any thing, in its way. It will 
very soon learn to eat linseed-meal. A little sweet clover is 
put in its way at the age of about three weeks, and it will 
soon begin to eat that also. 

In this manner the feeding is continued from the fourth to 



174 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

the seventh week, the quantity of solid food being gradually 
increased. In the sixth or seventh week the milk is by 
degrees withheld, and water or buttermilk used instead ; and 
soon after this, green food nmy be safely given, increasing it 
gradually with the hay to the age of ten or twelve weeks, 
when it will do to put them upon grass alone, if the season 
is favorable. A lot as near the house as possible, where 
they can be easily looked after and frequently visited, is the 
best. Calves should be gradually accustomed to all changes ; 
and even after having been turned out to pasture, they ought 
to be put under shelter if the weather is not dry and warm. 
The want of care and attention relative to these little details 
will be apparent sooner or later ; while, if the farmer gives 
his personal attention to these matters, he will be fully paid 
in the rapid growth of his calves. It is especially necessary 
to see that the troughs from which they are fed, if troughs 
are used, are kept clean and sweet, ^ v 

But there are some — even among intelligent farmers — who 
make a practice of turning their calves out to pasture at the 
tender age of two or three weeks — and that, too, when they 
have sucked the cow up to that time — and allow them 
nothing in the shape of milk and tender care. This, certainly, 
is the poorest possible economy, to say nothing of the mani- 
fest cruelty of such treatment. The growth of the calf is 
checked, and the system receives a shock from so sudden a 
change, from which it cannot soon recover. The careful 
Dutch breeders bring the calves either skimmed milk or 
buttermilk to drink several times a day after they are turned 
to grass, which is not till the age of ten or twelve weeks ; 
and, if the weather is chilly, the milk is warmed for them. 



THE KAISING OF CALVES. 175 

They put a trougli generally under a covering, to which the 
calves may come and drink at regular times. Thus, they 
are kept tame and docile. 

In the raising of calves, through all stages of their growth, 
great care should be taken neither to starve nor to over-feed. 
A calf should never be surfeited, and never be fed so highly 
that it cannot be fed more highly as it advances. The most 
important part is to keep it growing thriftily without getting 
too fat, if it is to be raised for the dairy. 

The calves in the dairy districts of Scotland are fed on the 
milk, with seldom any admixture ; and they are not permitted 
to suck their dams, but are taught to drink milk by the 
hand from a dish. They are generally fed on milk only for 
the first four, five, or six weeks, and are then allowed from 
two to two and a half quarts of new milk each meal, twice 
in the twenty-four hours. Some never give them any other 
food when young except milk, lessening the quantity when 
the calf begins to eat grass or other' food, which it generally 
does when about five weeks old, if grass can be had ; and 
withdrawing it entirely about the seventh or eighth week of 
the calf's age. But, if the calf is reared in winter, or early 
in spring, before the grass rises, it must be supplied with at 
least some milk until it is eight or nine weeks old, as a calf 
will not so soon learn to eat hay or straw, nor fare so well on 
hem alone as it will on pasture. Some feed their calves 
reared for stock partly with meal mixed in the milk after 
the third or fourth week. Others introduce gradually some 
new whey into the milk, first mixed with meal ; and, when 
the calf gets older, they withdraw the milk, and feed it on 
whey and porridge. Hay-tea, juices of peas and beans, or 



176 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

pea or bean -straw, linseed beaten into powder, treacle, etc., 
have all been sometimes used to advantage in feeding calves; 
but milk, when it can be spared, is, in the judgment of the 
Scotch breeders, bj far their most natural food. 

In Galloway, and other pastoral districts, where the calve 
are allowed to suck, the people are so much wedded to their 
own customs as to argue that suckling is much more nutri- 
tious to the calves than any other mode of feeding. That it 
induces a greater secretion of saliva, which, by promoting 
digestion, accelerates the growth and fattening of the young 
animal, cannot be doubted ; but the secretion of that fluid 
may likewise be promoted by placing an artificial teat in the 
mouth of the calf, and giving it the milk slowly, and at the 
natural temperature. In the dairy districts of Scotland, the 
dairymaid puts one of her fingers into the mouth of the calf 
when it is fed, which serves the purpose of a teat, and will 
have nearly the same effect as the natural teat in inducing the 
secretion of saliva. If that, or an artificial teat of leather, be 
used, and the milk be given slowly before it is cold, the secre- 
tion of saliva may be promoted to all the extent that can be 
necessary ; besides, secretion is not confined to the mere 
period of eating, but, as in the human body, the saliva is 
formed and part of it swallowed at all times. As part of the 
saliva is sometimes seen dropping from, the mouths of the 
calves, it might be advisable not only to give them an arti- 
ficial teat when fed, but to place, as is frequently done, a lump 
of chalk before them to lick, thus leading them to swallow 
the saliva. The chalk would so far supply the want of salt, 
of which cattle are often so improperly deprived, and it would 
also promote the formation of saliva. Indeed, calves are 



THE RAISING OF CALVES. 



m 




FROLICKSOME. 



very much disposed to lick and suck every thing wliicli comes 
within their reach, which seems to beihe way in which Nature 
teaches them to supply their stomachs with saliva. 

But thougli sucking their dams may be most advantageous 
in that respect, yet it has also some disadvantages. The cow 

is always more 
injured than the 
calf is benefited 
by that mode of 
feeding. She be- 
comes so fond of 
the calf that she 
does not, for a 
long time after, 
yield her milk freely to the dairyman. The calf does not 
when young draw off the milk completely, and when it is 
taken off by the hand, the cow withholds a part of her milk, 
and, whenever a cow's udder is not completely emptied every 
time she is milked, the lactic secretion — as before stated — is 
thereby diminished. 

Feeding of calves by hand is also, in various respects, ad- 
vantageous. Instead of depending on the uncertain, or per- 
haps precarious supply of the 'dam, which may be more at 
first than the young animal can consume or digest, and at 
other times too little for its supply, its food can, by hand- 
feeding, be regulated to suit the age, appetite, and the pur- 
poses for which the calf is intended ; other admixtures or 
substitutes can be introduced into the milk, and the quantity 
gradually increased or withdrawn at pleasure. This is highly 
necessary when the calves are reared for stock. The milk is 
12 



178 



CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES, 



in that case diminished, and other food introduced so gradually 
that the stomach of the young animal is not injured as it is 
when the food is too suddenly changed. And, in the case of 
feeding calves for the butcher, the quantity of milk is not 
limited to that of the dam — for no cow will allow a stranger- 
calf to suck her — but it can be increased, or the richest or 
poorest parts of the milk given at pleasure. ., 

Such are, substantially, the views upon this subject which 
are entertained by the most judicious farmers in the first dairy 
districts of Scotland. 

In those districts — where, probably, the feeding and 
management of calves are as well and as judiciously con- 
ducted as in any other part of Great Britain — the farmers' 
wives and daughters, or the female domestics, have the prin- 
cipal charge of young calves ; and they are, doubtless, much 
better calculated for this duty than men, since they are more 
inclined to be gentle and patient. The utmost gentleness — 
as has been already remarked, in another connection — should 
always be observed in the treatment of all stock ; but 
especially of milch cows, and calves designed for the dairy. 
Persevering kindness and patience, will, almost invariably. 
Overcome the most obstinate natures ; while rough and un- 
gentle handling will be repaid in a quiet kind of way, per- 
haps, by withholding the milk, which will always have a 
tendency to dry up the cow ; or, what is nearly as bad, by 
kicking ana other modes of revenge, which often contribute 
to the personal discomfort of the milker. The disposition of 
the cow is greatly modified, if not, indeed, wholly formed, by 
her treatment while young ; and therefore it is best to handle 
salves as much as possible, and make pets of them, lead them 



THE RAISING OF CALVES. It 9 

with a halter, and caress them in various ways. Calves 
managed in this way will always be docile, and suffer them- 
selves to be approached and handled, both in the pasture and 
in the barn. 

With respect to the use of hay-tea — often used in this 
country, but more common abroad, where greater care and 
attention are usually bestowed upon the details of breeding 
— Youatt says : "At the end of three or four days, or per- 
haps a week, or near a fortnight, after a calf has been dropped, 
and the first passages have been cleansed by allowing it to 
drink as much of the cow's milk as it feels inclined for, let 
the quantity usually allotted for a meal be mixed, consisting, 
for the first week, of three parts of milk and one part of 
hay-tea. The only nourishing infusion of hay is that which 
is made from the best and sweetest hay, cut by a chaff-cutter 
into pieces about two inches long, and put into an earthen 
vessel ; over this, boiling water should be poured, and the 
whole allowed to stand for two hours, during which time it 
ought to be kept carefully closed. After the first week, the 
proportions of milk and hay-tea may be equal ; then com- 
posed of two-thirds of hay-tea and one of milk; and at 
length, one-fourth part of milk will be sufficient. This food 
should be given to the calf in a lukewarm state at least three, 
if not four times a day, in quantities averaging three quarts 
at a meal, but gradually increasing to four quarts as the calf 
grows older. Toward the end of the second month, beside 
the usual quantity given at each meal — composed of three 
parts of the infusion and one of milk — a small wisp or bundle 
of hay is to be laid before the calf, which will gradually come 
to eat it ; but, if the weather is favorable, as in the month of 



180 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

May, the beast may be turned out to graze in a fine, sweet 
pasture, well sheltered from the wind and sun. This diet 
may be continued until toward the latter end of the third 
month, when, if the calf grazes heartily, each meal may be 
reduced to less than a quart of milk, with hay-water ; or 
skimmed milk, or fresh buttermilk, may be substituted for new 
milk. At the expiration of the third month, the animal will 
hardly require to be fed by hand ; though, if this should still 
be necessary, one quart of the infusion given daily — which, 
during the summer, need not be warmed — will suffice." The 
hay-tea should be made fresh every two days, as it soon loses 
its nutritious quality. 

This and other preparations are given, not because they 
are better than milk, — than which nothing is better adapted to 
fatten a calf, or promote its growth, — but simply to economize 
by providing the simplest and cheapest substitutes. Ex- 
perience shows that the first two or three calves are smaller 
than those which follow ; and hence, unless they are 
pure-bred, and to be kept for the blood, they are not 
generally thought to be so desirable to raise for the dairy as 
the third or fourth, and those that come after, up to the age 
of nine or ten years. Opinions upon this point, however, 
differ. 

According to the comparative experiments of a German 
agriculturist, cows which as calves had been allowed to suck 
their dams from two to four weeks, brought calves which 
weighed only from thirty-five to forty-eight pounds ; while 
others, which as calves had been allowed to suck from five to 
eight weeks, brought calves which weighed from sixty to 
eighty pounds. It is difficult to see how there can be so 



THE RAISING OF CALVES. 181 

great a difference, if, indeed, there be any ; but it may be 
worthy of careful observation and experiment, and as such 
it is stated here. The increased size of the calf would be due 
to the increased size to which the cow would attain ; and if 
as a calf she were allowed to run in the pasture with her 
dam for four or five months, taking all the milk she wanted, 
she would doubtless be kept growing on in a thriving con- 
dition. But taking a calf from the cow at four or even eight 
weeks must check its growth to some extent ; and this may 
be avoided by feeding liberally, and bringing up by hand. 

After the calf is fully weaned, there is nothing very pecu- 
liar in the general management. A young animal will 
require for the first few months — say up to the age of six 
months — an average of five or six pounds daily of good hay, 
or its equivalent. At the age of six months, it will require 
from four and a half to five pounds ; and at the end of the 
year, from three and a half or four pounds of good hay, or 
its equivalent, for every one hundred pounds of its live 
weight ; or, in other words, about three and a half or four 
per cent, of its live weight. At two years old, it will re- 
quire three and a half, and some months later, three per cent, 
of its live weight daily in good h^y, or its equivalent. In- 
dian-corn fodder, either green or cured, forms an excellent and 
wholesome food at this age. 

The heifer should not be pampered, nor yet poorly fed or 
half starved, so as to receive a check in her growth. An 
abundant supply of good healthy dairy food and milk will do 
all that is necessary up to the time of her having her first 
calf — which should not ordinarily be till the age of three 
years, though some choose to allow them to cOme in at two, 



182 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

or a little over, on the ground that it early stimulates the 
secretion of milk, and that this will increase the milking 
propensity through life. This is undoubtedly the case, as a 
general rule ; but greater injury is at the same time done by 
checking the growth, unless the heifer has been fed up to large 
size and full development from the start — in which case she 
may perhaps take the bull at fifteen or eighteen months with- 
out injury. Even if a heifer comes in at two years, it is 
generally deemed desirable to let her run barren for the follow- 
ing year, which will promote her growth and more perfect 
development. 

The feeding which young stock often get is not such as is 
calculated to make good-sized or valuable cattle of them. 
They are often fed on the poorest of hay or straw through 
the winter, not infrequently left exposed to cold, unprotected 
and unhoused, and thus stinted in their growth. This is, 
surely, the very worst economy, or rather it is no economy 
at all. Properly viewed, it is an extravagant wastefulness 
which no farmer can afford. No animal develops its good 
points under such treatment ; and if the starving system is to 
be followed at all, it had better be after the age of two or 
three years, when the aninjal's coostitution has attained the 
strength and vigor which may, possibly, enable it to resist ill 
treatment. 

To raise up first-rate milkers, it is absolutely necessary to 
feed on dairy food even when they are young. No matter 
how fine the breed is, if the calf is raised on poor, short feed, 
it will never be so good a milker as if raised on better keep- 
ing ; and hence, in dairy districts, where calves are raised at 
all, they ought to be allowed the best pasture during the 



POINTS OP FAT CATTLE. 183 

summer, and good, sweet and wholesome food during the 
winter. 



POINTS OF FAT CATTLE. 

Whatever theoretical objections may be raised against 
over-fed cattle, and great as may be the attempts to dispar- 
age the mountains of fat, — as highly-fed cattle are sometimes 
designated, — there is no doubt of the practical fact, that the 
best butcher cannot sell any thing but the best fatted beef; 
and of whatever age, size, or shape a half-fatted ox may be, 
he is never selected by judges as fit for human food. Hence, 
a well-fatted animal always commands a better price per 
pound than one imperfectly fed, and the parts selected as the 
primest beef are precisely the parts which contain the largest 
deposits of fat. The rump, the crop, and the sirloin, the 
very favorite cuts, — which always command from twenty to 
twenty-five per cent. mo¥e than any other part of the ox, — 
are just those parts on which the largest quantities of fat are 
found ; so that, instead of the taste and fashion of the age 
being against the excessive fattening of animals, the fact is, 
practically, exactly the reverse. Where there is the most 
fat, there is the best lean ; where there is the greatest amount 
of muscle, without its share of fat, that part is accounted 
inferior, and is used for a different purpose ; in fact, so far 
from fat's being a disease, it is a condition of muscle, neces- 
sary to its utility as food, — a source of luxury to the rich, 
and of comfort to the poor, furnishing a nourishing and 
healthy diet for their families. 

Fattening is a secretive power which grazing animals 
possess, enabling them to lay by a store of the superfluous 



184 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES 

food which they take for seasons of cold or scarcity. It 
collects round the angular bones of the animal, and gives the 
appearance of rotundity ; hence the tendency to deposit fat 
is indicated, as has been stated, by a roundness of form, as 
opposed to the fatness of a milk-secreting animal. But its 
greatest use is, that it is a store of heat-producing aliment, 
laid up for seasons of scarcity and want. The food of 
animals, for the most part, may be said to consist of a sac- 
charine, an oleaginous, and an albuminous principle. To the 
first belong all the starchy, saccharine, and gummy parts of 
the plants, which undergo changes in the digestive organs 
similar to fermentation before they can be assimilated in the 
system ; by them also animal heat is sustained. In indolent 
animals, the oily parts of plants are deposited and laid up as 
fat ; and, when vigor and strength fail, this is taken up and 
also used in breathing to supply the place of the consumed 
saccharine matter. The albuminous, or gelatinous principle 
of plants is mainly useful in forming muscle ; while the 
ashes of plants, the unconsumable jjarts, are for the supply, 
mainly, of bone, hair, and horn, but also of muscle and of 
blood, and to supply the waste which continually goes on. 

Now, there are several qualities which are essentially 
characteristic of a disposition to fatten. There have not, aa 
yet, been any book-rules laid down, as in the case of M. 
Guenou's indications of milking-cows ; but there are, never- 
theless, marks so definite and well understood, that they are 
comprehended and acted upon by every grazier, although 
they are by no means easy to describe. It is by skillful 
acumen that the grazier acquires his knowledge, and not by 
theoretical rules ; observation, judgment, and experience, 



POINTS or FAT CATTLE. 



185 



powerful perceptive faculties, and a keen and minute com- 
parison and discrimination, are essential to his success. 

The first indication upon which he relies, is the touch. It 
is the absolute criterion of quality, which is supposed to be 




POINTS OP CATTI-B. 



the keystone of perfection in aR'animals, whether for the pail 
or the butcher. The skin is so intimately connected with 
the internal organs, in all animals, that it is questionable 
whether even our schools of medicine might not make more 
use of it in a diagnosis of disease. Of physiological tenden- 
cies in cattle, however, it is of the last and most vital im- 
portance. It must neither be thick, nor hard, nor adhere 
firmly to the muscles. If it is so, th6 animal is a hard 
grazer, a difficult and obstinate feeder — no skillful man will 
purchase it — such a creature must go to a novice, and even 
to him at a price so low as to tempt him to become a 
purchaser. On the other hand, the skin must not be thin, 
like paper, nor flaccid, nor loose in the hand, nor flabby. 



186 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

This is the opposite extreme, and is indicative of delicateness, 
bad, flabby flesh, and, possibly, of inaptitude to retain the 
fat. It must be elastic and velvety, soft and pliable, present- 
ing to the touch a gentle resistance, but so delicate as to 
give pleasure to the sensitive hand — a skin, in short, which 
seems at first to give an indentation from the pressure of the 
fingers, but which again rises to its place by a gentle elas- 
ticity. 

The hair is of nearly as much importance as the skin. A 
hard skin will have straight and stiff hair ; it will not have a 
curl, but be thinly and lankly distributed equally over the 
surface. A proper grazing animal will have a mossy coat, 
not absolutely curled, but having a disposition to a graceful 
curl, a semifold, which presents a waving inequality ; but as 
different from a close and straightly-laid coat, as it is from 
one standing off the animal at right angles, a strong symptom 
of disease. It will also, in a thriving animal, be licked here 
and there with its tongue, aproof that the skin is duly per- 
forming its functions. 

There must be, also, the full and goggle eye, bright and 
pressed outward by the fatty bed below; because, as this is a 
part where Nature always provides fat, an animal capable of 
developing it to any considerable extent, will have its indica- 
tions here, at least, when it exists in excess. 

So much for feeding qualities in the animal, and their con- 
formations indicative of this kindly disposition, Next come 
such formations of the animal itself as are favorable to the 
growth of fat, other things being equal. There must be size 
where large weights are expected. Christmas beef, for 
instance, is expected to be large as well as fat. The symbol 



POINTS or FAT CATTLE. 18T 

of festivity should be capacious, as well as prime in quality. 
But it is so much a matter of choice and circumstance with 
the grazier, that profit alone will be his guide. The axiom 
will be, however, as a general rule, that the better the grazing 
soil the larger the animal may be ; the poorer the soil, the 
smaller the animal. Small animals are, unquestionably, 
much more easily fed, and they are well known by experi- 
enced men to be best adapted to second-rate feeding pastures. 

But, beyond this, there must be breadth of carcass. This 
is indicative of fattening, perhaps, beyond all other qualifi- 
cations. If rumps are favorite joints and produce the best 
price, it is best to have the animal which will grow the 
longest, the broadest, and the best rump ; the same of cmp, 
and the same of sirloin ; and not only so, but breadth is 
essential to the consumption of that quantity of food which 
is necessary to the development of a large amount of fat in 
the animal. Thus, a deep, wide chest, favorable for the 
respiratory and circulating functions, enables it to consume 
a large amount of food, to take up the sugary matter, and to 
deposit the fatty matter, — as then useless for respiration, but 
afterwards to be prized. A full level crop will be of the 
same physiological utility ; while a broad and open frame- 
work at the hips will afford scope for the action of the liver 
and kidneys. 

There are other points, also, of much importance ; the 
head must be small and fine ; its special use is indicative of 
the quick fattening of the animal so constructed, and it is 
also indicative of the bones being small and the legs short. 
For constitutional powers, the beast should have his ribs 
extended well towards the thigh-bones or hips, so as to leave 



188 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

as little unprotected space as possible. There must be no 
angular or abrupt points; all must be round, and broad, and 
parallel. Any depression in the lean animal will give a 
deficient deposit of flesh and fat at that point, when sold to 
the butcher, and thus deteriorate its value ; and hence the 
animal must be round and full. 

But either fancy, or accident, or skill — it is unnecessary to 
decide which — has associated symmetry with quality and 
conformation, as a point of great importance in animals 
calculated for fattening ; and there is no doubt that, to a 
certain extent, this is so. The beast must be a system of 
mathematical lines. To the advocate of symmetry, the set- 
ting-on of a tail will be a condemning fault ; indeed the ridge 
of the back, like a straight line, with the outline of the belly 
exactly parallel, viewed from the side, and a depth and 
squareness when viewed from behind, — which remind us of a 
geometrical cube, rather than a vital economy, — may be said 
to be the indications of excellence in a fat ox. The points 
of excellence in such an animal are outlined under the sub- 
sequent head, as developed in the cutting up after slaughter. 

Now, these qualities are inherent in some breeds ; there 
may be cases and instances in all the superior breeds, and in 
most there may be failures. 



DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING. 

It is necessary that cattle which have been disposed of to 
the dealer or butcher, or which are intended to be driven to 
market, should undergo a preparation for the journey. If 
they were immediately put to the road to travel, from feed- 
ing on grass or turnips, when their bowels are full of undi- 



DRIVING AND SLAUGHTEEING. 189 

gested vegetable matter, a scouring might ensue which 
would render them unfit to pursue their journey ; and this 
complaint is the more likely to be brought on from the strong 
propensity which cattle have to take violent exercise upon 
feeling themselves at liberty after a long confinement. They 
in fact, become light-headed whenever they leave the barn o^ 
enclosure, so much so that they actually "frisk and race and 
leap," and their antics would be highly amusing, were it not 
for the apprehension that they may hurt themselves against 
some opposing object, as they seem to regard nothing before 
them. 

On being let out for the first time, cattle should be put for 
awhile into a larger court, or on a road well fenced with 
enclosures, and guarded by men, to romp about. Two or 
three such allowances of liberty will render them quiet ; and, 
in the mean time, to lighten their weight of carcass, they 
should have hay for a large proportion of their food. These 
precautions are absolutely necessary for cattle which have 
been confined in barns ; otherwise, accidents may befall them 
on the road, where they will at once break loose. Even at 
home serious accidents sornetimes overtake them, such as the 
breaking down of a horn, casting off a hoof, spraining a ten- 
don, bruising ribs, and heating the whole body violently ; 
and, of course, when any such ill luck befalls, the animal 
affected must be left behind, and become a drawback upo 
the value of the rest, unless kept for some time longer. 

Having the cattle prepared for travel, the drover takes the 
road very slowly for the first two days, not exceeding seven 
or eight miles a day. At night, in winter, they should be 
put into an open court, and supplied with hay, water> and a 



190 



CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 




FBONTISPIECE. 



very few turnips ; for, if roots are suddenly withdrawn from 
them, — since it is taken for granted that these have formed a 

staple portion of their food, — 
their bellies will become 
shrunken up into smaller dimen- 
sions — a state very much 
against a favorable appearance 
in market. After the first two 
days they may proceed faster, 
say twelve or thirteen miles a 
day, if very fat ; and fifteen, if 
moderately so. When the 
journey is long and the beasts 
get faint from travel, they should have corn to support them. 
In frosty weather, when the roads become very hard, they are 
apt to become shoulder-shaken, an eifect of founder ; and if 
sleet falls during the day, and becomes frozen upon them at 
night, they may become so chilled as to refuse food, and 
shrink rapidly away. Cattle should, if possible, arrive the 
day before in the neighborhood of a distant market, and be 
supplied with a good feed of roots and hay, or grass, to make 
them look fresh and fill them up again ; but if the market is 
at but short distance, they can travel to it early in the 
morning. 

In driving cattle the drover should have no dog, which will 
only annoy them. He should walk either before or behind, 
as he sees them disposed to proceed too fast or to loiter upon 
the road ; and in passing carriages, the leading ox, after a 
little experience, will make way for the rest to follow. On 
putting oxen on a ferry-boat the shipping of the first one 



DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING. 191 

only is attended with much trouble. A man on each side 
should take hold of a horn, or of a halter made of any piece 
of rope, should the beast be hornless, and two other men, one 
on each side, should push him up behind with a piece of rope 
held between them as a breeching, and conduct him along the 
plank into the boat ; if it have low gunwales, a man will be 
required to remain beside him until one or two more of the 
cattle follow their companion, which they will most readily 
do. From neglecting this precaution in small ferry-boats, 
the first beast sometimes leaps into the water, when it be- 
comes a difficult task to prevent some of the rest doing the 
same thing. 

Whatever time a lot of cattle may take to go to a market, 
they should never be overdriven. There is great difference 
of management in this respect among drovers. Some like 
to proceed upon the road quietly, slowly, but surely, and 
to reach the market in a placid, cool state. Others, again, 
drive smartly along for some distance, and then rest to cool 
awhile, when the beasts will probably get chilled and have a 
staring coat when they reach their destination ; while others 
like to enter the market with their beasts in an excited state, 
imagining that they then look gay ; but distended nostrils, 
loose bowels, and reeking bodies are no recommendations to 
a purchaser. Good judges are shy of purchasing caftle in a 
heated state, because they do not know how long they may 
have been in it ; and to cover any risk, will give at least five 
dollars a head below what they would have offered for them 
in a cool state. Some drovers have a habit of thumping at 
the hindmost beast of the lot with a stick while on the road. 
This is a censurable practice, as the flesh, where it is 



192 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES.- 

thumped, will bear a red mark after the animal has been 
slaughtered, — the mark receiving the appropriate name of 
blood-hum, — and the flesh thus affected will not take on salt, 
and is apt to putrefy. A touch up on the shank, or any 
tendonous part, when correction is necessary, is all that is 
required ; but the voice, in most cases, will answer as well. 
The flesh of overdriven cattle, when slaughtered, never be- 
comes properly firm, and their tallow has a soft, melted ap- 
pearance. 

A few large oxen in one lot look best in a market on a 
position rather above the eye of a spectator. When a large 
lot is nearly alike in size and appearance, they look best and 
most level on a flat piece of ground. Very large fat oxen 
never look better than on ground on the same level with the 
spectator. An ox, to look well, should hold his head on a 
line with the body, with lively ears, clear eye, dewy nose, a 
well-licked hide, and should stand firmly on the ground on 
all his feet. These are all symptoms of high health and good 
condition. Whenever an ox shifts his standing from one 
foot to another, he is foot-sore, and has been driven far. 
Whenever his head hangs down and his eyes water, he feels 
ill at ease inwardly. When his coat stares, he has been 
overheated some time, and has got a subsequent chill. All 
these latter symptoms will be much aggravated in cattle that 
have been fed in a barn. 

Cattle are made to^fast before being slaughtered. The 
time they should stand depends upon their state on their 
arrival at the shambles. If they have been driven a con- 
siderable distance in a proper manner, the bowels will be in 
a tolerably empty state, so that twelve hours may suffice ; 



DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING. 193 

but if they are full and just off tbeir food, twenty-four hours 
will be required. Beasts that have been overdriven, or 
much struck with sticks, or in any degree infuriated, should 
not be immediately slaughtered, but allowed to stand on dry 
food, such as hay, until the symptoms disappear. These 
precautions are absolutely necessary that the meat may be 
preserved in the best state. 

The mode of slaughtering cattle varies in different coun- 
tries. In the great slaughter-houses at Montmartre, in Paris, 
they are slaughtered by bisecting the spinal cord of the cer- 
ical vertebrae ; and this is accompHshed by the driving of a 
sharp-pointed chisel between the second and third vertebrae, 
with a smart stroke of a mallet, while the animal is standing, 
when it drops, and death or insensibility instantly ensues, 
and the blood is let out immediately by opening the blood- 
vessels of the neck. The plan adopted in England is, first to 
bring the ox down on his knees, and place his under-jaw 
upon the ground by means of ropes fastened to his head and 
passed through an iron ring in the floor of the slaughter- 
•house. He is then stunned with a few blows from an iron 
axe made for the purpose, on the forehead, the bone of which 
is usually driven into the brain. The animal then falls upon 
his side, and the blood is let out by the neck. Of the two 
modes, the French is apparently the less cruel, for some oxen 
require many blows to make them fall. Some butchers, 
however, allege that the separation of the spinal cord, by 
producing a general nervous convulsion throughout the body, 
prevents the blood from flowing as rapidly and entirely out 
of it as when the ox is stunned in the forehead. The skin is 
then taken off to the knees, when the legs are disjointed, and 

13 



194 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

also off the head. The carcass is then hung up by the 
tendons of the hough on a stretcher, by a block and tackle, 
worked by a small winch, which retains in place what rope 
it winds up by means of a wheel and ratchet. 

After the carcass has hung for twenty-four hours, it should 
be cut down by the back-bone, or chine, into two sides. 
This is done either with the saw, or chopper ; the saw making 
the neatest job in the hands of an inexperienced butcher, 
though it is the most laborious ; and with the chopper is the 
quickest, but by no means the neatest plan, especially in the 
hands of a careless workman. In London, the chine is 
equally divided between both sides ; while in Scotland, one 
side of a carcass of beef has a great deal more bone than 
the other, all the spinous processes of the vertebrae being 
left upon it. The bony is called the lying side of the 
meat. In London, the divided processes in the fore-quarters 
are broken in the middle when warm, and chopped back with 
the flat side of the chopper, which has the effect of thickening 
the fore and middle ribs considerably when cut up. The 
London butcher also cuts the joints above the hind knee, 
and, by m/iking some incisions with a sharp knife, cuts the 
tendons there, and drops the flesh of the hind-quarter on the 
flank and loins, which causes it to cut up thicker than in the 
Scotch mode. In opening the hind-quarter he also cuts the 
aitch bone, or pelvis through the centre, which makes the 
rump look better. Some,, butchers in the north of England 
score the fat of the closing of the hind-quarter, which has the 
effect of making that part of both heifer and ox look like tl>e 
udder of an old cow. There is far too much of this scoring 
practised in Scotland, which prevents the pieces from retain- 



DEIVINQ AND SLAUGHTERING. 



195 



ing — which they should, as nearly as possible — their natural 
appearance. 

In cutting up a carcass of beef the London butcher displays 
great expertness ; he not only discriminates between the 
qualities of its different parts, but can cut out any piece to 
gratify the taste of his customers. In this way he makes 
the best use of the carcass and realizes the largest value for 
it, while he gratifies the taste of every grade of customers. 
A figure of the Scotch and English modes of cutting up a 
carcass of beef will at once show the difference ; and upon 
being informed where the valuable pieces lie, an opinion can 
be formed as to whether the oxen the farmer is breeding or 
feeding possess the properties which will enable him to 
demand the highest price for them. 

The sirloin is the principal roasting-piece, making a very 
handsome dish, and is a universal favorite. It consists of 
two portions, 
the Scotch and 
English sides ; 
the former is 
above the lum- 
bar bones, and 
is somewhat 
hard in ill-fed 
cattle ; the latter 
consists of the muscles under these bones, which are generally 
covered with fine fat, and are exceedingly tender. The 
better the beast is fed, the larger is the under muscle, better 
covered with fat, and more tender to eat. The hook-bone 
and the buttock are cut up for steaks, beef-steak pie, or 




SCOTCH MODE OF C0TTINQ UP BEEF. 



106 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

minced collops, and both these, together with the sirloin, 
bring the highest price. The large round and the small 
round are both well known as excellent pieces for salting 
and boiling, and are eaten cold with great relish. The hough 
is peculiarly suited for boiling down for soup, having a large 
proportion of gelatinous matter. Brown soup is the princi- 
pal dish made of the hough, but its decoction forms an ex- 
cellent dock for various dishes, and will keep in a state of 
jelly for a considerable time. The thick and the thin flank 
are both admirable pieces for salting and boiling. The tail, 
insignificant as it may seem, makes a soup of a very fine 
flavor. Hotel-keepers have a trick of seasoning brown soup 
or rather beef-tea, with a few joints of tail, and passing it off 
for genuine ox-tail soup. These are all the pieces which 
constitute the hind-quarter ; and it will be seen that they are 
valuable both for roasting and boiling, not containing a single 
coarse piece. 

In the fore-quarter, is the spare rib, the six ribs of the back 
end of which make an excellent' roast, and when taken from 
the side opposite to the lying one, being free of the bones 
of the spine, it makes a large one ; and it also makes excel- 
lent beefsteaks and beefsteak pie. The two runners and the 
nineholes make salting and boiling pieces ; but, of these, the 
nineholes is much the best, as it consists of layers of fat and 
lean without any bone ; whereas the fore parts of the runners 
have a piece of shoulder-blade in them, and every piece con- 
nected with that bone is more or less coarse-grained. The 
brisket eats very well boiled fresh in broth, and may be 
cooked and eaten with boiled greens or carrots. The 
shoulder-lyar is a coarse piece, and fit only for boiling fresh 



DRIVING AND SLAUCnTERINa. 



197 



to make into broth or beef-tea. The nap, or shin, is 
analogous to the hough of the hind-leg, but not so rich and 
fine, there being much less gelatinous matter in it. The 
neck makes good broth ; and the sticking-piece is a great 
favorite with some epicures, on account of the pieces of rich 
fat in it. It makes an excellent stew, as also sweet barley- 
broth, and the meat eats well when boiled in it. 

These are all the pieces of the fore-quarter ; and it will be 
seen that they consist chiefly of boiling-pieces, and some of 
them none of the finest — the roasting-piece being confined to 
the six ribs of the spare rib, and the finest boiling-piece, 
corned, only to be found in the nineholes. 

The loin Is the principal roasting-piece ; the rump is the 
favorite steak-piece ; the aitch-bone, the favorite stew ; the 
buttock, ^he thick flank, and the thin flank are all excellent 
bqiling- pieces when corned; the hock and»the shin make 
soup and afi'ord 
stock for the 
various require- 
ments of the culi- 
nary art ; and 
the tail furnishes 
ox-tail soup — a 
favorite English 
luncheon. These 
are all the pieces of the hind-quarter, and they are valuable 
of their respective kinds. 

In the fore-quarter, the fore-rib, middle-rib, and chuckle- 
rib are all roasting-pieces, not alike good ; but in removing 
the part of the shoulder-blade in the middle-rib, the spare- 




ENGLISH MODE OF CUTTING 0P BEEF. 



198 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

ribs below make a good broil or roast ; the neck makes soup, 
being used fresh, boiled ; the back end of the brisket is boiled, 
corned, or stewed ; the leg-of-mutton piece is coarse, but is 
as frequently stewed as boiled ; the shin is put to the same 
use as the shin and hock of the hind-quarter. 

On comparing the two modes of cutting-up, it will be ob 
served that in the English there are more roasting-pieces 
than in the Scotch, a large proportion of the fore-quarter 
being used in that way. The plan, too, of cutting the loin 
between the rump and aitch-bone in the hind-quarter, lays 
open the steak-pieces to better advantage than in the Scotch 
bullock. Extending the comparison from one part of the 
carcass to the other, in both methods, it will be feeen that the 
most valuable pieces — the roasting — occupy its upper, and 
the less valuable — the boiling — its lower part. Every beast, 
therefore, thattays on beef more upon the upper part of its 
body is more valuable than one that lays the same quantity 
of flesh on its lower parts. 

It is deemed unnecessary to enter into details as to the 
modes of cutting-up most in vogue in this country, as there is 
a needlessly great want of uniformity. 

Of the qualities of beef obtained from the different breeds 
of cattle in England, there is no better meat than from the 
West Highlanders for fineness of grain and cutting up into 
convenient pieces for family use. The Galloways and Angus, 
when fattened in English pastures, are great favorites in the 
London market. The Short Horns afford excellent steaks, 
being thick of flesh, and the slice deep, large and juicy, and 
their covered flanks and nineholes are always thick, juicy, and 
well-mixed. The Herefords are somewhat similar to the Short 



DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERINa. 199 

Horns, and the Devons, may, perhaps, be classed aiBong the 
Galloways and Angus, while the Welsh cannot be compared to 
the "West Highlanders. Taking, then, the breeds of Scotland 
as suppliers of good beef, they seem to be more valuable for 
the table than those of England. 

There are, perhaps, not sufficient data in existence to de- 
termine the true proportion of oflfal of all kinds to the beef 
of any given fat ox ; but approximations have been made, 
which may serve the purpose until the matter is investigated 
by direct experiment, under various circumstances. The 
dead weight bears to the live weight a ratio varying between 
.571 and .605 to 1 ; and on applying one or the other multi- 
plier to the cases of the live weight, a pretty correct 
approximation is reached. The tallow is supposed to be 
eight one-hundredths of the live weight ; so that the multi- 
plier is the decimal .08. The hide is supposed to be five 
one-hundredths of the live weight ; so to obtain its weight, 
a multiplier, .05, is used. The other offals are supposed to 
be in a proportion of about one-fourth of the live weight ; 
so that the multiplier, .28, is as near as can be proposed 
under existing experience. 

Beef is the staple animal food of this country, and it is 
used in various states — fresh, salted, smoked, roasted, and 
boiled. When intended to be eaten fresh, the ribs will keep 
the loest, and with care will keep five or six days in summer, 
and in winter ten days. The middle of the loin is the next 
best, and the rump the next. The round will not keep long, 
unless it is salted. The brisket is the worst, and will not 
keep more than three days in summer, and in winter a week. 

In regard to the power of the stomach to digest beef, that 



200 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

which is eaten boiled with salt only, is digested in two hours 
and forty-five minutes. Beef, fresh, lean, and rarely -roasted, 
and a beefsteak broiled, takes three hours to digest ; that 
fresh, and dry-roasted, and boiled, eaten Avith mustard, is 
digested in three and a half hours. Lean fresh beef fried, 
requires four hours, and old hard salted beef boiled, does not 
digest in less than four and a quarter hours. Fresh beef-suet 
boiled takes five and a half hours. 

The usual mode of preserving beef is by salting ; and, 
when intended to keep for a long time, such as for the use of 
shipping, it is always salted with brine; but for family use 
it should be salted only with good salt ; for brine dispels the 
juice of meat, and saltpetre only sei'^es to make the meat 
dry, and give it a disagreeable and unnatural red color. 
Yarious experiments have been made in curing beef with 
salt otherwise than by hand-rubbing, and in a short space of 
time • and also to preserve it from putrefaction by other 
means than salt. Some packers put meal in a copper which 
is rendered air-tight, and an air-pump then creates a 
vacuum within it, thereby extracting all the air out of the 
meat ; then brine is pumped in by pressure, which, entering 
into every pore of the meat formerly occupied by the air, is 
said to place it in a state of preservation in a few minutes. 
The carcass of an ox was preserved, in France, for two years 
from putrefaction by injecting four pounds of saline mixture 
into the carotid artery. Whether any such contrivance can 
be made available for family purposes, seems doubtful. 

Cattle, when slaughtered, are useful to man in various 
other ways than by affording food from their flesh, — their 
ofial of tallow, hides, and horns, forming extensive articles 



DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING. 201 

of commerce. Of the hide, the characteristics of a good one 
for strong purposes are strength in its middle, or butt, as it 
called, and lightness in the edges, or offal. A bad hide is 
the opposite of this — thick in the edges and thin in the 
middle. A good hide has a firm texture ; a bad one, loose 
and soft. A hide improves as the summer advances, and it 
continues to improve after the new coat of hair in autumn 
until November or December, when the coat gets rough from 
the coldness of the season, and the hide is then in its best 
state. It is surprising how a hide improves in thickness 
after the cold weather has set in. The sort of food does not 
seem to affect the quality of the hide ; but the better it is, 
and the better cattle have been fed, and the longer they have 
been well fed, even from a calf, the better the hide. From 
what has been said of the effect of weather upon the hide, it 
seems a natural conclusion that a hide is better from an ox 
that has been fed in the open air, than from one that has been 
kept in the barn. Dirt adhering to a hide injures it, par- 
ticularly in stall-fed animals ; and any thing that punctures 
a hide, such as warbles arising from certain insects, is also 
injurious. The best hides are obtained from the West 
Highlanders. The Short Horns produce the thinnest hides, 
the Aberdeenshire the next, and then the Angus. Of the 
same breed, the ox affords the strongest hide ; but, as hides 
are applied to various, uses, the cow's, provided it be large, 
may be as valuable as that of the ox. The bull's hide is the 
least valuable. Hides are imported from Russia and South 
America. 

Hides, when deprived of their hair, are converted into 
leather by an infusion of the astringent property of bark. 



202 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

The old plan of tanning used to occupy a long time ; but, 
such was tbe value of tlie process, that the old tanners used to 
pride themselves upon producing a substantial article — which 
is more than can be said in many instances under modern im- 
proved modes, which hasten the process, much to the injury 
of the article produced. Strong infusions of bark make 
leather brittle ; one hundred pounds of skin, quickly tanned 
in a strong infusion, produce one hundred and thirty-seven 
pounds of leather ; while a weak infusion produces only one 
hundred and seventeen and a half, — the additional nineteen 
and a half pounds serving only to deteriorate the leather, 
and causing it to contain much less textile animal solid. 
Leather thus highly charged with tanning is so spongy as to 
allow moisture to pass readily through its pores, to the great 
discomfort and injury of those who wear shoes made of it. 
The proper mode of tanning lasts a year, or a year and a half, 
according to the quality of the leather wanted and the nature 
of the hides. A perfect leather can be recognized by its 
section, which should have a glistening marbled appearance, 
without any white streaks in the middle. The hair which is 
taken off hides in tanning, is employed to mix with plaster, 
and is often surreptitiously put into hair-mattresses. 

The principal subtances of which glue is made are the 
parings of ox and other thick hides, which form the strongest 
article and the refuse of the leather-dresser. Both afford 
from forty-five to fifty-five per cent, of glue. The tendons, 
and many other offals of slaughter-houses, also afford 
materials, though of an inferior quality, for this purpose. 
The refuse of tanneries — such as the ears of oxen and calves 



DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING. 203 

—are better articles. Animal skins also, in any form, uncom- 
bined with tannin, may be worked into glue. 

Ox-tallow is of great importance in the arts. Candles and 
soap are made of it, and it enters largely into the dressing of 
leather and the use of machinery. Large quantities are 
annually exported from Russia. Ox-tallow consists of 
seventy-six parts of stearine and twenty-four of oleine, out 
of one hundred parts. 

The horns of oxen are used for many purposes. The 
horn consists of two parts : an outward horny case, and an 
inward conical-shaped substance, somewhat intermediate 
between indurated hair and bone, called the Jluid of the 
horn. These two parts are separated by means of a blow 
upon a block of wood. The horny exterior is then cut into 
three portions by means of a frame saw. The lowest of 
these, next the root of the horn, after undergoing several 
processes by which it is rendered flat, is made into combs. 
The middle of the horn, after haviag been flattened by heat, 
and its transparency improved by oil, is split into thin layers, 
and forms a substitute for glass in lanterns of the commonest 
kind. The tip of the horns is used by makers of knife- 
handles and of the tops of whips, and for other similar pur- 
poses. The interior, or core of the horn, is boiled down in 
water. A large quantity of fat rises to the surface ; this is 
put aside, and sold to the makers of yellow soap. The 
liquid itself is used as a kind of glue, and is purchased by 
the cloth-draper for stiffening. The bony substance remain- 
ing behind is then sent to the mill, and, after having been 
ground down, is sold to farmers for manure. 

Besides these various purposes to which the different parts 



20 i CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

of the horn are applied, the clippings which arise in comb- 
making are sold to the farmer for manure, as well as the 
shavings which form the refuse of the lantern-makers. 
Horn, as is well known, is easily rendered soft and pliant in 
warm water ; and by this peculiarity and its property of ad- 
nering like glue, large plates of horn can be made by cement- 
mg together the edges of small pieces rendered flat by a 
peculiar process, as a substitute for glass. Imitation of 
tortoise-shell can be given to horn by means of various 
metallic solutions. Horn, also, when softened, can be 
imprinted with any pattern, by means of dies 




Under this head it is proposed to notice such 
diseases as are most common among cattle, together with 
their symptoms, and to suggest such treatment of the same 
as has been found in the practice of the author, in the main, 
effective. He is aware that much more space might have 
been appropriated to this head, as has been the case in other 
treatises of this class ; but he doubts the propriety of multi- 
plying words about diseases which are of very rare occur- 
rence, deeming it more fitting to leave such instances ex- 
clusively to the inteUigent consideration of the reliable 
veterinary practitioner. 

205 



206 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

For convenience of reference, tlie diseases here noticed 
have been arranged in alphabetical order ; the whole con- 
cluding with information as to two or three operations which 
cannot be uninteresting to, or unprofitable for, the reader. 



ABORTION. 

The cow is, more than any other animal, subject to abor- 
tion, or slinking, which takes place at different periods of 
pregnancy, from half of the usual time to the seventh, or 
almost to the eighth month. The symptoms of the approach 
of abortion, unless the breeder is very much among his stock, 
are not often perceived ; or, if perceived, they are concealed 
by the person in charge, lest he should be accused of neglect 
or improper treatment. 

The cow is somewhat off her feed — rumination ceases — she 
is listless and dull — the milk diminishes or dries up — the 
motions of the foetus become more feeble, and at length 
cease altogether — there is a slight degree of enlargement of 
the belly — there is a little staggering in her walk — when she 
is down she lies longer than usual, and when she gets up she 
stands for a longer time motionless. 

As the abortion approaches, a yellow or red glairy fluid 
runs from the vagina (this is a symptom, which rarely, 
or never, deceives) her breathing becomes laborious and 
slightly convulsive. The belly has for several days lost its 
natural rotundity, and has been evidently falling, — she begins 
to moan, — the pulse becomes small, wiry, and intermittent. 
At length labor comes on, and is often attended with much 
difficulty and danger. 

If the abortion has been caused by blows or violente, 



ABORTION. 207 

whether from brutality, or the animal's having been teased by 
other cows in season, or by oxen, the symptoms are more 
intense. The animal suddenly ceases to eat and to ruminate 
— is uneasy, paws the ground, rests her head on the manger 
while she is standing, and on her flank when she is lying 
down — hemorrhage frequently comes on from the uterus, 
or when this is not the case the mouth of that organ is 
spasmodically contracted. The throes come on, are distress- 
ingly violent, and continue until the womb is ruptured. If 
all these circumstances be not observed, still the labor is 
protracted and dangerous. 

Abortion is sometimes singularly frequent in particular 
districts, or on particular farms, appearing to assume an 
epizootic or epidemic form. This has been accounted for in 
various ways. Some have imagined it to be contagious. It 
is, indeed, destructively propagated among the cows, but 
this is probably to be explained on a different principle from 
that of contagion. The cow is a considerably imaginative 
animal, and highly irritable during the period of pregnancy. 
In abortion, the foetus is often putrid before it is discharged ; 
and the placenta, or afterbirth, rarely or never follows it, but 
becomes decomposed, and, as it drops away in fragments, 
emits a peculiar and most noisome smell. This smell seems 
to be peculiarly annoying to the other cows : they sniff at it 
and then run bellowing about. Some sympathetic influence 
is exercised on their uterine organs, and in a few days a 
greater or less number of those that had pastured together like- 
wise abort. Hence arises the rapidity with which the foetus 
is usually taken away and buried deeply, and far from the 
cows ; and hence the more effectual preventive of smearing 



208 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

the parts of tlie cow with tar or stinking oils, in order to 
conceal or subdue the smell ; and hence, too, the inefficacy, 
as a preventive, of removing her to a far-distant pasture. 

The pastures on which the blood or inflammatory fever is 
most prevalent are those on which the cows oftenest slink 
their calves. Whatever can become a source of general 
excitatio-n and fever is likely, during pregnancy, to produce 
inflammation of the womb ; or whatever would, under other 
circumstances, excite inflammation of almost any organ, has 
at that time its injurious effect determined to this particular 
one. 

Every farmer is aware of the injurious effect of the coarse, 
rank herbage of low, marshy, and woody countries, and he 
regards these districts as the chosen residence of red water ; 
it may be added, that they are also the chosen residence of 
abortion. Hard and mineral waters are justly considered as 
laying the foundation of many diseases among cattle, and of 
abortion among the rest. 

Some careful observers have occasionally attributed abor- 
tion to disproportion in size between the male and the female. 
Farmers were formerly too fond of selecting a great over- 
grown bull to serve their dairy or breeding cows,- and many 
a heifer, or little cow, was seriously injured ; and she either 
cast her calf, or was lost in parturition. The breeders of 
cattle in later years are beginning to act more wisely'in this 
matter. 

Cows that are degenerating into consumption are exceed- 
ingly subject to abortion. They are continually in heat ; 
they rarely become pregnant, or if they do, a great proportion 
of them cast their calves. Abortion, also, often follows a 



ABORTION. 209 

sudden change from poor to luxuriant food. Cows that have 
been out, half-starved in the v^inter, when incautiously turned 
on rich pasture in the spring, are too apt to cast their calves 
from the undue general or local excitation that is set up. 
Hence it is, that when this disposition to abort first appears 
in a herd, it is naturally in a cow that has been lately pur- 
chased. Fright, from whatever cause, may produce this 
trouble. There are singular cases on record of whole herds 
of cows slinking their calves after having been terrified by 
an unusually violent thunder-storm. Commerce with the 
bull soon after conception is also a frequent cause, as well as 
putrid smells — other than those already noticed — and the use 
of a diseased bull. Besides these tangible causes of abortion, 
there is the mysterious agency of the atmosphere. There 
are certain seasons when abortion is strangely frequent, and 
fatal ; while at other times it disappears in a manner for sev- 
eral successive years. 

The consequences of premature calving are frequently of 
a very serious nature ; and even when the case is more 
favorable, the results are, nevertheless, very annoying. The 
animal very soon goes again to heat, but in a great many 
cases she fails to become pregnant ; she almost invariably 
does so, if she is put to the bull during the first heat after 
abortion. If she should come in calf again during that 
season, it is very probable that at about the same period of 
gestation, or a little later, she will again abort : or that when 
she becomes in calf the following year, the same fatality will 
attend her. Some say that this disposition to cast her young 
gradually ceases ; that if she does miscarry, it is at a later 
and still later period of pregnancy ; and that, in about three 

14 



210 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

or four years, she may be depended upon as a tolerably safe 
breeder. He, however, would be sadly inattentive to his own 
interests who keeps a profitless beast so long. 

The calf very rarely lives, and in the majority of cases it is 
born dead or putrid. If there should appear to be any 
chance of saving it, it should be washed with warm water, 
carefully dried, and fed frequently with small quantities of 
new milk, mixed, according to the apparent weakness of the 
animal, either with raw eggs or good gruel ; while the bowels 
should, if occasion requires, be opened by means of small 
doses of castor-oil. If any considerable period is to elapse 
before the natural time of pregnancy would have expired, it 
will usually be necessary to bring up the little animal en- 
tirely by hand. 

The treatment of abortion differs but little from that of 
parturition. If the farmer has once been tormented by this 
pest in his dairy, he should carefully watch the approaching 
symptoms of casting the calf, and as soon as he perceives 
them, should remove the animal from the pasture to a com- 
fortable cow-house or shed. If the discharge be glairy, but 
not offensive, he may hope that the calf is not dead ; he will 
be assured of this by the motion of the foetus, and then it is 
possible that the abortion may still be avoided. He should 
hasten to bleed her, and that copiously, in proportion to her 
age, size, condition, and the state of excitation in which he 
may find her ; and he should give a dose of physic imme- 
diately after the bleeding. When the physic begins to 
operate, he should administer half a drachm of opium and 
half an ounce of sweet spirits of nitre. Unless she is in a 
state of great debility, he should allow nothing but gruel, 



ABORTION. 211 

and she should be kept as quiet as possible. By these means 
he may occasionally allay the general or local irritation that 
precedes or causes the abortion, and the cow may yet go to 
her full time. 

Should, however, the discharge be fetid, the conclusion will 
be that the foetus is dead, and must be got rid of, and that as 
speedily as possible. Bleeding may even then be requisite, 
if much fever exists ; or, perhaps, if there is debility, some 
stimulating drink may not be out of place. In other respects 
the animal must be treated as if her usual time of pregnancy 
had been accomplished. 

Much may be done in the way of preventing this habit of 
abortion among cows. The foetufi must be got rid of imme- 
diately. It should be buried deep, and far from the cow- 
pasture. Proper means should be taken to hasten the 
expulsion of the placenta. A dose of physic should be 
given ; ergot of rye administered ; the hand should be intro- 
duced, and an effort made, cautiously and gently, to detach 
the placenta ; all violence, however, should be carefully 
avoided ; for considerable and fatal hemorrhage may be 
speedily produced. The parts of the cow should be well 
washed with a solution of the chloride of lime, which should 
be injected up the vagina, and also given internally. In the 
mean time, and especially after the expulsion of the placenta, 
the cow-house should be well washed with the same so- 
lution. 

The cow, when beginning to recover, should be fattened 
and sold. This is the first and the grand step toward the 
prevention of abortion, and he is unwise who does not 
immediately adopt it. All other means are comparatively 



212 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

inefiScient and worthless. Should the owner be reluctant 
to part with her, two months, at least, should pass before 
she is permitted to return to her companions. Prudence 
would probably dictate that she should never return to 
them, but be kept, if possible, on some distant part of the 
farm. 

Abortion having once occurred among the herd, the breed- 
ing cows should be carefully watched. Although they 
should be well fed, they should not be suffered to get into 
too high condition. Unless they are decidedly poor and 
weak, they should be bled between the third and fourth 
months of pregnancy, and a mild dose of physic administered 
to each. If the pest continues to reappear, the owner should 
most carefully examine how far any of the causes of abortion 
that have been detected, may exist on his farm, and exert 
himself to thoroughly remove them. 

An interesting paper upon this subject may be found in 
the Veterinary Review, vol. 1., p. 434, communicated by 
Prof. Henry Tanner, of Queen's College, Birmingham, Eng- 
land. As it suggests a theory as to the origin of this disease 
which is, to say the least, quite plausible, we transfer the 
article : — 

" I shall not go into any notice of the general subject of 
abortion, but rather restrict my remarks to a cause which is 
very much overlooked, and yet; which is probably more 
influential than all other causes combined. I refer to the 
growth of ergotized grass-seeds in our pastures. 

" The action of ergot of rye (secale cormdum) upon the 
womb is well known as an excitant to powerful action, which 
usually terminates in the expulsion of the foetus. We have a 



ABORTION. 213 

similar disease appearing on the seeds of our grasses, but 
especially on the rye grass, and thus we have an ergot of the 
seeds of rye grass produced, possessing similar exciting 
powers upon the womb to those produced by the ergot of 
rye. 

" Two conditions are necessary for the production of this 
ergot upon the seed of rye grass. The first is, the grass 
must be allowed to run to seed ; and the second is, that the 
climate must be favorable for encouraging the development 
of the ergot. 

" In practice, we find that on land which has been fed on 
during the summer, unless it has been grazed with unusual 
care, much of the grass throws up seed-stalks and produces 
seed. In districts where the climate is humid and rain 
abundant, as well as in very wet seasons, these seeds become 
liable to the growth of this ergot. Cattle appear to eat it 
with a relish, and the result is that abortion spreads rapidly 
through the herd. Heifers and cows, which, up to the 
appearance of the ergot, have held in calf, are excited to cast 
their calves by consuming it in their food. The abortion 
having once commenced, we know that the peculiarly 
sensitive condition of the breeding animal will cause its 
extension, even where the original cause may not be in 
operation ; but their combined action renders the loss far 
more serious. If we add to this the tendency which an 
animal receives from her first abortion, to repeat it when" 
next in calf, we see how seriously the mischief becomes 
multiplied. 

" A somewhat extended observation, added to my own ex- 
perience, has led me to the conviction that very much of the 



214 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

loss arising from abortion in our cows may be traced to tne 
cause I have named. I feel assured the influence is even 
more extended than I have* stated; for not only would the 
foetus be thrown off in its advanced stage, but also in its 
earlier growth, thus causing great trouble to breeders of 
high-bred stock, the repeated turning of cows to the bull, and 
at most irregular intervals. 

" The remedy differs in no respect from the ordinary mode 
of treatment, except that it compels a removal of the stock 
from the influence of the cause. Much, however, may be 
done by way of prevention ; and this I shall briefly notice. 

" It simply consists in keeping breeding cows and heifers 
upon land free from these seeds. Grass which has been 
grazed during the summer, will very generally, in a humid 
climate, have some of this ergotized seed ; but I have not 
observed it produced before the end of July, or early in 
August ; and I doubt its existence, to any injurious degree, 
up to this time. We may, therefore, consider such ground 
safe up to this period. If the breeding stock are then 
removed to grass land which, having been mown for this 
operation is a guaranty against any seeds remaining, it will 
seldom, if ever, happen that any injury will result from the 
production of ergotized grass later in the season. 

" I will not venture to say that such will not appear in 
some cases where the grass has been cut early and has been 
followed by a rapid growth ; but, at any rate, we have 
grazing land free from this excitant from July until Septem- 
ber ; and in the grass which has been mown late, I do not 
consider that there is the least fear of ergot's being again 
formed in that season. In this manner a farmer may keep 



APOPLEXY — BLACK WATER. 215 

grass land for his breeding stock entirely free from ergotized 
grass ; and, consequently, so far as this cause is concerned, 
they will be free from abortion. How far young heifers may 
be prejudicially influenced, before they are used for breeding, 
by an excitement of the womb, appears to me to be a sub- 
ject worthy of some attention on the part of the veterinary 
profession." 

APOPLEXY. 

This is a determination of blood to the head, causing 
pressure upon the brain. Animals attacked with this 
disease are generally in a plethoric condition. The usual 
symptoms are coma (a sleepy state), eyes protruding, respi- 
ration accelerated ; finally, the animal falls, struggles, and dies. 

In such cases, bleeding should be resorted to at an early 
period ; give in drink one pound of Epsom-salts. 



BLACK t^TATER. 

This is simply an exaggerated stage of the disease known 
as Red Water, — to which the reader is referred in its appro- 
priate place, — the urine being darker in color in consequence 
of the admixture of venous blood. 

The symptoms are similar, though more acute. There is 
constipation at first, which is followed by diarrhoea, large 
quantities of blood passing away with the evacuations from 
the bowels ; symptoms of abdominal pain are present ; the 
loins become extremely tender ; and the animal dies in a 
greatly prostrated condition. 

The treatment does not differ from that prescribed in case 
of Red Water. 



216 CATTLB» AND THEIR DISEASES. 

BRONCHITIS. 

The trachea and bronchial tubes are frequently the seat of 
inflammation, especially in the spring of the year, — the 
symptoms of which are often confounded with those of other 
pulmonary diseases. This inflammation is frequently pre- 
ceded by catarrhal affections; cough is often present for along 
time before the more acute symptoms are observed. Bron- 
chitis occasionally makes its appearance in an epizootic form. 

Symptoms. — A peculiarly anxious expression of the 
countenance will be observed ; respiration laborious ; a 
husky, wheezing, painful cough ; on placing the ear to the 
windpipe a sonorous raJe is heard ; symptomatic fever also 
prevails to a greater or less extent. 

Treatment. — Counter-irritation should be early resorted to ; 
strong mustard, mixed with equal parts of spirits of harts.- 
horn and water, and made into a thin paste, should be 
applied all along the neck* over the windpipe, and to the 
sides, and should be well rubbed in ; or the tincture of 
cantharides, with ten drops of castor-oil to each ounce, 
applied in the same manner as the former, will be found 
equally effective. Give internally ten drops of Fleming's 
tincture of aconite every four hours, until five or six doses 
have been given ; after which give one of the following 
powders twice a day : nitrate of potash, one ounce ; Bar- 
badoes aloes, one ounce ; Jamaica ginger, half an ounce ; 
pulverized-gentian root, one ounce ; mix and divide into 
eight powders. If necessary a pound of salts may be given. 



CONSUMPTION. 2 It 

CONSUMPTION 

This affection — technically known as phthisis pulmonalis 
• — is the termination of chronic disease of the lungs. These 
organs become filled with many little cysts, or sacks, con- 
taining a yellowish or yellowish-white fluid, which in time is 
hardened, producing a condition of the lungs known as 
tuberculous. These tubercles in turn undergo another 
change, becoming soft in the centre and gradually involving 
the whole of the hardened parts, which, uniting with adjoin- 
ing ones, soon forms cysts of considerable size. These cysts 
are known as abscesses. 

No treatment will be of much service here. It is, 
therefore, better, if the animal is not too poor in flesh, to have 
it slaughtered. 

COEYZA 

In the spring, and late in the fall, catarrhal affections are 
quite common, occurring frequently in a epizootic form. 
Coryza, or nasal catarrh, — commonly called a cold in the 
head, — is not very common among cows. As its name 
implies, it is a local disease, confined to the lining membrane 
of the nose ; and, consequently, the general system is not 
usually disturbed. 

Symptoms. — The animal will be observed to sneeze ; the 
Schneiderian membrane (membrane of the nose) is heightenea 
in color ; cough sometimes accompanies ; there is also a 
muco-purulent discharge from the nose. Neglect to attena 
to these early symptoms frequently occasions disease of a 



218 



CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 



more serious nature ; in fact, coryza may be regarded as the 
forerunner of all epizootic pulmonary disorders. 

Treat- 
ment. — The 
animal 
should be 
kept on a 
low diet for 
a few days ; 
the nostrils 
occasionally 
steamed, 

and one of the following powders given night and morning, 
which, in most cases, will be all the medicine required : 
nitrate of potassa, one ounce ; digitalis leaves pulverized and 
tartrate of antimony, of each one drachm ; sulphate of copper, 
two drachms ; mix, and divide into eight powders. Should 
the disease prove obstinate, give for two or three days two 
ounces of Epsom-salts at a dose, dissolved in water, three 
times a day. 




A CHAT ON THE ROAD. 



co-w-pox. 

Two varieties of sore teats occur in the cow, in the form of 
pustular eruptions. They first appear as small vesicles 
containing a purulent matter, and subsequently assume a 
scabby appearance, or small ulcers remain, which often prove 
troublesome to heal. This latter is the cow-pox, from which 
Jenner derived the vaccine matter. 

Treatment. — Foment the teats well with warm water and 
Castile-soap ; after which, wipe the bag dry, and dress with 



DIARRHCEA. 219 

citrine ointment. The preparations of iodine have also been 
recommended, and they are very serviceable. 



DIAERHCEA. 

Cattle are frequently subject to this disease, particularly in 
the spring of the year when the grass is young and soft. 
Occasionally it assumes a very obstinate form in consequence 
of the imperfect secretion of gastric juice ; the fceces are 
thin, watery, and fetid, followed by very great prostration of 
the animal. 

The symptoms of diarrhoea are too well known to require 
any detailed description. 

Treatment. — If in a mild form, the diet should be low ; give 
two ounces of Epsom-salts, twice a day. In a more obsti- 
nate form, give two drachms of carbonate of soda in the food. 
Oak-bark tea will be found very useful in these cases ; or one 
of the following powders, twice a day, will be found very 
advantageous : pulverized opium and catechu, each one and 
a half ounces ; prepared chalk, one drachm ; to be given in 
the feed. 

Calves are particularly subject to this disease, and it often 
proves fatal to them. It sometimes assumes an epizootic 
form, when it is generally of a mild character. So long as 
the calf is lively and feeds well, the farmer should entertain 
no fear for him ; but if he mopes about, refuses his food 
ceases to ruminate, wastes in flesh, passes mucus and blood 
with the fwces, and exhibits symptoms of pain, the case is a 
dangerous one. 

In such an emergency, lose no time, but give two or three 
ounces of Castor-oil with flour-gruel, or two ounces of salts 



220 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

at a dose, followed with small draughts of oak-bark tea ; 
or give, twice a day, one of the following powders : pulverized 
catechu, opium, and Jamaca ginger, of each half an ounce ; 
prepared chalk, one ounce ; mix, and divide into twelve pow- 
ders. Bran washes, green food, and flour-gruel should be 
given, with plenty of salt. 



DYSENTEBY 

This disease is very frequently confounded with the fore- 
going. A distinction, however, exists, — since inflammation 
appears in this disease, while it is absent in the former. In 
this afi"ection, inflammation of the large intestines takes place, 
which is attended with diarrhoea. The fceces are covered 
with blood ; the animal rapidly becomes prostrated, and death 
frequently comes to his relief. 

Youatt says: "It is, however, with dysentery that the 
practitioner is most loth to cope, — a disease that betrays 
thousands of cattle. This, also, may be either acute or 
chronic. Its causes are too often buried in obscurity, and 
its premonitory symptoms are disregarded or unknown. 
There appears to be a strong predisposition in cattle to take 
on this disease It seems to be the winding-up of many 
serious complaints, and the foundation of it is sometimes laid 
by those that appear to be of the most trifling nature. It is 
that in cattle which glanders and farcy are in the horse, — the 
•breaking up of the constitution. 

" Dysentery may be a symptom and concomitant of other 
diseases. It is one of the most fearful characteristics of 
murrain ; it is the destructive accompaniment, or consequence, 
of phthisis. It is produced by the sudden disappearance of 



DYSENTERY. 221 

a cutaneous eruption ; it follows the cessation of chronic 
hoose ; it is the consequence of the natural or artificial sus- 
pension of every secretion. Were any secretion to be par- 
ticularly selected, the repression of which would produce 
dysentery, it would be that of the milk. How often does the 
farmer observe that no sooner does a milch cow cease her 
usual supply of milk than she begins to purge I There may 
not appear to be any thing else the matter with her ; but she 
purges, and, in the majority of cases, that purging is fatal. 

" It may, sometimes, however, be traced to sufficient 
causes, exclusive of previous disease. Unwholesome food — 
exposure to cold — neglect at the time of calving — low and 
marshy situations — the feeding in meadows that have been 
flooded, where it is peculiarly fatal — the grazing (according 
to Mr. Leigh, and our experience confirms his statement) upon 
the clays lying over the blue lias rock — the neighborhood of 
woods and of half-stagnant rivers — the continuation of un- 
usually sultry weather — overwork, and all the causes of 
acute dysentery, may produce that of a chronic nature ; an 
acute dysentery — neglected, or badly, or even most skillfully 
treated — may degenerate into an incurable chronic affection. 
Half starve a cow, or overfeed her, milk her to exhaustion, 
or dry her milk too rapidly — and dysentery may follow. 

" The following will, probably, be the order of the symp- 
toms, if they are carefully observed : There will be a little 
dullness or anxiety of countenance, the muzzle becoming 
short or contracted ; a slight shrinking when the loins are 
pressed upon ; the skin a little harsh and dry ; the hair a 
little rough ; there will be a slight degree of uneasiness and 
shivering that scarcely attracts attention j then — except it be 



222 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

the degeneracy of acute into chronic dystentery — constipa- 
tion may be perceived. It will be to a certain extent, 
obstinate ; the excrement will voided with pain ; it will be 
dry, hard, and expelled in small quantities. In other cases, 
perhaps, purging will be present from the beginning ; the 
animal will be tormented with tenesmus, or frequent desire 
to void its excrement, and that act attended by straining and 
pain, by soreness about the anus, and protrusion of tlie 
rectum, and sometimes by severe colicky spasms. In many 
cases, however, and in those of a chronic form, few of these 
distressing symptoms are observed, even at the commence- 
ment of the disease ; but the animal voids her fceces oftener 
than it is natural that she should, and they are more fluid than 
in a state of health ; while at the same time she loses her 
appetite and spirits and condition, and is evidently wasting 
away." 

Treatment. — Give one drachm of the extract of bella- 
donna, three times a day, dissolved in water ; or calomel and 
powdered opium, of each one drachm three times daily. As 
soon as the inflammatory stage passes by, give one of the fol- 
lowing three times daily, in their gruel : nitrate of potash pul- 
verized, gentian-root pulverized, of each one ounce ; pulverized 
Jamaica ginger, one half an ounce ; pulverized caraway, or 
anise-seed, six drachms. A bottle of porter given once or 
wice a day, will be found of very great advantage. 



ENTEBITIS. 

This is an inflammation of the external or internal coat 
of the intestines, sometimes attended with violent purging, 
especially when it is confined to the internal coats. Oxen in 



ENTERITIS. 223 

good condition are more subject to this disease than are 
cows. It most freqently occurs in dry, hot weather. It is 
sudden in its attacks, and often fatal in its termination. 

Symptoms. — The animal is dull, and not disposed to move 
about ; the muzzle is dry, and the coat staring ; the animal 
yields, on pressure of the loins ; a weak, staggering gait, when 
forced to move ; respiration hurried ; pulse accelerated but 
small ; eyes red, full and fiery ; head protruding ; mouth, 
ears, and horns hot ; appetite bad ; rumination ceases ; the 
bowels become constipated ; the animal moans continually, 
and froths at the mouth. These symptoms violently increase 
as the disease advances. The animal becomes more depressed 
and feeble, grinds his teeth, and appears half unconscious, 
and dies in convulsions. 

Of the causes of this disease, Youatt, who is almost the 
only authority we have upon this subject; says : " It seems 
occasionally to be epidemic ; for several instances of it 
occur, of the same character, and in the same district. M. 
Cruzel gives an illustration of this in his description of the 
disease that destroyed so many cattle, in the years 1826 to 
ISBT, in the Department de la Nievre. Out of two hundred 
and eighteen cattle belonging to three farmers, one hundred 
and thirteen were attacked by this disease, and eighty-three 
of them died. One farmer in a neighboring district had 
nineteen head of cattle, all of which sickened, but only three 
were lost. These were unusually hot summers. The 
upland pasture was burnt up, or what remained of it was 
rendered unusually stimulating ; and the acrid plants of the 
marshes and low grounds accquired additional deleterioua 
agency. 



224 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

"When isolated cases occur, they may generally be 
attributed to mismanagement. Exposure to cold, or the 
drinking of cold water when overheated with work ; too hard 
work in sultry weather ; the use of water stagnant, impure, 
or containing any considerable quantity of metallic salts ; 
the sudden revulsion of some cutaneous eruption ; the 
crowding of animals into a confined place ; too luxuriant 
and stimulating food generally ; and the mildewed and un- 
wholesome food on which cattle are too often kept, are fruitful 
sources of this complaint." 

Treatment. — In the early stage of the disease, give an 
active purge, and follow it with ten drops of Fleming's 
tincture of aconite, 'four times daily, for two days ; then 
give drachm doses of the extract of belladonna ; give no 
food for twenty-four or forty-eight hours, according to cir- 
cumstances. Bleeding, if done early, is often beneficial. 
Counter-irritants to the belly are also recommended ; the best 
are mustard, hartshorn, and water, mixed together — or tinc- 
ture of cantharides, with one drachm of croton-oil added to 
every ounce 

EPIZOOTICS. 

Diseases of this class have the same relation to the inferior 
animals that epidemic diseases have to man. Of course, they 
assume a very pestilential character. Scarcely a yedr passes 
away without diseases of this nature making their appear- 
ance in some parts of the world. They occur at all seasons 
of the year, but more generally prevail in the spring and fall. 
The period of their duration varies from months to years. 
They are, at times, mild in their attacks, and yield readily to 



EPIZOOTICS. 225 

proper treatment ; at other times, they become painful pesti- 
lences, destroying every thing in their course. 

The causes are generally sought for in some peculiar con- 
dition of the atmosphere. The use of the milk and flesh of 
diseased cattle has frequently been productive of malignant 
diseases in the human family. 

Silius Italicus describes a fearful epizootic, which first 
attacked the dog, then the feathered biped, then horses, and 
cattle, and, last of all, the human being. 

" On mules and dogs the infection first began, 
And, last, the vengeful arrows fixed in man." 

Epizootics, occurring in rats, cats, dogs, horses, and cattle, 
which were followed in the succeeding years by more fearful 
ones which attacked the human family, are numerously 
recorded. These scourges have appeared in all ages of the 
world ; but, as time and space will not allow our entering 
upon an extended consideration of them, — however interest- 
ing they miglit be to the general reader, — we shall content 
ourselves by quoting, somewhat in brief, from the lectures 
of the late "William Youatt on these fatal maladies : — 

" In the year 801, and at the commencement of the reign 
of Charlemagne, an epidemic disease devastated a great 
portion of his dominions. This was attributed to the villainy 
of the Duke of Benevento, who was said to have employed a 
great many persons in scattering an enchanted powder over 
the fields, which destroyed both the cattle and the food of the 
cattle. M. Paulet seems inclined to give full credence to 
this, and says that history offers many proofs of this destruc- 
tive and diabolical practice. He affirms that many persona 

15 



226 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

were punished in Germany, France, and, particularly, at 
Toulouse, for the commission of this crime. Several of the 
isuspected agents of these atrocities were put to the torture, 
and made full confession of their crime. 

" Of the occurrence of these diseases from the year 800 to 
1316, — an interval of mental darkness, and of horrors and 
calamities of every kind,-^history records twenty cases, 
more or less destructive, and extending, with greater or less 
devastation, over France and Germany, Italy and England. 
Of these twenty, four date their origin from an excessive 
moisture in the air, accompanied by almost continual rains, 
and flooding the country to a considerable extent. One was 
supposed to be the consequence of long-continued drought 
and excessive heat; one was traced to the influence of an 
eclipse of the sun ; another, to a comet ; and a fourth, to a 
most unusually stormy winter. The reader will have the 
kindness to remember that we are here expressing the 
opinions of the writers of the day, and by no means, our own 
belief of the matter. 

" Of the four which trace their origin to extreme wet and 
its consequences, the first occurred in France, in 820, after a 
long continuance of rain ; and it was equally fatal to men 
and cattle. The second, which was equally fatal to both, 
appeared in Lorraine, in 889. The third broke out among 
the cavalry of the army of Arnoul, in its passage over the 
Alps, on its return to Italy. The fourth pervaded the whole 
of England in 1125, and was equally fatal to the biped and 
the quadruped. 

" That which followed excessive heat and drought, was 
generally prevalent throughout Europe, but especially so in 



EPIZOOTICS. 22*1 

Germany. It attacked oxen, sheep, and pigs. It appeared 
in 994, and lasted six months. 

" The one which was attributed to the comet, and which 
principally attacked cattle, appeared in France in 943. 
Almost every animal perished. 

"Another, that was supposed to be connected with an 
eclipse of the sun, was prevalent throughout the greater part 
of Germany, among men and animals, in 989. 

" The disease, which was the consequence of a cold and 
boisterous winter, was principally prevalent in France, in 
88t, and committed sad ravages among the herds of cattle 
and sheep. 

" Of the twelve others, of which authors do not indicate 
the cause, the first was in France, in 810, and principally 
among cattle. The second was also in France, in 850, and 
almost depopulated the country of cattle. The third, in 868, 
was common to all animals in France. The fourth, in 8T0, 
was in the same country, and caused severe loss among 
cattle. The fifth prevailed on the Rhine and in Germany, 
and destroyed an almost incalculable number of cattle. The 
sixth attacked the horses of the army of Arnoul in Lorraine, 
in 888. The seventh, in 940, destroyed a vast number of 
cattle in France, Italy, and Germany. The eighth and ninth 
were in France, in 941 and 942, and almost all the cattle in 
the country perished. The tenth pestilence broke out in 
England, in the year 1041, and frightful was its devastation 
among all animals, and, particularly, horned cattle. The 
eleventh also devastated our country, in 1103, and the 
ravages were dreadful. The twelfth was chiefly fatal in 
Germany, and particularly in Gueldres, in 1149. 



228 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

" These twenty pestilences occurred in the space of 506 
years. Five or six of them were most prevalent among 
cattle ; two were almost confined to horses ; twelve included, 
to a greater or less degree, almost every species of quadru- 
peds ; and four extended to the human being. Among these 
the ravages of eight were most destructive in France ; as 
many in Germany ; and four in Italy and England. 

" As far as we have hitherto proceeded, it will also ap- 
pear that cattle are more subject to these diseases than any 
other species of domesticated animals, and that the pestilence 
is always most fearful among them. It is also evident that 
the maladies which proceed from cold or humidity are more 
frequent in the temperate and southern parts of Europe than 
those which depend upon drought, or almost any other 
cause. 

" The malady lingers in different countries, in proportion 
to its want of power to accomplish at once all its devasta- 
tion. 

" After this time, there are few satisfactory accounts of 
these diseases for more than five centuries. We only know 
that, occasionally suspending their ravages, — or, rather, visit- 
ing new districts when they had ceased to desolate others 
— they have continued to be objects of terror and instru- 
ments of devastation, even unto the present day ; and it is 
only within a few years that they have been really understood, 
and have become, to a certain degree, manageable." 

In the United States, epizootic diseases have been of 
frequent occurrence ; but, owing to the want of properly 
qualified veterinary surgeons, they have not, until within a 
very recent period, been properly described or understood. 



EPIZOOTICS. 229 

The day, however, is fast approaching when this void will be 
filled, and when epizootic and other diseases will be correctly 
noted and recorded. The necessity for this must have been 
forcibly impressed upon the minds of the inhabitants of our 
country from the experience of the last ten or twelve years. 

Respecting the late epizootic among cattle in Portage 
County, Ohio, William Pierce, V.S., of Ravenna, thus de- 
scribes the symptoms as they appeared, in a letter to the 
author : " A highly-colored appearance of the sclerotic coat 
of the eye, also of the conjunctiva (a lining membrane of 
the eyelid) and the Schneiderian membrane of the nose ; a 
high animal heat about the head and horns ; a highly 
inflammatory condition of the blood ; contraction of all the 
abdominal viscera ; hurried respiration ; great prostration 
and nervous debility ; lameness ; followed by gangrene of 
the extremity of the tail, and the hind-feet ; terminating in 
. mortification and death." 

Mr. Pierce is convinced that these symptoms are produced 
by the continued use of the ergot, or spur of the June grass,— 
the effects being similar to those produced upon the human 
family by long-continued use of ergot of rye. This disease 
assumes both an acute and chronic form. 

The same gentleman also says : " Ordinary observers, as 
well as -those who claim to be scientific, have entertained very 
conflicting opinions as to its general character ; some regard- 
ing it as epizootic, others as contagious ; some attributing it 
to atmospheric influence, others to foulings in the stable or 
.yard. Others, again, attribute it to freezing of the feet in 
winter. Cattle-doctors in a majority of cases, fail to cure it 
I have, however, by a simple course of treatment, effected 



230 



CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 



many signal cures. Some parlies are so confident of the 
contagious character of the disease that they refuse to drive 
cattle along a road where it is known to exist. They even, 
oftentimes, wash their boots previous to entering their barn- 
yards, after walking over the ground where such diseased 
cattle have been running. 

" Caution is both proper and commendable. I do not, 
however, regard it as a contagious disease, nor can it be 
transmitted by inoculation. The calf is carried during the 
progress of the disease, and delivered in apparently good 
health. The milk of the cow appears to be unaffected and 
harmless. I call this disease sphacial fever, or gangrenous 
fever. 

" The ergot, or spur of the hay, is confined to the June grass, 
as far as my observation extends ; owing, probably, to its early 

matu- 
rity.- 
Most 
o t h e r 
kinds 
of grass 
are cut 
before 




^=:?~^ 



the 



THE MAD BULt. 



seeds 

have matured sufficiently to produce the spur. I was sus- 
picious of the foulness of the feed before I examined any 
hay, and have found the spur in the hay wherever the diesase 
is found. 

" Mr. Sanford, of Edinburgh, Ohio, purchased one half of 



EPIZOOTICS. 231 

a mow o'f hay from Mr. Bassett, of Randolph, which was 
removed to his farm in Randolph, eight miles distant. Of 
this hay, Mr. Sanford fed eleven cows some six or eight 
weeks. Mr. Bassett had been feeding the same to four cows. 
At about the same time, both heads began to show lameness. 
I visited Mr. S. after he had lost six cows, and examined the 
remaining five, four of which were lame and the other 
showed symptoms of the disease. He had two other cows, 
one of which was loaned to a neighbor, and the other was 
fed upon different hay, for convenience. The loaned cow 
was returned about the first of March, — the two then run- 
ning with the ailing ones until the 24th of April, when I 
saw them sound and in good health. 

" I then visited Mr. Bassett's stock, which I found infected 
with the same disease, — he having lost one, and the remain- 
ing three being lame, and much debilitated. The hoofs were 
sloughing ofi". Some of the same hay remained in the snow, 
which, upon examination, exhibited an abundance of the 
spur. Upon inquiry, I found that no such disease existed 
between the two farms, or in the neighborhood of either 
Mr. S. or Mr. B. The peculiarity of this circumstance at 
once swept away the last vestige of doubt from my mind. 
Mr. E. Chapman, of Rootstown, accompanied me, and can 
vouch for the correctness of these statements. 

" He hooted at my opinions, asserting that he understood 
the disease, and that it was caused by the freezing of the 
feet. He has since, however, abandoned that idea, and 
honestly 'acknowledged the corn.' This ergot is regarded by 
some as a parasitic fungus, formed in other grains, an abun- 
dant vegeto-animal substance, and much disposed to putrefac- 



232 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

tion. We appear to be in the dark regarding its real 
composition. The little which has been written upon the 
subject, appears to be founded upon hypothesis, and that the 
most obscure. The articles to which I refer may differ in 
quality or property to a considerable extent, and we may 
forever remain in the dark, unless chemical investigation be 
instituted. 

" In this particular disease, there appears to be singularity 
in the symptoms through all its various stages, which is 
likely to originate in the peculiarity of the cause which 
produces them. The effects and symptoms arising from the 
continued use of the ergot of rye, as manifested in the 
human system, have been but briefly hinted at by authors, 
and, probably, some of them are only reasonable conjectures. 
All they say is, that it produces violent headache, spacula- 
tion in the extremities, and death. Hitherto, its effects upon 
th'e inferior animal have been subjected to no investigation, 
and its peculiarity in the symptoms, differing from like 
phenonema by other causes, may yet be demonstrated. I 
am not alone in my opinion of this disease. I have taken 
counsel of those whose judgment cannot be questioned. 
Whatever difference of opinion exists is attributable to a want 
of investigation, and it will continue to exist until this 
singular phenonemon is clearly accounted for. Every opinion 
should be thoroughly criticized till facts are obtained. Every 
man's opinion is sacred to himself, but we should yield to 
conviction, 

" Two classes of this disease are exhibited : one, of irrita- 
tion, and the other, of debility ; one, an acute, the other, a 
chronic form. The point at which it assumes the chronic 



EPIZOOTICS. 233 

form is between conjestion and gangrene. By close ob- 
servation we can discover these to be different and higher 
degrees of tlie same disease. All subsequent degrees are 
dependent upon the first. 

" The first symptom, or degree, is, probably, an attack 
upon the systematic circulation, produced by a certain 
medicinal and deleterious property existing in the ergot, and 
communicated to the blood through the absorption of the 
tongue. This is more evident from the fact that the 
digestive organs retain their normal condition till the last 
stages of the chronic form. The blood in the first two 
stages is healthy, and the peculiar influence is only apparent 
in the subsequent stages ; as evidenced by the fact that the 
muscles and general good appearance, as well as life itself, 
last longer than could be possible, if this deleterious in- 
fluence were exhausted upon the digestive- organs and the 
blood, in its first stages. And, as we suppose that fever and 
congestion constitute an attack upon the red blood, which is 
exhibited by hurried pulsation, we might rationally infer that 
the next degree would be gangrene of the globule, causing 
sloughing, the same as if it were carried to the muscles, or 
surface. This sloughing of the globule would be the same 
as if exhibited on any other part of the organization, for the 
fibrin is identical with muscle, as albumen is identical with 
the white of an egg ; and since congestion is the forerunner 
of gangrene at the extremities, or on the surface, so fever 
and quick pulsation are the forerunners of congestion of the 
blood. Gangrene cannot ensue without obstruction in the 
blood-vessels ; and congestion cannot take place without 
obstruction in that which sustains the globule. As gangrene, 



234 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES, 

then, is the first stage of decomposition of animal matter, 
so is congestion the first stage of decomposition of the 
globule ; and as mortification is death in the organized body, 
so is congestion death in the organized globule. 

" It appears evident that this disease, in all its forms and 
degrees of intensity, seeks vent or release ; in other words, 
Nature conflicting with it, throws it off its track, or balance, 
and offers means of escape, or shows it a door by which it 
may make its exit. In the first stage of the disease, the 
dermoid (skin) tissues make the effort. In the inflammatory, 
the serous, and the congestive, the mucous gangrene seeks 
vent ; if obtained, mortification is prevented ; if not, mortifi- 
cation directly supervenes, and death terminates the case. 

"In the case to which I refer, observation confirms my 
opinion that absolute mortification without vent determines 
the gangrene of the blood, and is hardly curable ; but that 
gangrene's finding vent determines it to be curable, and the 
"ecovery highly probable." 



EPIZOOTIC CATARRH. 

Catarrh frequently assumes an epizootic form of a very 
virulent character, originating spontaneously and extending 
over a large section of country at or about the same time 
A cold spring succeeding a mild winter, is peculiarly pro- 
ductive of malignant catarrh. This is one of the most dis- 
tressing and fatal diseases to which cattle are subject. 

Symptoms. — The animal appears dull, and unwilling to 
move about, staggering when forced to do so ; obstinate 
costiveness is usually one of the earliest symptoms, succeeded 
by diarrhcea, which is equally difficult of management ; some- 



EPIZOOTIC CATARRH. 235 

times, however, diarrhoea is present from the first ; toe animal 
loses flesh rapidly ; the coat is staring ; appetite is lost ; 
tumors form about the head, neck, back, and joints, which 
appear to be filled with air, and upon pressure cause a crepi- 
tating sound; saliva flows from the mouth, becoming very 
fetid as the disease progresses. The animal always dies of 
putrefaction. 

Treatment. — This disease should be treated early, or not at 
all. Good nursing is very essential. When costiveness is 
present, give Barbadoes aloes, one ounce ; croton-oil, ten 
drops ; mix together ; or give one pint of linseed-oil, to which 
add from ten to twenty drops of castor-oil. If the bowels 
are not open in twenty-four hours, give four ounces of 
sulphate of magnesia every six hours until they are opened. 
Follow this with tincture of aconite, ten drops in water, every 
four hours, until the fever has abated. 

Bleeding has been recommended by some writers ; but the 
author has failed to experience any benefit from resorting to 
it, but, on the contrary, has seen much injury result from the 
use — or, rather, the abuse — of the lancet. He is, indeed, 
inclined to attribute much of the fatality attending this 
disease to indiscriminate blood-letting. 

When much debility exists, the animal should bo Sustained 
by tonics and stimulants. One ounce of nitric ether and half 
an ounce of tincture of opium, given in a little water, will b 
found beneficial. It should be given twice a day. Pulver- 
ized gentian-root, one ounce ; Jamaica ginger, half an ounce ; 
pulverized cloves, half an ounce ; mixed, and divided into 
four powders, one to be given at night and at morning ; will 
be found useful, in place of the opium and ether 



236 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

FAEDEL. 

This disease is properly known by the name of clue-bound. 
The manyplus, or omasum (third stomach), frequently be- 
comes so choked up with food that it is hard and dry, and 
the operation of the digestive organs is very seriously im- 
paired. The animal eats voraciously, for a time, but stops 
suddenly and trembles ; the countenance assumes a peculiarly 
haggard appearance ; there is a wild expression of the eye ; 
a foaming at the mouth ; a tendency to pitch forward, and at 
times a falling head-foremost to the ground. Occasionally, 
the symptoms are very active, speedily terminating in death. 
There are few diseases of a constitutional character in which 
the stomach is not, more or less, sympathetically involved. 

"Toward the end of September, 1746, a great number of 
cows died at Osterwich, in the principality of Halberstadt. 
Lieberkuhn, a celebrated physician, — there were no vete- 
rinary surgeons at that time, — was sent to examine into the 
nature of the disease, which was supposed to be one of the 
species of murrain that was then committing such ravages 
among the cattle in various parts of the Continent. There 
were none of the tumors, or pestilential buboes, that, in an 
earlier or later period of the malady, usually accompanied 
and characterized murrain ; but upon inspection of the dead 
bodies, considerable peritoneal inflammation was found ; the 
first and second stomachs were filled with food, but the third 
stomach was the palpable seat of the disease ; its leaves were 
black and gangrened. The mass contained between the 
leaves was black, dry, and so hard that it could scarcely be 
out with a scalpel. It intercepted the passage of the food 



FOUL IN THE FOOT — GARGET. 237 

from the first two stomachs to the fourth ; and this latter 
stomach was empty and much inflamed. Neither the heart, 
nor the lungs, nor the intestines exhibited any trace of 
disease. Twelve cows were opened, and the appearances 
were nearly the same in all of them." 

Treatment. — Give one and a half pounds of Epsom-salts, 
dissolved in three pints of water; or one quart of potash, 
three times daily, dissolved in water, will be found useful in 
this disease 



FOUL IN THE FOOT. 

This is caused by hard or irritating substances making 
their way in between the claws of the foot, causing inflam- 
mation, and sometimes ulceration, in the parts. The pas- 
terns swell, and the animal becomes lame. 

The foot should be thoroughly washed, and all foreign 
substances removed. A pledget of tow, saturated with tar 
and sprinkled with powdered sulphate of copper, should be 
inserted between the claws. This usually requires but one 
or two applications. 



GARGET. 

This is a hard, knotty condition of the udder, whicn 
sometimes follows calving, in consequence of the sudden 
distention of the bag with milk; and the inflammation which 
supervenes causes a congealed or coagulated condition of the 
milk to take place, of which, if neglected, suppuration and 
abscesses are the result. 

Treatment. — Let the calf suck the dam as speedily as 
possible, and, if the hardness is not then removed, foment 



238 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

the udder with warm water ; after which, wipe it dry, and 
apply to the entire surface melted lard as hot as the animal 
will bear. This is, generally, all that is required, the most 
obstinate cases yielding to it. If abscesses form, they should 
ue lanced. 



GASTKO-ENTERITIS. 

This disease — otherwise known as wood-evil, or moor-ill — 
arises from eating the buds of oak, young ash, and other 
trees, which are of a very highly stimulating or irritating 
character. As the intestinal canal is liable to inflammatory 
action from irritant substances admitted into it, animals are 
found to become diseased from eating too freely of these 
vegetable substances 

Symptoms. — Loss of appetite and suspended rumina- 
tion ; mouth hot ; skin dry ; pulse from sixty to seventy ; 
swelling and pain of the belly ; obstinate constipation ; faeces 
hard and covered with blood ; urine of a strong odor, highly 
colored, and voided with difficulty. 

Treatment. — The animal should be bled, and a strong 
purgative administered, followed by aconite and belladonna, 
as in enteritis. Injections of Castile-soap and water should 
be freely used ; the application of the mustard, hartshorn, 
and water to the belly will also be found very beneficial. 



HOOSE. 

This disease — known also as catarrh — is occasionally the 
sequence of coryza, but more frequently it arises from an 
impure atmosphere ; consequently, in cow-houses where 
animals are crowded together in numbers, it is most frequently 



HOOVE. 239 

found. Scanty provender, and of an inferior quality, is 
among the exciting causes of hoose, producing, as it does, 
a debilitated state of the system, which, upon exposure of 
the animal to cold, or wet, hastens the disorder. Some 
breeds of cattle are peculiarly liable to this disease, which, 
if not arrested in its early stage, runs on, involving the lungs, 
and frequently terminating in consumption. Of all our 
domestic animals, neat cattle are most subject to pulmonary 
diseases. This is attributable to the neglect and exposure 
which are far too often their lot. Butchers will testify that 
a large portion of all cattle slaughtered have abscesses and 
other diseases of the lungs. 

Symptoms. — lioss of appetite ; muzzle dry ; coat rough, 
or staring ; respiration quickened ; horns hot ; ears, nose, 
and legs cold ; husky cough ; pulse from sixty to seventy, 
small and thready ; bowels frequently constipated. 

Treatment. — Give one ounce of the following powders 
every six hours, until the bowels are opened : Barbadoes 
aloes, one and half ounces ; nitrate of potassa, half an 
ounce ; ginger, six drachms ; mix and divide into six pow- 
ders. Setons in the dewlap are often of great benefit. 



HOOVE. 

Hoove, or blown, so common, and often so speedily fatal in 
cattle, is the result of fermentation in the rumen, or paunch, 
in consequence of the animal's having eaten large quantities 
of wet grass, luxuriant clover, turnips, etc. An accumula- 
tion of gas is the result of this fermentation, which greatly 
disturbs the haunch and left side of the belly, causing much 
pain to the animal, and frequently threatening suffocation. 



240 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

Treatment. — Drench the animal with one ounce of spirits 
of hartshorn in one quart of water, the object being to neut- 
ralize the gas which is present in the rumen ; or, two ounces 
of table salt dissolved in one quart of water will be found 
very effectual. If these do not speedily give relief, an activ 
purge should be given. Injections of soap and water should 
be freely used. If the case still proves obstinate, and the 
life of the animal is threatened, the paunch should be punc- 
tured. For this purpose, the trochar — an instrument spec- 
ially adapted — should be used ; but, in the absence of an 
instrument, an ordinary pocket-knife may be employed, taking 
care not to make a large opening. The proper point to operate 
is midway between the last rib and the prominent point of 
the hip-bone, about twelve inches from the centre of the back 
or loins. Few cases have a fatal termination where this 
operation has been properly performed. 



HYDATIDS. 

Worms in the brain occasionally occur, causing great un- 
easiness to the animal and generally proving fatal. 

The symptoms are, loss of appetite ; suspended rumina- 
tion ; a fevered condition of the system ; horns and ears hot ; 
respiration disturbed ; coat staring, etc. No course of treat- 
ment will prove eflScacious in this disease. 

Pressure on the brain may occur from an accumulation of 
water, tumors, bruises, etc., in the cranial case. In either 
case, the same effects are produced as are observed in apo- 
plexy 



INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER AND THE HAW. 241 
INFLAMMATION" OF THE BLADDER. 

Inflammation of the bladder generally accompanies in- 
flammation of the kidneys, though it is sometimes found 
disconnected and alone. It is occasionally caused by calcu- 
lous concretions in the bladder, — which should be removed, — 
causing very acute abdominal pain to the animal. She 
makes frequent efforts to stale, passing but a few drops of 
urine at a time. The pulse is full and rapid ; mouth clammy ; 
nose dry ; eyes bloodshot ; appetite lost ; moaning, and walk- 
ing with a staggering gait. 

Treatment. — Inject into the bladder one quart of tepid 
water, and from one to two ounces of tincture of opium 
mixed together. Give internally one of the following powders 
every hour until reheved ; nitrate of potassa, one ounce ; 
tartrate of antimony, and pulverized digitalis leaves, each 
one drachm ; mix, and divide into six powders. Mucilagin- 
ous draughts should be freely given. 

Rupture of the bladder sometimes occurs, but there are no 
symptoms by which it may be known ; and, if there were, no 
service could be rendered in the way of repairing the injury ; 
' the animal must die. 



INFLAMMATION OF THE HA^W. 

The ox, like the horse, has a membrane of semilunar form 
in the inner corner of the eye, which is capable of being 
thrown over the entire eyeball, for the purpose of cleansing 
the eye from any foreign substance which may get into it. 
This membrane is commonly called the haw, and is suscepti- 

16 



242 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES 

ble of attacks of inflammation, which cause it to swell, 
frequently even closing up the eye. 

Treatment. — Give a dose of physic, and, if the animal is 
plethoric, extract a little blood from the vein on the same 
side as the affected eye. Apply to the eye either of the 
following washes :' tincture of opium, one ounce ; rain-water, 
one pint ; or, tincture of aconite, one drachm, to one pint of 
water. Bathe two or three times a day. 



INTIiAMMATION" OF THE KIDNErS. 

This disease — sometimes called nephritis — occurs occasion- 
ally in cattle in consequence of their eating bad or unwhole- 
some food, or of the abuse of diuretics, etc. 

The symptoms are very insidious in their approach. The 
loins are very tender upon pressure ; the urine is voided in 
small quantities. As the disease advances, the symptoms 
become more marked and acute. The animal is dull, and 
feeds daintily ; the evacuation of urine is attended with in- 
creased pain, and the urine is highly colored and bloody ; the 
nose is dry ; the horns, ears, and extremities are cold ; respi- 
ration hurried ; the pulse full, hard, and throbbing. 

Treatment. — Give one pint of linseed-oil and ten drops of 
castor-oil, mixed together; follow this with small doses of 
salts once a day, for three or four days ; give injections of 
water, one half a gallon to two ounces of tincture of arnica. 
Mustard applications to the loins are also very useful. 



INFLAMMATION" OF THE LIVER. 

Diseases of the liver are of very common occurrence, — a 
fact with which all beef- butchers are familiar. Perhaps no 



LARYNGITIS. 243 

organ in tlie animal economy is so liable to disease. The 
obscurity of the symptoms and the good condition of the 
animal prevent its discovery, as a general thing, during its 
lifetime. When, however, the disease assumes an active 
form, — known as the yellows, jaundice, or inflammation of 
the liver, — the symptoms are more readily detected. 

Symptoms. — A yellowish color of the eye will be observed ; 
skin, urine, etc., highly colored; soreness, on pressure, on 
the right side ; loss of appetite ; dullness ; constipation of the 
bowels, etc. 

Treatment. — Calomel is the most reliable medicine known 
to practitioners for diseases of the liver. Its abuse, however, 
has brought it into disrepute. Yet, as with ordinary care it 
may be advantageously used, we will prescribe it as that 
upon which the most dependence is to be placed, and in 
doing so, will endeavor to have it used safely. Bleeding has 
been recommended : but the author has never found any 
benefit resulting. Give Epsom-salts, in doses of four ounces 
each, every night, with one scruple of calomel, antil the 
animal is relieved. Mustard and water should be frequently 
applied to the right side, and well rubbed in. 



IiARYWGITIS. 

This disease is of rare occurrence in cattle. In it, the 
mucous membrane lining the larynx is in a very irritable 
condition ; the least pressure upon the parts affected causes 
intensely excruciating pain ; the respiration becomes quick, 
painful, and laborious ; the animal often appears to be hun- 
g^Ji yet does not eat much, in consequence of the pain 
occasioned by the act of swallowing. 



244 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

Treatment. — Apply to the throat externally strong mustard, 
mixed, with equal parts of aqua ammonia and water, to a ihu 

paste, every hour, 

"^g^ until it produces 

"^ an effect upon the 

skin ; sponging 

-J the parts each 

time with warm 

water before ap- 

AN ABERDEENSHIRE POLLED BULL. P'j^'^O "-'^^ niUS- 

tard. The animal should not be bled. Give upon the 
tongue, or in drink, half-drachm doses of nitrate of potassa, 
every three or four hours, until relief is obtained. If suffo- 
cation threatens, the operation of tracheotomy is the only 
resort. 

Cloths saturated with cold water, wrapped around the 
neck so as to cover the larynx, frequently afford relief. A 
purgative will also be found useful. 




LICE. 

Cattle are very subject to lice, particularly when they are 
neglected, half-starved, and in poor condition. Good care 
and good feeding — in connection with the treatment recom- 
mended in mange, to which the reader is referred — will com- 
prise all that is requisite. 



MANGE. 

Mange, or leprosy is one of the most unpleasant and diffi- 
cult diseases to manage of all the ailments to which cattle 
are subject requiring the nicest care and attention to render 



MANGE. 245 

it easy of cure. An auimal badly nursed will not, under the 
most skillful treatment, quickly recover. Its causes are, in 
the main, due to poor food, which produces a debilitated con- 
dition of the system, and in connection with a want of 
cleanliness, causes a development of the acari, or minuto 
insects, exciting very great irritation upon the skin and caus- 
ing the cow to rub herself against every object with which 
she comes in contact. The hair falls off; a scurfy appear- 
ance of the skin is perceptible ; and the animal is poor in 
condition and in milk. The great trouble in treating this 
disease springs from its contagious character ; for, no sooner 
is the animal, oftentimes, once free from the acari than it 
comes in contact with some object against which it has pre- 
viously been rubbing, when the acari which were left upon 
that object are again brought in contact with the animal, 
and the disease is reproduced. If, immediately after the 
proper applications are mad^, the animal is removed to other 
quarters, and not allowed to return to the former ones for 
six or eight weeks, there is, generally speaking, but little 
trouble in treating the disease. 

Take the animal upon a warm, sunny day, and with a 
scrubbing-brush cleanse the skin thoroughly with Castile- 
soap and water ; when dry, apply in the same manner the 
following mixture ; white hellebore, one ounce ; sulphur 
flower, three ounces ; gas-water, one quart ; mix all well 
together. One or two applications are, generally, all that 
will be required. Give internally one of the following pow- 
dei-s in the feed, night and morning : flowers of sulphur, 
two ounces ; black antimony, one ounce ; nitrate of potassa, 
one ounce ; mix, and divide into eight powders. 



246 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

\ 
MUBBAIN. 

This is one of the most malignant diseases to which cattle 
are liable. Fortunately, however, true murrain is compara- 
tively rare in this great stock-raising country. 

The entire system seems to partake of the disease. The 
first indication of its approach is a feverish condition of the 
system, attended with a frequent and painful cough ; the 
pulse is small, hard, and rapid. As the disease advances, 
the respiration becomes disturbed ; the flanks heave ; vesicu- 
lar eruption is observed upon the teats, mouth, and feet ; the 
horns are cold ; the animal is sometimes lame ; constipation 
and, sometimes, diarrhoea are accompanying symptoms ; 
fasces black and fetid ; the eyes weep and become much 
swollen ; great tenderness along the spine ; a brown or 
bloody discharge from the nose and mouth ; the animal 
moans incessantly, grinds his teeth, rarely lies down, but to 
get up again quickly ; finally, the breath becomes very offen- 
sive ; tumors make their appearance in various parts of the 
body, which, in favorable cases, suppurate, and discharge a 
fetid matter. 

Treatment. — Give one fourth of a pound of Epsom-salts, 
with one drachm of Jamaica ginger, twice a day, for two or 
three days. A bottle of porter, twice a day, will be found 
serviceable. Yery little medicine is required internally in 
this disease, but much depends upon good nursing. Exter- 
nal applications are chiefly to be depended upon. A solu- 
tion of chloride of lime should be applied to the eruptions, 
or a solution of the chloride of zinc, twenty grains to an 
ounce of water; or, of sulphate of zinc, two drachms to a 



NAVEL-ILL — OBSTRUCTIONS IN GULLET, 24T 

pint of water ; or pulverized charcoal applied to the parts 
will be found useful. 



WAVEL-ILIi. 

Inflammation of the navel in calves occasionally occurs, 
causing redness, pain, and sudden swelling in the part affected. 
This disease, if not promptly attended to, speedily carries off 
the creature. 

Treatment. — Foment the part well with warm hop-tea ; 
after which, the application of a cloth, well saturated with 
lead-water and secured by bandages, should be applied. In- 
ternally, doses of Epsom-salts, of two ounces each, dissolved 
in half a pint of water, should be given until the bowels are 
acted upon. After the inflammation has subsided, to coun- 
teract the weakness which may follow, give a bottle of porter 
two or three times a day. 



OBSTRUCTIONS IIT THE CESOPHAGUS. 

Choking in cattle is of common occurrence, in consequence 
of turnips, potatoes, carrots, or other liard substances, be- 
coming lodged in the oesophagus, or gullet. 

These obstructions can sometimes be removed by careful 
manipulations with the hand ; but, where this can not be 
accomplished, the flexible probang should be employed. 
This is a long India-rubber tube, with a whalebone stillet 
running through it, so as to stiffen it when in use. Thip 
instrument is passed down the animal's throat, and the 
offending substance is thus pushed down into the stomach. 



248 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

OPEN JOINTS. 

Opening of the joint generally results from accidents, from 
puncturing with sharp substances, from kicks, blows, etc. 
These injuries cause considerable nervous irritation in the 
system, and sometimes cause lock-jaw and death. 

Treatment. — Close up the wound as speedily as possible. 
The firing-iron will sometimes answer the purpose very well. 
The author depends more upon the application of collodion — 
as recommended in his work upon " The Horse and His 
Diseases" for the same trouble — than upon any other remedy. 
It requires care in its application, in order to make it adhere 
firmly. Shoemakers'- wax, melted and applied, answers a very 
good purpose. 

PAETUBITION. 

In natural labor — as has been suggested in a former part 
of this work — the aid of man is rarely required in bringing 
away the calf. But it not infrequently happens that, from 
malformation or wrong presentation, our assistance is re- 
quired in order to deliver the animal. 

The brute force, which has been far too often heretofore 
resorted to, should no longer be tolerated, since the lives of 
many valuable animals have been sacrificed by such treat- 
ment. Yery often, by gentle manipulation with the greased 
hand, the womb can be so dilated as to afford a comparatively 
easy exit for the foetus. 

If, however, the calf is presented wrong, it must be pushed 
back and placed in its proper position, if possible. In 
natural labor, the fore-legs, with the head lying between 



PARTURITION. 249 

them, are presented ; in which position — unless deformity, 
either in the pelvis of the cow, or in the foetus, exists — tlie 
calf is passed with little difficulty, aud without assistance. 
It sometimes happens that the head of the foetus is turned 
backward. When this happens, the attendant should at 
once strip himself to the waist, bathe his arms and hands 
with a little sweet-oil, or lard, and introduce them into the 
vagina, placing a cord around both fore-feet, and then, 
pushing them back, search for the head, which is to be 
brought forward to its proper position. The feet are next to 
be brought up with it. No force should be used, except 
when the cow herself makes the effort to expel the calf; 
otherwise, more harm than good may be done. 

A case of this kind recently occurred in the author's 
practice, being the third within a year. The subject was a 
cow belonging to William Hance, Esq., of Bordentown, New 
Jersey. After she had been in labor for some twenty hours, 
he was called upon to see her. Upon inquiry, he found that 
several persons had been trying, without success, to relieve 
her. She was very much prostrated, and would, doubtless, 
have died within two or three hours, had no relief been 
afforded. The legs of the foetus protruded as far as the 
knees ; the head was turned backward, and with the body, 
pressed firmly into the vagina, so that it was impossible to 
return it, or to bring the head forward. The operation of 
embryotomy was, therefore, at once performed, by cutting 
away the right shoulder, which enabled the operator, with 
the aid of his appropriate hooks, to bring the head forward, 
when the calf came away without further trouble, — the whole 
operation not requiring fifteen minutes. The uterus was 



250 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

then washed out, and the animal placed in as comfortable a 
position as possible, and a stimulating draught given, com- 
posed of two ounces of nitric ether, one ounce of tincture of 
opium, and a half pint of water. This was followed with a 
iew doses of Fleming's tincture of aconite, ten drops in a 
little water, every few hours. In a few days the animal had 
entirely recovered. 

Occasionally, the head comes first, or the head and one 
leg. In such cases, a cord should be slipped around the jaw 
and leg, and these then pushed back, so as to allow the other 
leg to be brought up. When this cannot be done, the foetus 
can, in most cases, be removed in the original position. 

Breech, side, back, and other presentations sometimes 
occur ; in all of which instances, the foetus must be turned 
in such a position that it can be brought away with as little 
trouble as possible. When this cannot be accomplished, the 
only resort is embryotomy, or cutting up of the foetus, 
which operation can only be safely performed by the quali- 
fied veterinary surgeon. 

Since writing the above, another case has occurred in the 
author's practice. The cow — belonging to Samuel Barton, 
Esq., near Bordentown, New Jersey — had been in labor some 
eighteen hours ; upon an examination of the animal, the 
calf was found to be very much deformed, presenting back- 
wards, — one of the hind-legs having been pulled off by the 
person or persons assisting her previous to the author's 
arrival. Finding it impossible to deliver her in the usual 
way, emrbyotomy was in this instance employed. By this 
means, after taking out the intestines, lungs, etc., of the 
foetus, and cutting away its hind-quarters, the fore-parts 



PARTURITION. 251 

werp brought away. The head presented a singular appear- 
ance ; the under jaw was so twisted as to bring the front 
teeth on the side of the face ; the spinal column or back- 
bone, was turned twice around, resembling a spiral string ; 
the front legs were over the back ; the ribs were much con- 
torted ; the hind-parts were as much deformed ; and, taken 
altogether, the deformity was the most singular which has 
been brought under the author's observation. 

Free Martins. — It has long been supposed by stock- 
breeders, that if a cow produce twins, one of which is a 
male and the other a female, the female is incapable of pro- 
ducing young, but that the male may be a useful animal for 
breeding purposes. Many instances have occurred when 
the twin sister of a bull has never shown the least desire for 
the male. 

This indifference to sexual commerce arises, doubtless, from 
the animal's being but imperfectly developed in the organs 
of generation. This fact has been established by the investi- 
gations of Mr. John Hunter, who had three of these animals 
slaughtered for anatomical examination. The result is thus 
reported : " The external parts were rather smaller than is 
customary in the cow. The vagina passed on, as in the cow, 
to the opening of the urethra, and then it began to contract 
into a small canal, which passed on into the division of the 
u/eruH into the two horns ; each horn passed along the edge 
of the broad ligament laterally toward the ovaria. 

" At the termination of these horns were placed both the 
ovaries and the testicles. Both were nearly of the same 
size, which was about as large as a small nutmeg. To the 
ovaria, I could not find any Fallopian tube. 



252 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

" To the testicles were vasa deferentia, but the}' were im- 
perfect. The left oue did not come near the testicle ; the 
right one only came close to it, but did not terminate in the 
body called the epididymis. They were both pervious and 
pened into the vagina, near the opening of the urethra. 

" On the posterior surface of the bladder, or between the 
uterus and the bladder, were the two bags, called vesiculce semi- 
nales in the male, but much smaller than they are in the bull. 
The ducts opened along with the vasa deferentia. This animal, 
then, had a mixture of all the parts, but all of them were im- 
perfect. " 

Well-authenticated cases have, however, occurred where 
the female has bred, and the offspring proved to be good 
milkers. There are several instances on record of cows' giv- 
ing birth to three, four, and even five calves at a time. There 
were on exhibition, in 1862, at Bordentown, New Jersey, 
thrSe free martins, two sisters and a brother, which were 
beautiful animals. These were from a cow belonging to Mr. 
Joab Mershon, residing on Biles Island, situated in the 
Delaware River, a short distance above Bordentown. They 
were calved November 1st, 1858, and were therefore nearly 
four years of age. They had never shown the least desire 
for copulation. Their aggregate weight was 4300 pounds. 

We extract the following from the London Yeterinarian, 
for 1854 : — "A cow, belonging to Mr. John Marshall, of Rep- 
ton, on Wednesday last, gave birth to j^ne, live healthy calves, 
all of which are, at the time I write, alive and vigorous, and 
have every appearance of continuing so. They are all nearly 
of a size, and are larger and stronger than could be supposed. 
Four of them are bull-calves. 



PARTURITION. 253 

"The dam is by no means a large one, is eleven years old, 
of a mongrel breed, and has never produced more than one 
offspring at any previous gestation. I saw her two days 
after she had calved, at which time she was ruminating, and 
did not manifest any unusual symptoms of exhaustion. I 
may mention that the first four calves presented naturally ; 
the fifth was a breech-presentation." 

Cleansing. — The placenta, or after-birth, by which the 
foelus is nourished while in embryo, should be removed soon 
after calving. Generally, it will come away without any 
assistance. This is what is called "cleansing after calving." 
When, however, it remains for some time, its function having 
been performed, it becomes a foreign body, exciting uterine 
contractions, and therefore injurious. The sooner, then, it is 
removed, the better for the animal as well as the owner. To 
accomplish this, the hand should be introduced, and, by 
pulling gently in various directions, it will soon yield and 
come away. Should it be allowed to remain, it rapidly 
decomposes, producing a low, feverish condition of the 
system, which greatly interferes with the general health of 
the animal. 

Inversion of the Uterus. — The uterus is sometimes turned 
inside out after calving. This is, generally, the result of 
debility, or severe labor. The uterus should be replaced as 
carefully as possible with the hands, care being taken that no 
dirt, straw, or other foreign substance adheres to it. Should 
it again be expelled, it would be advisable to quiet the system 
by the use of an anaesthetic, as chloroform, or — which is much 
safer — chloric ether. As soon as the animal is under the 
influence of this, the uterus may be again replaced. The 



254 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

hind-quarters should be raised as high as possible, in order to 
favor its retention. " The animal should have a little gruel 
and a bottle of porter given to her every five or six hours, 
and the vulva should be bathed frequently with cold water. 



PHHENITIS. 

Inflammation of the brain is one of those dreadful diseases 
to which all animals are liable. It is known to the farmer as 
frenzy, mad staggers, etc. 

The active symptoms are preceded by stupor ; the animal 
stubbornly stands in one position ; the eyes are full, red, and 
fiery ; respiration rapid ; delirium soon succeeds ; the animal, 
bellowing, dashes wildly about, and seems bent on mischief, 
rushing madly at every object which comes in its way. 

The causes of this disease are overwork in warm weather, 
a plethoric condition of the system, and too stimulating food. 
Prof Gamgee, of the Edinburgh Veterinary College, relates 
a case resulting from the presence within the external meatus 
of a mass of concrete cerumen, or wax, which induced in- 
flammation of the ear, extending to the brain. 

Treatment. — As this is attended with considerable risk, 
unless it is taken prior to the frenzied stage, bleeding almost 
to fainting should be resorted to, and followed by a brisk 
purge. Take one ounce of Barbadoes aloes, and ten to fifteen 
drops of Croton-oil ; mix the aloes with one pint of water and 
the oil, using the mixture as a drench. One pound of Epsom- 
salts will answer the purpose very well, in cases where the 
aloes and oil cannot be readily obtained. Application of 
bags of broken ice to the head, is very beneficial. Spirits of 
turpentine, or mustard, together with spirits of hartshorn and 



PLEURISY. 255 

water should be well rubbed in along the spine, from the 
neck to the tail. 

PLEURISY. 

This is an inflammation of the pleura, or the serous 
membrane which lines the cavity of the chest, and which is 
deflected over the lungs. Inflammation of this membrane 
rarely occurs in a pure form, but is more generally associated 
with inflammation of the tissue of the lungs. If this disease 
is not attended to at an early period, its usual termination is 
in hydrothorax, or dropsy of the chest. The same causes 
which produce inflammation of the lungs, of the bronchia, 
and of the other respiratory organs, produce also pleurisy. 

Symptoms. — The respiration is quick, short, and painful ; 
pressure between the ribs produces much pain ; a low, short, 
painful cough is present ; the respiratory murmur is much 
diminished, — in fact, it is scarcely audible. This condition is 
rapidly followed by efi'usion, which may be detected from the 
dullness of the sounds, on applying the ear to the lower part 
of the lungs. The febrile symptoms disappear ; the animal 
for a few days appears to improve, but soon becomes weak, 
languid, and often exhausted from the slightest exertion. 

Treatment. — The same treatment in the early stage is 
enjoined as in inflammatory pneumonia, which the reader 
will consult — counter-irritation and purgatives. Bleeding 
never should be resorted to. When effusion takes place, it 
is necessary to puncture the sides with a trochar, and draw 
away the fluid, giving internally one of the following purges 
three times a day : rosin, eight ounces ; saltpetre, two ounces : 
mix, an'd divide into eight powders. Half-drachm doses of 



256 



CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 



the iodide of potash, dissolved in water, to be given three 
times daily, will be found useful in this disease. 



PLEURO-PWEUMOWIA. 

This disease, as its name implies, is an inflammatory con- 
dition of the lungs and the pleura, or the enveloping mem- 
brane of the lungs and the lining membrane of the chest. It 
is sometimes called contagious, infectious, and epizootic 
pleuro-pneumonia, — contagious or infectious, from its sup- 
posed property of transmission from the diseased to the 
healthy animal. 

A contagious character the author is not ready to assign 
to it, — contagious, as he understands it, being strictly applica- 
ble to those diseases which depend upon actual contact with 
the poison that it may be communicated from one animal to 
.^.^L^-= s. ^2^^- --rrs s^^v; another. This 
i ^^^B' does not ne- 
^^ ^^p cessarily im- 
ply the actual 
touching of 
the animals 
themselves ; 
for it may be 
c omm u n i - 
cated from the 
poison left in 

the trough, or other places where the diseased animal has 
been brought in contact with some object, as is often the 
case in glanders in the horse ; the matter discharged from 
the nose, and left upon the manger, readily communicating 




TAKING AN OBSERVATION. 



PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 251 

that disease to healthy animals coming in contact with it. 
Contagious diseases, therefore, travel very slowly, starting, 
as they do, at one point, and -gradually spreading over a large 
district, or section of country. 

This disease is, however, regarded by the author as infec- 
tious ; by which term is meant that it is capable of being 
communicated from the diseased to the healthy animal 
through the medium of the air, which has become contami- 
nated by the exhalations of poisonous matter. The ability 
to inoculate other animals in this way is necessarily confined 
to a limited space, sometimes not extending moi'e than a few 
yards. Infectious diseases, accordingly, spread with more 
rapidity than contagious ones, and are, consequently, more 
to be dreaded ; since we can avoid the one with compara- 
tively little trouble, while the other often steals upon us 
when we regard ourselves as beyond its influence, carrying 
death and destruction in its course. 

The term by which this disease is known, is a misnomer. 
Pleuro-pneumonia proper is neither a contagious, nor an 
infectious disease ; hence, the denial of medical men that this 
so-called pleuro-pneumonia is a contagious, or infectious 
disease, has been the means of unnecessarily exposing many 
animals to its poisonous influence. 

In the Becueil de Medecine Veterinaire, for 1833, will be 
found a very interesting description of this fatal malady. 
The author, M. Lecoy, Assistant Professor at the Yeterinary 
School of Lyons, France, says : " There are few districts in 
the arrondissement of Avesnes where more cattle are fattened 
than in that of Soire-le-Chateau. The farmers being unable 
to obtain a sufficient supply of cattle in the district, are 
17 



258 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

obliged to purchase the greater part of them from othei 
provinces ; and they procure a great number for grazing 
from Franche Comte. The cattle of this country are very 
handsome ; their forms are compact ; they fatten rapidly ; 
and they are a kind of cattle from which the grazer would 
derive most advantage, were it not that certain diseases 
absorb, by the loss of some of the animals, the profits of the 
rest of the herd. Amongst the diseases which most fre- 
quently attack the cattle which are brought from the North, 
there is one very prevalent in some years, and which is the 
more to be dreaded as it is generally incurable ; and the 
slaughter of the animal, before he is perceptibly wasted, is 
the only means by which the farmer can avoid losing the 
whole value of the beast. 

" This disease is chronic pleuro-pneumonia. The symp- 
toms are scarcely recognizable at first, and often the beast is 
ill for a long time without its being perceived. He fattens 
well, and when he is slaughtered the owner is astonished to 
find scarcely half of the lungs capable of discharging the 
function of respiration. When, however, the ox has not 
sufficient strength of constitution to resist the ravages of 
disease, the first symptom which is observed is diminution, 
or irregularity of appetite. Soon afterwards, a frequent, dry 
cough is heard, which becomes feeble and painful as the 
disease proceeds. The dorso-lumbar portion of the spine 
(loins) grows tender ; the animal flinches when the part is 
pressed upon, and utters a peculiar groan, or grunt, which 
the graziers regard as decisive of the malady. 

" Quickly after this, the movements of the flanks become 
irregular and accelerated, and the act of respiration is accom- 



PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 25S 

panied by a kind of balancing motion of the whole body. 
The sides of the chest become as tender as the loins, or more 
so ; for the animal immediately throws himself down, if 
pressed upon with any force. The elbows become, in many 
subjects, more and more separated from the sides of the 
chest. The pulse is smaller than natural, and not considera- 
bly increased. The muzzle is hot and dry, alternately. The 
animal lies down as in a healthy state, but rumination is 
partially or entirely suspended. The fceces are harder than 
they should be ; the urine is of its natural color and quantity ;. 
the mouth is often dry; and the horns and ears retain their 
natural temperature. 

" This first stage of the disease sometimes continues during 
a month, or more, and then, if the animal is to recover, or 
at least, apparently so, the symptoms gradually disappear. 
First of all, the appetite returns, and the beast begins to 
acquire a little flesh. The proprietor should then make 
haste and get rid of him ; for it is very rare that the malady, 
however it may be palliated for a while, does not reappear 
with greater intensity than before. 

" In most cases, the disease continues to pursue its course 
toward its termination without any remission, — every symp- 
tom gj-adually increasing in intensity. The respiration be- 
comes more painful ; the head is more extended ; the eyes 
are brilliant ; every expiration is accompanied with a grunt, 
and by a kind of puckering of the angles of the lips ; the 
cough becomes smaller, more suppressed, and more painful ; 
the tongue protrudes from the mouth, and a frothy mucus is 
abundantly discharged ; the breath becomes offensive ; a 
purulent fluid of a bloody color escapes from the nostrils; 



260 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

diarrhoea, profuse and fetid, succeeds to the constipation ; the 
animal becomes rapidly weaker ; he is a complete skeleton, 
and at length he dies. 

"Examination after death discloses slight traces of in- 
flammation in the intestines, discoloration of the liver, and 
a hard, dry substance contained in the manyplus. The 
lungs adhere to the sides and to the diaphragm by nu- 
merous bands, evidently old and very firm. The substance 
of the lungs often presents a reddish-gray hepatization 
throughout almost its whole extent. At other times, there 
are tubercles in almost every state of hardness, and in that 
of suppuration. The portion of the lungs that is not hepa- 
tized is red, and gorged with blood. Besides the old adhe- 
sions, there are numerous ones of recent date. The pleura 
is not much reddened, but by its thickness in some points, 
its adhesion in others, and the effusion of a serous fluid, it 
proves how much and how long it has participated in the 
inflammatory action. The trachea and the bronchia are 
slightly red, and the right side of the head is gorged with 
blood. 

"In a subject in which, during life, I could scarcely 
feel the beating of the heart, I found the whole of the left 
lobe of the lungs adhering to the sides, and completely hepa- 
tized. In another, that had presented no sign of disease of 
the chest, and that for some days before his death vomited 
the little fodder which he could take, the whole of that por- 
tion of the oesophagus that passed through the chest was 
surrounded with dense false membranes, of a yellowish hue, 
ranging from light to dark, and being in some parts more 
than an inch in thickness, and adhering closely to the mus- 



PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 261 

cular membrane of the tube, without allowing any trace to 
be perceived of that portion of the mediastinal pleura on 
which this unnatural covering was fixed and developed. 

" The cattle purchased in Tranche Comt6 are brought to 
Avesnes at two periods of the year — in autumn and in the 
spring. Those which are brought in autumn are much more 
subject to the disease than those which have arrived in the 
spring ; and it almost always happens that the years in which 
it shows itself most generally are those in which the weather 
was most unfavorable while the cattle were on the road. 
The journey is performed by two different routes, — through 
Lorraine and through Champagne, — and the disease frequently 
appears in cattle that have arrived by one of these routes. 
The manner in which the beasts are treated, on their arrival, 
may contribute not a little to the development of the malady. 
These animals, which have been driven long distances in bad 
weather, and frequently half starved, arrived famished, and 
therefore the more fatigued, and some of them lame. Cal- 
culating on their ravenous appetite, the graziers, instead of 
giving them wholesome food, make them consume the worst 
that the farm contains, — musty and mouldy fodder ; and it is 
usually by the cough, which the eating of such food nec- 
essarily produces, that the disease is discovered and first de- 
veloped. 

" Is chronic pleuro-pneumonia contagious ? The farmers 
believe that it is, and I am partly of their opinion. When 
an animal falls sick in the pasture, the others, after his 
removal, go and smell at the grass where he has lain, and 
which he has covered with his saliva, and, after that, new 
cases succeed to the first. It is true that this fact is not 



262 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

conclusive, since the disease also appears in a great number 
of animals that have been widely separated from each other. 
But I have myself seen three cases in which the cattle of the 
country, perfectly well before, have fallen ill, and died with 
the same symptoms, excepting that they have been more 
acute, after they have been kept with cattle affected with this 
disease. This circumstance inclines me to think that the 
disease is contagious ; or, at least, that, in the progress of it, 
the breath infects the cow-house in which there are other 
animals already predisposed to the same disease. I am in- 
duced to believe that most of the serious internal diseases 
are communicated in this manner, and particularly those 
which affect the organs of respiration, when the animals are 
shut up in close, low, and badly- ventilated cow-houses." 
[Bee. de Med. Vet. Mai, 1833.] 

No malady can be more terrible and ruinous than this 
among dairy-stock ; and its spread all over the country, to- 
gether with its continuance with scarcely any abatement, 
must be attributed to the combination of various causes. 
The chief are : first, the very contagious or infectious nature 
of the disorder ; second, inattention on the part of Govern- 
ment to the importation and subsequent sale of diseased 
animals ; and, third, the recklessness of purchasers of dairy 
or feeding cattle. 

This disease may be deiined as an acute inflammation of 
the organs of the chest, with the development of a peculiar 
and characteristic poison, which is the active element of in- 
fection or contagion. It is a disease peculiar to the cattle 
tribe, notwithstanding occasional assertions regarding obser- 
vations of the disease among horses, sheep, and other 



PLETJRO-PNEUMONIA. 263 

animals, — which pretended observations have not been well 
attested. 

The infectious, or contagious nature of this virulent malady 
is incontestibly substantiated by an overwhelming amount 
of evidence, which cannot be adduced at full length here, 
but which may be classified under the following heads : first, 
the constant spreading of the disease from countries in which 
it rages to others which, previously to the importation of 
diseased animals, had been perfectly free from it. This may 
be proved in the case of England, into which country it was 
carried in 1842, by affected animals from Holland. Twelve 
months after, it spread from England to Scotland, by means 
of some cattle sold at All-Hallow Fair, and it was only twelve 
months afterward that cattle imported as far north as Inver- 
ness took the disease there. Lately, a cow taken from 
England to Australia was observed to be diseased upon 
landing, and the evil results were limited to her owner's stock, 
who gave the alarm, and ensured an effectual remedy dgainst 
a wider spread. Besides, the recent importation of pleuro- 
pneumonia into the United States from Holland appears to 
have awakened our agricultural press generally, and to have 
convinced them of the stubborn fact that our cattle have been 
decimated by a fearfully infectious, through probably prevent- 
able, plague. A letter from this country to an English 
author says : " Its (pleuro -pneumonia's) contagious charac- 
ter seems to be settled beyond a doubt, though some of the 
V. S. practitioners deny it, which is almost as reasonable as it 
would be to deny any other well-authenticated historic 
fact. Every case of the disease is traceable to one of two 
sources; either to Mr. Chenery's stock in Belmont (near 



264 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

Boston, Massachusetts), into which the disease was introduced 
by his importation of four Dutch cows from Holland, which 
arrived here the 23d of last May ; or else to one of the three 
calves which he sold to a farmer in North Brookfield, Mas- 
achusetts, last June." 

'idly. Apart from the importation into countries, we have 
this certain proof — to which special attention was drawn 
several years ago — that cattle-dealers' farms, and public 
markets, constitute the busy centres of infection. Most 
anxious and careful inquiries have established the proposition 
that in breeding-districts, where the proprietors of extensive 
dairies — as in Dumfries, Scotland, and other places — abstain 
from buying, except from their neighbors, who have never 
had diseases of the lungs amongst their stock, pleuro-pneu- 
monia has not been seen. There is a wide district in the 
vicinity of Abington, England, and in the parish of Craw- 
ford, which has not been visited by this plague, with the 
exception of two farms, into which market- cattle had been 
imported and thus brought the disease. 

'6dly. In 1854 appeared a Report of the Researches on 
Pleuro-Pneumouia, by a scientific commission, instituted by the 
Minister of Agriculture in France. This very able pamphlet 
was edited by Prof Bouley, of Alfort, France. The mem- 
bers of the commission belonged to the most eminent 
veterinarians and agriculturists in France. Magendie was 
President; Regnal, Secretary ; besides Rayer, the renowned 
comparative pathologist ; Yvart, the Inspector-General of the 
Imperial Veterinary Schools ; Renault, Inspector of the 
Imperial Veterinary Schools ; Delafond, Director of Alfort 
College ; Bouley, Lassaigne, Baudemont, Doyere, Manny de 



PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 265 

Moray, and a few others representing the public. If such 
a commission wez*e occasionally appointed in this country for 
similar purposes, how much light would be thrown on subjects 
of paramount importance to the agricultural community ! 

Conclusions arrived at by the commission are too import- 
ant to be overlooked in this connection. The reader must 
peruse the Report itself, if he needs to satisfy himself as to 
the care taken in conducting the investigations : but the fore- 
going names sufficiently attest the indisputable nature of the 
facts alluded to. 

In instituting its experiments, the commission had in view 
the solving of the following questions : — 

Istly. Is the epizootic pleuro-pneumonia of cattle suscepti- 
ble of being transmitted from diseased to healthy animals by 
cohabitation ? 

2dly. In the event of such contagion's existing, would ail 
the animals become affected, or what proportion would resist 
the disease ? 

Sdly. Amongst the animals attacked by the disease, how 
many recover, and under what circumstances ? How many 
succumb ? 

ithly. Are there any animals of the ox species decidedly 
free from any susceptibility of being affected from the conta- 
g'on of pleuro-pneumonia ? 

5thly. Do the animals, which have been once affected by 
a mild form of the disease, enjoy immunity from subsequent 
attacks ? 

Qthly. Do the animals, which have once been affected by 
the disease in its active form, enjoy such immunity ? 

To determine these questions, the commission submitted 



266 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

at different times to the influence of cohabitation with diseased 
animals forty-six perfectly healthy ones, chosen from districts 
in which they had never been exposed to a similar influence. 

Of these forty-six animals, twenty were experimented on 
at Pomeraye, two at Charentonneau, thirteen at Alfort, and 
eleven, in the fourth experiment, at Charentonneau. 

Of this number, twenty-one animals resisted the disease 
when first submitted to the influence of cohabitation, ten 
suffered slightly, and fifteen took the disease. Of the fifteen 
affected, four died, and eleven recovered. Consequently, the 
animals which apparently escaped the disease at the first 
trial amounted to 45.65 per cent., and those affected to 21.13 
per cent. Of these, 23.91 per cent, recovered, and 8.69 per 
cent. died. But the external appearances in some instances 
proved deceptive, and six of the eleven animals of the last 
experiment, which were regarded as having escaped free, 
were found, on being destroyed, to bear distinct evidence of 
having been affected. This, therefore, modifies the foregoing 
calculations, and the numbers should stand thus : — 

15 enjoy immunity, or 32.61 per cent. 

10 indisposed, " 21. 73 

IT animals cured, " 36.95 

4 dead, " 8.98 " 

Of the forty-two animals which were exposed in the first 
experiments at Pomeraye and Charentonneau, and which 
escaped either without becoming affected, or recovering, 
eighteen were submitted to a second trial ; and of these 
eighteen animals, five had, in the first expei'iment, suffered 
from the disease and had recovered ; five had now become 
affected ; and four had been indisposed. The four animals 



PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 26t 

submitted to the iDfluence of contagion a third time, had been 
afifected on the occasion of the first trial. None of the 
eighteen animals contracted the disease during these renewed 
exposures to the influence of contagion. 

From the results of these experiments, the commission 
drew the following conclusions : — 

\sfly. The epizootic pleuro-pneumonia is susceptible of 
being transmitted from diseased to healthy animals by co- 
habitation. 

2dly. All the animals exposed do not take the disease; 
some suffer slightly, and others not at all. 

3dly. Of the affected animals, some recover and others die. 

4:thly. The animals, whether slightly or severely affected, 
possess an immunity against subsequent attacks. 

These are the general conclusions which the commission 
deemed themselves authorized to draw from their experi- 
ments. The absolute proportion of animals which become 
affected, or which escape the disease, or of those which die 
and which recover, as a general rule, cannot be deduced from 
the foregoing experiments, which, for such a purpose, are too 
limited. The commission simply state the numbers resulting 
from their experiments. From these it transpires that forty 
five of the animals became severely affected with pleurO' 
pneumonia, and twenty-one per cent, took the disease 
slightly, making the whole sixty-six per cent, which wer 
more or less severely attacked. Thirty-four per cent, re- 
mained free from any malady. The proportion of animals 
which re-acquired their wonted appearance of health amounted 
to eighty-three per cent., whereas seventeen per cent. died. 
Many minor points might be insisted on, but it is sufficient 



2C3 



CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 



here to say, that the most careful analysis of all facts has 
proved to practical veterinarians, as well as to experienced 
agriculturists, and must prove to all who will calmly and 
dispassionately consider the point, that pleuro-pneumonia is 
pre-eminently an infectious, or contagious disease. 

Symptoms. — From the time that an animal is exposed to 
the contagion to the first manifestation of symptoms, a 
certain period elapses. This is the period of incubation. It 
varies from a fortnight to forty days, or even several months. 
The first signs, proving that the animal has been seized, can 
scarcely be detected by any but a professional man ; though, 
if a proprietor of cattle were extremely careful, and had 
pains-taking individuals about his stock, he would invariably 
notice a slight shiver as ushering in the disorder, which for 
several days, even after the shivering fit, would limit itself to 

slight interfer- 
ence in breath- 
ing, readily de- 
tected on aus- 
cultation. Per- 
haps a cough 
might be no- 
ticed, and that 
the appetite and 
milk-secretion 
diminished. The animal becomes costive, and the shivering 
fits recur. The cough becomes more constant and oppressive ; 
the pulse full and frequent, usually numbering about eighty 
per minute at first, and rising to upwards of one hundred. 
The temperature of the body rises, and all the symptoms of 




THE TWINS. 



PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 269 

acute fever set in. A moan, or grunt, in the early part of 
the disease indicates a dangerous attack, and the alae nasi 
(cartilages of the nose) rise spasmodically at each inspiration ; 
the air rushes through the inflamed windpipe and bronchial 
tubes, so as to produce a loud, coarse respiratory murmur ; 
and the spasmodic action of the abdominal muscles indicates 
the difficulty the animal also experiences in the act of expira- 
tion. Pressure over the intercostal (between the ribs) spaces, 
and pressing on the spine, induce the pain so characteristic 
of pleurisy, and a deep moan not infrequently follows such 
an experiment. The eyes are bloodshot, mouth clammy, 
skin dry and tightly bound to the subcutaneous textures, and 
the urine is scanty and high-colored. 

Upon auscultation, the characteristic dry, sonorous rale 
of ordinary bronchitis may be detected along the windpipe, 
and in the bronchial tubes. A loud sound of this description 
is, not infrequently, detected at the anterior part of either 
side of the chest ; whilst the respiratory murmur is entirely 
lost, posteriorly, from consolidation of the lungs. A decided 
leathery, frictional sound is detected over a considerable 
portion of the thoracic surface. As the disease advances, 
and gangrene, with the production of cavities m the lungs, 
ensues, loud, cavernous rales are heard, whicli are more or 
less circumscribed, occasionally attended by a decided metal- 
lic noise. When one lobe of the lungs is alone affected, the 
morbid sounds are confined to one side, and on the healthy 
side the respiratory murmur is uniformly louder all over. 

By carefully auscultating diseased cows from day to day, 
interesting changes can be discovered during the animal's 
lifetime. Frequently, the abnormal sounds indicate progres- 



270 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

sive destruction ; but, at other times, porticos of tlie lungs 
that have been totally impervious to air, become the seat of 
sibilant rales, and gradually, a healthy respiratory murmur 
proves that, by absorption of the materials which have been 
plugging the tissues of the lungs, resolution is fast advancing. 
Some very remarkable cases of this description have been 
encountered in practice. 

Unfortunately, we often find a rapid destruction of the 
tissues of the lungs, and speedy dissolution. In other 
instances, the general symptoms of hectic, or consumption, 
attend lingering cases, in which the temperature of the body 
becomes low, and the animal has a dainty appetite, or refuses 
all nourishment. It has a discharge from the eyes, and a 
fetid, sanious discharge from the nose. Not infrequently, it 
coughs up disorganized lung-tissue and putrid pus. Great 
prostration, and, indeed, typhus symptoms, set in. There 
is a fetid diarrhoea, and the animal sinks in the most emaci- 
ated state, often dying from suffocation, in consequence of 
the complete destruction of the respiratory structures. 

Post mortem appearances. — In acute cases, the cadaverous 
lesions chiefly consist in abundant false membranes in the 
trachea, or windpipe, and closure of the bronchial tubes by 
plastic lymph. The air-vesicles are completely plugged by 
this material, and very interesting specimens may be obtained 
by careful dissection, in the shape of casts of the bronchial 
tubes and air-vesicles, clustered together like bunches of 
grapes. On slicing the lungs in these cases, hepatization is 
observed, presenting a very peculiar appearance, which is, in 
a great measure, due to the arrangement of the lung-tissue in 
cattle. The pulmonary lobules are of a deep-red or brown 



PLEURO-PNETJMONIA. 271 

color, perfectly consolidated, and intersected or separated, 
one from the other, by. lighter streaks of yellowish-red lymph, 
occupying the interlobular, areolar tissue. In the more 
chronic cases, the diseased lobes and lobules are found partly 
separated from the more healthy structures. 

This occurs from gangrene, and putrefactive changes, or in 
some instances, from the ulcerative process, so constantly 
observed in the segregation of dead from living tissues. 
Abscesses are not infrequently found in different parts of the 
lungs. Sometimes circumscribed, at others connected with 
bronchial tubes, and not infrequently communicating with 
the pleural cavity. True empyema is not often seen ; but, at 
all times, the adhesions between the costal and visceral 
pleura are extensive, and there is much effusion in the chest. 
In dressed carcasses of cows that have been slaughtered 
from pleuro-pneumonia, even though the disease has not 
been far advanced, it will be found that the butcher has care- 
fully scraped the serous membrane off the inner surface of 
the ribs, as it would otherwise be impossible for him to give 
the pleura its healthy, smooth aspect, from the firm mannei 
in which the abundant false membranes adhere to it. The 
direased lungs sometimes attain inordinate weight. They 
have been known to weigh as much as sixty pounds. 

Treatment. — The veterinary profession is regarded by many 
who have sustained heavy losses from pleuro-pneumonia, as 
deeply ignorant, because its members cannot often cure the 
disease. Persons forget that there are several epidemics 
which prove equally difficult to manage on the part of the 
physician, such as cholera, yellow fever, etc. The poison in 
these contagious, epizootic diseases is so virulent that the 



2T2 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

animals may be regarded as dead from the moment they are 
attacked. Its elimination from the system is impossible, and 
medicine cannot support an animal through its tardy, ex- 
hausting, and destructive process of clearing the system of 
so potent a virus. All antiphlogistic means have failed, sue 
as blood-letting and the free use of evacuants. Derivatives, 
in the form of mustard-poultices, or more active blisters, are 
attended with good results. Stimulants have proved of the 
greatest service ; and the late Prof Tessona, of Turin, 
strongly recommended, from the very onset of the disease, 
the administration of strong doses of quinine. Maflfei, of 
Ferrara, states that he has obtained great benefit from the 
employment of ferruginous tonics and manganese in the very 
acute stage of the malady, supported by alcholic stimulants. 
Recently, the advantages resulting from the use of sulphate 
of iron, both as a preventive and curative, have been ex- 
hibited in France. It would appear that the most valuable 
depurative method of treatment yet resorted to is by the 
careful use of the Roman bath. Acting, like all other sud- 
orifics in cases of fever and blood diseases, it carries off by 
the skin much of the poison, without unduly lowering the 
vital powers. 

Prevention. — The rules laid down in Denmark, and indeed 
in many other places, appear the most natural for the pre- 
vention of the disease. If they could be carried out, the 
disease must necessarily be stopped ; but there are practical 
and insuperable difficulties in the way of enforcing them. 
Thus, a Dr. Warneke says, prevention consists in "the 
avoidance of contagion ; the slaughter of infected beasts ; 
the prohibition of keeping cattle by those whose cattle have 



PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 21 3 

been slaughtered, for a space of ten weeks after the last case 
occurring ; the disinfection of stalls vacated by slaughter- 
ing ; the closing of infected places to all passing of cattle ; 
especial attention to the removal of the dung, and of the 
remains of the carcasses of slaughtered beasts ; and, finally, 
undeviating severity of the law against violators," 

Dr. Williams, of Hasselt, suggested and carried out, in 
1851, the inoculation of the virus of pleuro-pneumonia, in 
order to induce a mild form of the disease in healthy animals, 
and prevent their decimation by the severe attacks due to 
contagion. He met with much encouragement, and perhaps 
more opposition. Didot, Corvini, Ercolani, and many more 
accepted Dr. Williams's facts as incontestable, and wrote, 
advocating his method of checking the spread of so destruc- 
tive a plague. 

The first able memoir which contested all that has been 
said in favor of inoculation, appeared in Turin, and was 
written by Dr. Riviglio, a Piedmontese veterinary surgeon. 
This was supported by the views of many others. Prof. 
Simonds wrote against the plan, and, in 1854, the French 
commission, whose report has been before mentioned, con- 
firmed, in part, Riviglio's views, though, from the incomplete- 
ness of the experiments, further trials were recommended. 

Inoculation is performed as follows : A portion of diseased 
lung is chosen, and a bistoury or needle made to pierce it so 
as to become charged with the material consolidating the lung, 
and this is afterward plunged into any part, but, more par- 
ticularly, toward the point of the tail. If operated severely, 
and higher up, great exudation occurs, which spreads upward, 
invades the areolar tissue round the rectum and other pelvic 

18 



2T4 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

organs, and death soon puts an end to the animals excruciat- 
ing suffering. If the operation is properly performed with 
lymph that is not putrid, and the incisions are not made too 
deep, the results are limited to local exudation and swelling, 
general symptoms of fever, and gradual recovery. The most 
common occurrence is sloughing of the tail ; and in London, 
at the present time, dairies are to be seen in which all the 
cows have short-tail stumps. 

Dr. Williams and others have gone too far in attempting 
to describe a particular corpuscle as existing in the lymph of 
pleuro-pneumonia. All animal poisons can be alone dis- 
covered from their effects. In structure and chemical con- 
stitution, there is no difference, and often the most potent 
poisons are simple fluids. The Belgian Commission, ap- 
pointed to investigate the nature and influence of inoculation 
for pleuro-pneumonia, very justly expressed an opinion that 
Dr. Williams had not proved that a specific product, dis- 
tinguished by anatomical characters, and appreciable by the 
microscope, existed in this disease. 

The all-important question, "Is inoculation of service?" has 
to the satisfaction of most been solved. The Belgian and 
French commissions, the observations of Riviglio, Simon d, 
Herring, and many others, prove that a certain degree of 
preservative influence is derived by the process of inoculation. 
It does not, however, arrest the progress of the disease. It 
certainly diminishes to some extent — though often very 
slightly so — the number of cases, and, particularly, of severe 
ones. This effect has been ascribed to a derivative action, 
independent of any specific influence, and, indeed, similar to 
that of introducing setons in the dewlap. 



PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 275 

In London, some dairymen have considerable faith in 
inoculation, though its effect is uncertain, and the manner of 
its working a mystery. The best counsel, in the premises, 
which can be given to the keeper of dairy stock is, to select 
his own animals from healthy herds, and strictly to avoid 
public markets. In many instances, a faithful observance of 
these injunctions has been sufficient to prevent the invasion 
of this terrible disease. [Gamgee.j 

The existence of this disease in the TJnited States was not 
generally known until the year 1859, when Mr. Chenery, of 
Belmont, near Boston, Massachusetts, imported several cows 
from Holland, which arrived in the early part of the spring 
of that year. Some of the animals were sick when they 
arrived, but the true nature of the disease was not at that 
time suspected. Several of them were so bad that they were 
carried in trucks to Mr. Chenery's barn. Some two months 
passed away before the character of the disease was dis- 
covered. 

Upon the facts becoming known, the citizens of Massa- 
chusetts became panic-stricken, as the disease was rapidly 
spreading over that State. An extra session of the Legisla- 
ture was speedily convened, when a Joint Special Commit- 
tee was appointed, to adopt and carry out such measures as 
in their judgment seemed necessary for the extirpation of this 
monster, pleuro-pneumonia. 

The Committee met in the Hall of the House of Represen- 
tatives, Thursday, May, 31, 1860, to receive evidence as 
to the contagious or infectious character of the disease, in 
order to determine concerning the necessity of legislative 
action. 



276 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

Mr. Walker, one of the commissioners appointed by the 
Governor, made the following statement : " The disease was 
introduced into North Brookfield from Belmont. Mr. Curtis 
Stoddard, a young man of North Brookfield, went down, the 
very last of June, last year, and purchased three calves of 
Mr. Chenery, of Belmont. He brought these calves up in 
the cars to Brookfield. On their way from the depot to his 
house, about five miles, one of the calves was observed to falter, 
and when he got to his house, it seemed to be sick, and in 
two or three days exhibited very great illness ; so much so, 
that his father came along, and, thinking he could take 
better care of it, took the calf home. He took it to his own 
barn, in which there were about forty head of cattle ; but it 
grew no better, and his son went up and brought it back 
again to his own house. In about ten days after that, it 
died. His father, who had had the calf nearly four days, in 
about a fortnight afterward observed that one of his oxen 
was sick, and it grew worse very fast and died. Two weeks 
after, a second also sickened, and died. Then a third was 
attacked and died, the interval growing wider from the 
attack of one animal to that of another, until he had lost 
eight oxen and cows. Young Stoddard lost no animal by 
the infection, — that is, no one died on his bands. Prior to 
the appointment of this Commission, about the first of No- 
vember, — for reasons independent of this disease, which I 
don't suppose he then knew the nature of, — he sold off his 
stock. He sold off eleven heifers, or young animals, and 
retained nine of the most valuable himself; which shows that 
he did not then know any thing was the matter with them. 

" These nine were four oxen, and five young cattle. The 



PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 2tt 

four lie took to his father's, three of the others to his 
uncle's, and the remaining two to his father-in-law's ; distribu- 
ting them all among his friends, — which furnishes another 
proof that he did not suppose he was doing any mischief. 
He disposed of his herd in that way. From this auction, 
these eleven animals went in different directions, and wherever 
they went, they scattered the infection. Without a single 
failure the disease- has followed those cattle; in one case, 
more than two hundred cattle having been infected by one 
which was sold at Curtis Stoddard's auction, when he was 
entirely ignorant of the disease. 

" When the commission was appointed, they went and ex- 
amined his cattle, and were satisfied that they were diseased, 
— at least, some of them. They examined his father's herd, 
and found that they were very much diseased ; and when 
we came to kill Curtis Stoddard's cattle, seven of the nine 
head were diseased. Two were not condemned, because the 
law says, ' Cattle not appearing to be diseased, shall be 
appraised.' Nevertheless, it proved that these animals were 
diseased ; so that his whole herd was affected. 

" In regard to Leonard Stoddard's cattle, he lost fourteen 
of his animals before the commissioners went to his place. 
They took eighteen more, all of which were diseased, — most 
of them very bad cases, — indeed, extreme cases. That left 
eight heads, which were not condemned, because not appear- 
ing to be diseased. Here I remark, that when this disease is 
under the shoulder-blade, it cannot be detected by percussion. 
The physicians did not say that the animal was not diseased, 
but that they did not see sufficient evidence upon which to 
condemn. Such animals were to be paid for, upon the ground 



2Y8 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

of their not appearing to be diseased. Nevertheless, it is 
proper to state that the remaining eight which were not con- 
demned, were suspected to be diseased, and we told Mr. 
Stoddard that we had the impression that they were diseased, 
notwithstanding appearances. He said, ' There is a three- 
year-old animal that has never faltered at all. She has never 
manifested the slightest disease. If you will kill her, and 
she is diseased, I shall make up my mind that I have not a 
well animal in my stalls.' We killed the animal, and found 
her to be badly diseased. 

" Thus, the first two herds were all infected by the disease ; 
and in the last of Curtis Stoddard's oxen which we killed, 
we found a cyst in the lungs of each. One of these lungs is 
now in this building, never having been cut open, and medi- 
cal men can see the cyst which it contains. I have said in 
what manner Mr. Curtis Stoddard's cattle spread the infec- 
tion. 

" In regard to Mr. Leonard Stoddard's : in the first place, 
he kept six or eight oxen which he employed in teaming. 
He was drawing some lumber, and stopped over night, with 
his oxen, at Mr. Needham's. Needham lost his whole herd. 
He lost eight or ten of them, and the rest were in a terribla 
condition. Seven or eight more were condemned, and his 
whole herd was destroyed, in consequence of Mr. Stoddard's 
stopping with him over night. Mr. Stoddard sold an animal 
to Mr. Woodis of New Braintree. He had twenty-three 
fine cows. It ruined his herd utterly. Seven or eight 
animals died before the commissioners got there. Mr. L. 
Stoddard also sold a yoke of cattle to Mr. Olmstead, one of 
his neighbors, who had a very good herd. They stayed only 



PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 2Y9 

five days in his hands, when they passed over to Mr. Doane. 
In these five days they had so infected his herd that it was 
one of the most severe instances of disease that we have 
had. One third were condemned, and another third were 
passed over as sound, whether they were so, or not. They 
did not appear to be diseased. The cattle that were passed 
from Mr. Stoddard through Mr. Olmstead to Mr. Doane, 
were loaned by Mr. D. to go to a moving of a building from 
Oakham to New Braintree. They were put in with twenty- 
two yoke of cattle, and employed a day and a half. It has 
since been proved that the whole of these cattle took the 
contagion. They belonged to eleven different herds, and of 
course, each of these herds formed a focus from which the 
disease spread. Now, in these two ways the disease has 
spread in different directions. 

" But, when the commissioners first commenced, they had 
no idea that the disease extended further than those herds in 
which there were animals sick. Hence, their ideas and the 
ideas of those who petitioned for the law, did not extend at 
all to so large a number of herds as have since been proved 
to be diseased, because they only judged of those who mani- 
fested disease. As soon as we begian in that circle, we 
found a second circle of infection, and another outside of 
that ; and by that time it had branched off in various direc- 
tions to various towns. It assumed such proportions that it 
was very evident that the commissioners had not the funds 
to perform the operations required by the law. The law con- 
fines the commissioners to one operation, — killing and bury- 
ing. No discretionary power is given at all. The commis- 
sioners became entirely dissatisfied with that condition of 



2^0 CATTLE AND THEIR, DISEASES. 

things, because other measures besides merely killing and 
burying, are quite as necessary and important. When they 
arrived at that point and discovered to what extent the in- 
fection had spread, they stopped killing the herds, and I 
believe there has not been a herd killed for twenty days. 

" The policy was then changed to circumscribing the 
disease, by isolating the herds just as fast as possible and as 
surely as possible. A man's herd has been exposed. There 
is no other way than to go and examine it, and take the 
diseased animals away. Then he knows the animals are 
diseased, and his neighbors know it. That has been the 
business of the commissioners for the last twenty days ; 
and the facts that they have no discretionary power whaf- 
ever, and that they were entirely circumscribed in their 
means, and that it was hard for the farmers to lose their 
stock and not be paid for it, — induced them to petition the 
Governor, in connection with the Board of Agriculture, for 
the calling of a session of the Legislature, to take measures 
for the extinction of the disease." 

In response to a question, "Whether any animals that had 
once been affected, had afterward recovered ?" — the same 
gentleman stated that instances had occurred where cattle 
had been sick twice, and had, apparently, fully recovered ; 
they ruminated readily, and were gaining flesh. Upon exami- 
nation, however, they were pronounced diseased, and, when 
killed, both lungs were found in a hopeless ease, very badly 
diseased. 

Dr. George B. Loring, another of the commissioners, 
stated that eight hundred and forty-two head of cattle had, 
at that time, been killed, and that, from a careful estimate, 



PLEIJRO-PNEUMONIA. 



281 



there still remained one thousand head, which should either 
be killed, or isolated for such a length of time as should es- 
tablish the fact that they had no disease about them. Twenty- 
thousand dollars and upwards had already been appraised a» 
the value of the cattle then killed. 

As to disinfecting measures, the farmers who had lost 
cattle were requested to whitewash their barns thoroughly, 
and some tons of a disinfecting powder were purchased for 
the advantage of the persons who wished to use it. 4.n. 
early application was advised, that the barns might be in 
readiness for hay the then coming season. 

The practice adopted by the commissioners was, to ap- 
praise the cattle whenever a herd was found which bad been 
exposed, and a surgeon was appointed to pass judgment upon 
the number of diseased animals. After that judgment, the 
remaining animals that were pronounced sound were killed, 
and passed to the credit of the owner, after an appraisement 
made by these persons. The fair market-prices were paid, 
averaging about thirty-three dollars a head. At the time 
of the meeting of the committee, some seventy cattle had 
died of the disease. 

An examination was made of some of the animals killed, 
and the following facts obtained : — 

Case 1. — This cow had been sick for nineteen days ; was 
eeble, without much appetite, with diarrhoea, cough, short- 
ness of breathing, hair staring, etc. Percussion dull over 
the whole of the left side of the chest ; respiration weak 
Killed by authority. Several gallons of serum were found 
in the left side of the chest ; a thick, furzy deposit of lymph 
over all the pleura-costalis. This lymph was an inch in 



282 CATTLE AND "THEIR DISEASES. 

thickness, resembling the velvety part of tripe, and quite 
firm. There was a firm deposit of lymph in the whole 
left lung, but more especially at its base, with strong ad- 
hesions to the diaphragm and pleura-costalis near the spine. 
The lung was hard and brittle, like liver, near its base. No 
pus. Right lung and right side of chest healthy. 

Case 2. — This cow was taken very sick, January 30th. 
In fourteen days, she began to get better. April 12th, she 
is gaining flesh, breathes well, hair healthy, gives ten quarts of 
milk a day, and in all other respects bids fair for a healthy 
animal hereafter, except a slight cough. Percussion dull 
over base of the left lung, near the spine, and respiration 
feeble in the same regions. 

Autopsy. — Left lung strongly adherent to diaphragm and 
costal pleura ; the long adhesions well smoothed off; pleura- 
costalis shining and healthy. Also, the surface of the lung, 
when there were no adhesions, sound and right ; all the lung 
white, and free for the entrance of air, except the base, in 
which was a cyst containing a pint or two of pus. Loose 
in this pus was a hard mass, as large as a two-quart measure, 
looking like marble ; when cut through its centre, it appeared 
like the brittle, hai'dened lining iu case 1. It appeared as 
though a piece of lung had been detached by suppuration 
and enclosed in an air-tight cyst, by which decomposition was 
prevented. The other lung and the chest were sound. It is 
to be inferred, as there were adhesions, that there had been 
pleurisy and deposit of lymph and serum, as in case 1, and 
that Nature had commenced the cure by absorbing the serum 
from the chest, and tlie h'uiph from the free pleural surface, 
and smoothed off every thing to a good working condition. 



PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 283 

The lump in the cyst was brittle and irregular on its surface, 
as though it was dissolving in the pus. "No good reason can 
be given why Nature should not consummate the work which 
she had so wisely begun. 

Case 3. — This cow had- been sick fourteen days; was cough- 
ing and breathing badly ; percussion dull over both chests, 
and respii'ation feeble. Killed. 

Autopsy. — Both chests filled with water ; deposits of lymph 
over all the j^leura-costalis, presenting the same velvety, 
furzy appearance as in Case 1. Both lungs were hardened 
at the base, and the left throughout* its whole extent, and 
firmly adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura, near the 
spine. The right luug had nearly one-third of its substance 
in a condition for the entrance of air ; but this portion, even, 
was so compressed with the water, that a few hours longer 
would have terminated the case fatally without State aid. 
This case had not proceeded far enough for the formation of 
the cyst or pus. 

In Mr. Needham's herd, about twenty-eight days inter- 
vened between the first and second case of disease, instead 
of about fourteen, as in Mr. Olmstead's. 

Case 4. — A nice heifer, in fair condition, eating well, only 
having a slight cough. Percussion dull over base of the left 
lung. 

Autopsy. — Base of left lung adherent to diaphragm and 
costal pleura ; lung hardened. On cutting into base, found 
ulceration and a head of Timothy grass, four or five rnches 
long. Animal in every other way well. 

Case 5. — This cow was taken, January 1st, with a cough, 
difficulty of breathing, and the other symptoms of the disease, 



284 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

and continued sick till March 1st. On taking her out, April 
12th, to be slaughtered, she capered, stuck up her tail, 
snuifed, and snorted, showing all the signs of feeling well and 
vigorous. 

Autopsy. — Right lung firmly adherent to diaplfragm and 
ostal pleura, near the spine. Base of lung hardened, con- 
taining a cyst with a large lump, of the size of a two-quart 
measure, floating in pus ; outside of the lump was of a dirty 
yellow- white, irregular, brittle, and cheesy; the inside mottled, 
or divided into irregular squares ; red like muscle, and break- 
ing under the finger, like liver. Costal pleura smooth, 
shining ; adhesions where there was motion ; card-like and 
polished ; no serum ; lung apparently performing its functions 
well, except for a short distance above th,e air-tight cyst, 
where it was still hardened. It would seem as though 
Nature was intending to dissolve this lump, and carry it off 
by absorption. She knows how, and would have done it, in 
the opinion of the writer, had she been allowed sufficient 
time. 

Case 6. — Was taken December 18th, and was very sick; 
in three weeks she was well, except a cough, quite severe, 
and so continued till about the first of March, when she 
coughed harder and grew worse till seven days before she 
was killed, April 12th, when she brought forth a calf, and 
then commenced improving again. 

Autopsy. — Right lung adherent to diaphragm and costal 
pleura. At its base, was a flabby, fluctuating cyst. In 
cutting into it,, the lump was found to be breaking up by 
decomposition, and scenting badly. Every thing else normal. 
Was not the cyst broken through by some accident, thus 



PLEURO-PNEL' MONI A. 



285 



letting in the air, when she grew worse ? Would she not, 
probably, have overcome this disagreeable accident, and re- 
covered, in spite of it ? This cow's hair did not look well, 
as did that of those in which the cyst was air-tight ; but still 
she was beginning to eat well again, and appeared in a tolera- 
ble way for recovery. 

Case 1. — This heifer had coughed slightly for six weeks, 
but the owner said he thought no one going into his herd 
would notice that any thing was the matter with her. 

Autopsy. — Slight adhesions of lung to diaphragm. Near 
these adhesions are small cysts, of the size of a walnut, con- 
taining pus and s^*].-! ,-: 
cheesy matter ; 
about the cysts 
a little way the 
lung was hard- 
ened,«6ay for half 
an inch. There 
were several 
cysts, and they 
appeared as 
though the in- 
flammation at- 
tacked only the different lobes of the lungs, leaving others 
healthy between, — Nature throwing out coagulable lymph 
around the diseased lobe, and forming thereby an air-tight 
cyst, cutting around the diseased lobe by suppuration, so 
that it could be carried off by absorption. 

In the herd to which this animal belonged, nine days after 
the first cow died, the second case occurred. First cow was 




A KORAL SCENE. 



286 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

sick five weeks. The time of incubation could not have 
been over six weeks, — probably not over three weeks. Of 
these cows, one improved in eight weeks, the other in three 
weeks. 

Case 8. — This cow had been sick three weeks. Killed. 

Autopsy. — Large quantities of serum in left chest ; lung 
adherent, and hardened at base. On cutting into the hard- 
ened lung, one side of the lump was found separated from 
the lung, with pus between the lines of separation, and the 
forming coat of the cyst outside of the pus ; the other 
side of the lump was part and parcel of the hardened lung 
which had not yet had time to commence separation. The 
costal pleura was covered with organized lymph to the 
thickness of an inch, with the usual characteristics. The 
right chest contained a small quantity of serum, and had 
several small, hardened red spots in that lung, with some 
tendei*, weak adhesions ; but most of the right lung was 
healthy. 

Case 9. — Sick four weeks. Killed. 

Autopsy. — Right lung hardened at base ; adherent to 
diaphragm and costal pleura ; lump separated on one side 
only. Cyst beginning to form, outside of separation ; pus 
between cyst and lump, but in a very small quantity. 

These two cases settle the character of the lump, and the 
manner of the formation of the cyst ; the lump being lung 
and lymph, cut out by suppuration, — the cyst being organized,, 
smoothed off by suppuration, friction, etc. 

Case 10. — Killed. Hair looked badly ; but the cow, it 
was said, ate, and appeared well. This case, however, oc 



PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 287 

curred in a herd, of whicb no reliable information, in detail, 
could be procured. 

Autopsy. — Base of lung hardened, adherent to diaphragm ; 
containing a cyst, in which was a lump, of the size of a quart 
measure, but little pus. This lump had air-tubes running 
through it, which were not yet cut off by suppuration ; and 
in one place, the cyst was perforated by a bronchial tube, 
letting in the external air to the lump, which was undergoing 
disorganization, and swelling badly. When cut into, it did 
not prevent the red, mottled, organized appearance of those 
cases witli air-tight cysts. 

Quite a number of other cases were examined, but these ten 
present all the different phases. One or two cases are needed 
of an early stage of the disease, to settle the point, whether, 
in all cases, the primary disease is lung fever, and the 
pleurisy a continuation, merely, of the primary disease ; 
together with some six or eight cases, during iive, six, seven, 
eight months from attack, and so on till entire, final recovery. 
Some cases were sick almost a year since, and are now ap- 
parently quite well ; perhaps all the lump and pus are not 
yet gone. Many practitioners think that no severe case will 
ever recover, and some think that none ever get entirely well. 
Others, however, can see no reason why, as a general rule, 
all single cases should not recover, and all double cases die. 

The disease was the most fatal in Mr. Chenery's (the 
original) herd, although it was the best-fed and the warmest- 
stabled. He attributed the fatality, in part, to a want of 
sufficient ventilation. The other herds, in which all the fatal 
cases occurred in two hours, consisted, originally, one of 
forty-eight head, of which thirteen died, or were killed, to 



288 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

prevent certain death ; of twenty-three head, of which seven 
died ; of twenty-two head, of which eight died ; of twenty- 
two head, of which eight also died ; and of twenty-one head, 
of which four died. A little less than thirty per cent., there- 
fore, of these herds died. 

This estimate excludes the calves. Most of the cows 
which had not calved before being attacked, lost their calves 
prematurely. The probable time of incubation, as deduced 
from those Massachusetts cases, is from two to three weeks ; 
of propagation, about the same time ; the acute stage of the 
disease lasting about three weeks. 

The author's attention was first directed to this disease, 
upon its appearance in Camden and Gloucester counties, 
New Jersey, in the year 1859, at about the same time it 
made its advent in Massachusetts. The singularity of this 
coincidence inclined him for the time to regard the disease 
as an epizootic — having its origin in some peculiar condition 
of the atmosphere — rather than as a contagious, or infectious 
disease, which position was at that time assumed by him. 

This opinion was strengthened by the fact, that no case 
occurring in New Jersey could be traced to a Massachusetts 
origin, in which State it was claimed that the disease never 
had existed in this country previous to its introduction there. 
It was, therefore, denied by the veterinary surgeons in the 
Eastern States, that the disease in New Jersey was the true 
European pleuro-pneumonia, but it was called by them the 
swill-milk disease of New York City, and it was assigned an 
origin in the distillery cow-houses in Brooklyn and Williams- 
burg. 

In I860 it found its way across the Delaware River into 



PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 289 

Philadelphia, spreading very rapidly in all directions, par- 
ticularly in the southern section of the county, known as 
The Neck, — many of the dairymen losing from one third to 
one half of their herds by its devastating influence. In 
order to save themselves — in part, at least — from this heavy 
loss, many of them, upon the first indications of the malady, 
sent their animals to the butcher, to be slaughtered for beef. 
In 1861 the disease found its way into Delaware, where its 
ravages were severely felt. So soon, however, as it became 
known that the disease was infectious or contagious, an effort 
was made to trace it to its starting-point ; but, in conse- 
quence of the unwillingness of dairymen to communicate the 
fact tliat their herds were affected with pleuro-pneumonia, all 
efforts proved fruitless. In 1860 the disease found its way up 
the Delaware to Riverton, a short distance above the city of 
Philadelphia. A cattle-dealer, named Ward, turned some 
cattle into a lot, adjoining which several others were grazing. 
The residents of this place are chiefly the families of gentle- 
men doing business in the city, many of whom lost their fa- 
vorite animals from this destructive malady. 

The first case occurring at this place, to which the 
author's attention was called, was a cow belonging to Mr. D. 
Parrish, which had been exposed by coming in contact with 
Ward's cattle, had sickened, and died. An anxiety having 
been manifested to ascertain the cause of the death, the 
author made an examination of the animal, which, upon 
dissection, proved the disease to be a genuine case of the so- 
called pleuro-pneumonia. This examination was made 
August 20th, 1860, at the time of the Massachusetts excite- 
ment. Two cows, belonging to Mr. Rose, of the same place, 
19 



290 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

had been exposed, aud both had taken the disease. His 
attention having been called to them, he placed them under 
the author's treatment, and by the use of diffusible stimulants 
and tonics, one of these animals recovered, while the other 
was slaughtered for an examination, which revealed all the 
morbid conditions so characteristic of this disease. 

The next case was a cow belonging to Mr. G. H. Eoach, 
of the same place, which had been grazing in a lot adjoining 
that of Mr. Parrish. This cow was killed in the presence of 
Charles Wood, Y.S., of Boston, Mass., and Arthur S. Cope- 
man, of Utica, N. Y., who was one of a committee ap- 
pointed by the New York State Agricultural Society for the 
purpose of investigating the disease. Both of these gentle- 
men having witnessed the disease in all its forms, as it 
appeared in Massachusetts, were the first to identify this 
case with those in that State. 

Upon opening the cow, the left lung was found to be 
completely consolidated, and adhered to the left side, pre- 
senting the appearance usual in such cases. As she was 
with calf, the lungs of the foetus were examined, disclosing a 
beautiful state of red hepatization. 

The author's attention was next called to the herd of Mr. 
Lippincott, a farmer in the neighborhood, who had lost several 
cattle by the disease ; but as he had been persuaded that 
treatment was useless, he abandoned the idea of attempting 
to save his stock in that way. From Riverton it soon spread 
to Burlington, some ten miles farther up the river, where it 
carried off large numbers of valuable cattle, and it continued 
iu existence in that neighborhood for some time. 

The disease was not then confined to these localities alone, 



PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 291 

but has spread over a large extent of country, — and that, 
too, prior to its appearance in Massachusetts, as will bo 
shown by extracts from the following letters, published in 
the Country Gentleman : — 

" We have a disease among the cattle here, I will class it 
under these names, — congestion of the lungs, terminating 
with consumption, or dropsy of the chest. Now, I have treated 
two cases ; one five years since, as congestion, — and the first 
is still able to eat her allowance, and give a couple of pails 
of milk a day, — and the other, quite recently. The great 
terror of this disease is, that it is not taken in its first stages, 
which are the same in the cow as in the man — a difiQculty in 
breathing, which, if not speedily relieved, terminates in con- 
sumption or dropsy. I have no doubt that consumption is 
contagious ; but is that a reason why every one taken with 
congestion should be killed to check the spread of consump- 
tion ? So I should reason, if I had pleuro-pneumonia in my 
drove of cattle. J. Baldwin. 

"Newark, N. J., June 11, 1860." 

" I notice that a good deal of alarm is felt in different parts 
of the country about what is called the cattle-disease, 

"From the diagnosis given in the papers, I have no doubt 
this is pleuro-pneumonia, with which I had some acquaint- 
ance a few years ago. If it is the same, my observation 
and experience may be of some service to those suffering 
now. 

" It w^as introduced into my stock, in the fall of 1853, by 
one of my own cows, which, in the spring of that year, I 
had sent down to my brother in Brooklyn, to be used during 
the summer for milk. She was kept entirely isolated through 



292 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

out the summer, and in November was sent up by the boat. 
There were no other cattle on the beat at the time, nor could 
r learn that she had come in contact with any in passing 
through the streets on her way to the boat ; and she certainly 
did not, after leaving it, until she mingled with her old com- 
panions, all of whom were then, and long afterward, perfectly 
well. After she had been home about two weeks, we 
noticed that her appetite failed, and her milk fell off: she 
seemed dull and stupid, stood with her head down, and mani- 
fested a considerable degree of languor. 

" Soon her breathing became somewhat hurried, and with 
a decided catch in it ; she ground her teeth ; continued 
standing, or, if she lay down, it was only to jump up again 
instantly. Her cough increased, and so, too, a purulent and 
bloody discharge from her nostrils and mouth. The excre- 
ment was fetid, black, and hard. 

" In this case, we twice administered half a pound of 
Epsom-salts, and afterward, a bottle of castor-oil. Very 
little but a temporary effect was produced by these doses. 

" The symptoms all increased in intensity ; strength 
diminished ; limbs drawn together ; belly tucked up, etc. ; 
until the eight day, when she partly lay, and partly fell 
down, and never rose again. 

"In a post-mortem examination, the lungs were gorged 
with black, fetid blood ; the substance of them thickened 
and pulpy. The pleura and diaphragm also showed a good 
deal of disease and some adhesion. This cow, on her arrival 
here, was put in her usual place in the stable, between others. 
She remained there for two or three days after she was taken 
sick, before we removed her to the hospital. 



PLEURO-PNFDMONIA. 293 

" In about three weeks from the time she died, one and 
then the other of those standing on either side of her were 
attacked in the same way, and with but two days between. 
This, certainly, looks very much like contagion ; but my 
attention had not before been called to this particular disease, 
and to suppose inflammation or congestion of the lungs con- 
tagious was so opposed to my preconceived notions, that I 
did not even then admit it ; and these animals were suffered 
to remain with the others until their own comfort seemed to 
require the greater liberty of open pens. 

" One of them was early and copiously bled twice, while 
Epsom-salts were administered, both by the stomach and 
with the injective-pump. The other we endeavored to keep 
nauseated with ipecacuanha, and the same time to keep ner 
bowels open by cathartic medicine. All proved to be of 
no avail. They both died, — the one in ten, the other in 
thirteen days. Before these died, however, others were 
taken sick. And thus, later, I had eight sick at one time. 

" The leading symptoms in all were the same, with minor 
differences ; and so, too, was the appearance after death, on 
examination. 

" Of all that were taken sick (sixteen) but two recovered ; 
and they were among those we did the least for, after we had 
become discouraged about trying to cure them. In all the 
last cases we made no effort at all, but to keep them as com- 
fortable as we could. In one case, the acute character of 
the disease changed to chronic, and the animal lived six or 
eight weeks, until the whole texture of the lungs had be- 
come destroyed. She had become much emaciated, and 
finally died with the ordinary consumption. 



294 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

" At the time the first case appeared, I had a herd of 
thirty-one animals, all valuable Ayrshires, in fine condition 
and healthy. In all the first cases, I had a veterinary sur- 
geon of considerable celebrity and experience, and every 
ordinary approved method of treatment was resorted to and 
persevered in. The last cases — as before intimated — we only 
strove to make comfortable. 

" After I had paid the third or fourth forfeit, I began to 
awake up to the idea that the disease was, in a high degree, 
contagious, whether I would have it so or not ; and that my 
future security was in prevention, and not in remedy. I 
therefore separated all the remaining animals ; in no instance 
having more than two together, and generally but one in a 
place. 

" All were removed from the infected stalls, and put into 
quarantine. Isolated cases continued to occur after this for 
some weeks, but the spread of the disease was stayed ; nor 
did a single case occur after this, which we did not think we 
traced directly to previous contact. 

" It is impossible to account for the first case of which I 
have spoken. But, as the cow in that case was put into a 
sale-stable in New York while waiting for the boat, — though 
there were no cattle then present, — yet I have supposed it 
not unlikely that diseased animals had been there, and had 
left the seeds of the disease. 

"But, account for this case as we may, — and I have no 
doubt it is sometimes spontaneous, — I feel convinced it is 
very highly contagious ; and that the only safety to a hei'd 
into which it has been introduced, is in complete isolation, 
— and in this I feel as convinced that there is safety. My 



PLEURO-PNEUMONTA. 295 

cattle were not suffered to return to the bam-yard or to any 
part of the cattle-barns, except as invalids were sent to ' the 
hospital' to die, until late the next fall, i.e., the fall of 1854. 
In the mean time, the hay and straw had all been removed ; 
the stables, stalls, cribs and all thoroughly scrubbed with 
ashes and water, fumigated, and whitewashed with quick- 
lime. I have had no case since, and am persuaded I should 
have avoided most of those I had before, if I had reasonably 
admitted the evidence of my senses in the second and third 
cases. E. P. Prentice. 

Mount Hope, June 14th, 1860." 

The author's experience with the disease, during the last 
year in New Jersey, proves the efficacy of remedial agents 
when applied in the early stages of the disease. Late in the 
spring of 1861, Mr. J. E. Hancock, of Burlington County 
(residing near Columbus, N". J.), purchased some cattle in 
the Philadelphia market, which, after they were driven home, 
he turned in with his other stock. Soon after this purchase, 
one of the animals sickened and died. This was in August; 
after which time Mr. H. lost eight cows, — having, at the 
time of the death of the last animal, some five others sick 
with the same disorder. 

The author was called in, December 8th, 1861, and the 
five animals then placed under his treatment. On the 12th 
of December, in the same year, one of these cows, at his 
suggestion, was killed, which, upon the post-mortem exami- 
nation, beautifully illustrated the character of the disease. 
The right lung was comparatively healthy ; the left one com- 
pletely hepatized, or consolidated, and so enlarged as to fill 
up the left cavity of the chest to its utmost capacity. This 



Q<^6 CATTLE AND TITEIR DISEASES. 

lung weighed thirty pounds. There was no effusion in the 
chest, but there was considerable adhesion of the pleura- 
costalis and pleura-pulmonalis. All the other tissues appeared 
to be healthy. 

To the remaining animals, was administered the following: 
aqua ammonia, three drachms ; nitric ether, one ounce ; pul- 
verized gentian-root, half an ounce ; mixed with one quart 
of water, and drenched three times a day. The last thing at 
night was given a teaspoonful of phosphate of lime, mixed in 
a little feed, or in gruel. Setons, or rowels, in the dewlap 
are also very beneficial. Under this treatment they all did 
well. 

Soon after the introduction of the disease into this herd, it 
found its way to the herd of William Hancock, a brother of 
the former gentleman, who had an adjoining farm. In this 
herd one cow died, and the disease was found by the author 
developed in four more cows and two oxen, all of which — 
with a single exception — did well under the above treatment. 
The disease afterward showed itself in the herd of John Pope, 
half a mile distant, who lost nine animals by it. 

Thursday, December 19th, was selected for the purpose of 
making an examination of the Hancock herds ; but, after 
some ten or twelve animals had been examined and all pro- 
nounced tainted with the disease, the owners concluded to 
Btop the investigation, expressing themselves dissatisfied with 
the result, as not one of the animals examined had shown any 
symptoms of disease. In order to convince them of the 
correctness of the diagnosis, a cow was selected and de- 
stroyed, which the Hancocks believed to be in perfect health. 
Upon opening the animal, several small patches of hepatized 



PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 29T 

lung were brought into view. Upon making a longitudinal 
section of the lump, as both were involved, they presented a 
red, speckled appearance. All the other tissues were healthy. 
The symptoms in these cases were quite different from any 
,vhich had been previously seen in an experience of three 
years with the disease in and about Philadelphia, inasmuch 
as they were not preceded by cough ; in fact, cough did not 
appear in many of the animals at any time during the pro- 
gress of the disease. The animals looked, ate, and milked 
well, previously to the development of the disease, so that 
the owners were thrown completely off their guard by 
these deceptive symptoms of health. Knowing the uncertain 
character of this disease, and wishing to stay its ravages, a 
suggestion was made by the author as to the propriety of 
having the entire herd killed for beef. This was done the 
more readily, as the sale of the meat is legalized in Europe, 
it being regarded as uninjured, and therefore wholesome 
meat. This suggestion was acted upon, and thus these two 
farms were rid of this dreadful scourge at one blow. 

Mr. A. Gaskill, of Mount Holly, N. J., purchased a cow 
from one of the Hancocks, for his own family use, which 
was sent to Mr. Frank Lippincott's to pasture and 
turned in with Mr. L.'s own herd. Soon after, tjjis cow 
sickened and died. This was soon followed by the loss of 
six of Mr. L.'s own cattle, — three oxen, two cows, and one 
steer. From this herd, it was communicated to the Widow 
Lippincott's, who occupied a neighboring farm ; as also to Mr. 
Cleavenger's, who lost four animals ; and to Mr. Smith's, who 
had, at one time, seven animals sick ; and from Cleavenger's 
to Noaknuts, who lost two cows. Some two or three cows, 



298 CATTLE AND THEIR, DISEASES. 

belonging to Mr. Logan, in the same neighborhood, got upon 
the road and broke into Mr. Lippincott's pasture, mixing 
with his herd. As soon as Mr. Logan was informed of the 
fact, he isolated these cows by enclosing them in a pen at some 
distance from his other cattle ; but they managed to break 
out, and mingled with his other stock. It could scarcely be 
expected that his herd could escape the disease, considering 
the exposure to which they had been subjected. The disease 
manifested itself in the herds of several other farmers in the 
country, but space will not allow a more extended notice of 
the subject. 

The treatment which has been found most successful in 
this country is as follows, all of which has been tested by 
the author upon various occasions : In the acute, inflamma- 
tory stage of the disease, give ten drops of Flemming's 
tincture of aconite in water, every four hours, until a change 
takes place ; follow this with aqua ammonia, three drachms ; 
nitric ether, one ounce ; pulverized gentian-root, one half an 
ounce ; water, one quart. Drench three times a day, and 
give, late in the evening, a tablespoonful of phosphate of lime, 
in a little feed, or drench with gruel. Put setons, or rowels 
in the dewlap, so as to have a dependent opening. 

This ^course has been found very advantageous. Or, the 
following will be found quite satisfactory ; nitrate of potash, 
two drachms ; camphor, half a drachm ; tartrate of antimony, 
half a drachm ; mix, and give in a little gruel, night and 
morning. Or, the following : Glauber-salts, four ounces ; 
water, one pint ; give twice a day. A gill of cold-drawn 
castor-oil, added to the above, would be beneficial. Con- 
tinue until the bowels are freely opened. The following has 



PLEURO- PNEUMONIA, 



299 



also been found eflficacious : sulphate of magnesia, eight 
ounces ; nitrate of potash and pulverized Jamaica ginger- 
root, of each one ounce. Repeat as often as may be required. 
Apply externally the following ointment to the sides ; 
biniodide of mercury, four drachms ; castor-oil, half an 
ounce ; lard, four ounces ; mix for use. 

Preventive measures. — 1st. The complete isolation of all 
herds in which the disease has made its appearance. 2d. 
Such animals as show symptoms of the disease should be 
placed under proper treatment. 3d. In England, it is re- 
commended that animals recovering from the disease should 
be fattened and slaught- 
ered for beef, as they are 
not safe even after their 
apparent recovery. 4th. 
All animals beyond medi- 
cal treatment should be 
killed and buried ; recom- 
pense in part, at least, being 
made to the owners. 5th. 
No animal, healthy or dis- 
eased, should be allowed 
to run at large upon the 
public highway so long as 
the disease may exist in 
its neighborhood. 

The united action of all 
those interested would soon 
rid the country of a disease which has smitten all Europe. 

The author takes this occasion to acknowledge the receipt 




TAKING IT EASILT. 



300 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

of two very ably written articles upon this subject, which, in 
consequence of their length and the comparatively limited 
space allotted, he is reluctantly compelled to omit. One is 
from the pen of R. McClure, Y.S., and the other from 
Isaiah Michener, Y.S. For the benefit of his readers, how- 
ever, he desires to make a single extract from the last-named 
communication, without being considered as endorsing the 
opinion advanced therein ; — 

" I am inclined to favor the hypothesis that pleuro-pneu- 
monia is produced by animalculas, and that these enter the 
lungs by myriads, and thereby set up irritation and inflam- 
mation, which lead to all the phenomena and pathological 
conditions which are to be found upon dissection. This is 
my opinion of the cause of the malignant pleuro-pneumonia 
which has existed in the United States for the last seven 
years." 

After writing the foregoing, the. author was informed that 
this disease had made its appearance in Mr. Logan's herd, 
already mentioned as exposed. He was called to visit the 
herd of Mr. G. Satterthwaite, who likewise lost two cows, 
and had two cows and a calf sick at the time of sending for 
him. 

PNEUMONIA. 

There are two conditions of the lungs known as pneumo- 
nia, — one, the inflammatory, and the other, the congestive 
stage. . The former may follow an attack of bronchitis, or it 
may have a spontaneous origin. The congestive is generally 
the result of cold suddenly applied to an overheated animal, 



PNEUMONIA. 301 

causing a determination of blood to the lungs, wliicli some- 
times causes death by suffocation. 

Symptoms. — The disease is preceded by a shirering fit ; 
dry skin; staring coat; clammy mouth ; short cough; Schnei- 
derian membrane (of the nose) very much reddened ; respira- 
tion hurried or laborious. In the congestive stage, upon 
applying the ear to the sides, no sound will be detected ; 
while in the inflammatory stage, a crackling or crepitating 
sound will be distinctively heard. 

Treatment. — In the congestive stage, plenty of pure air will 
be necessary. Bleed freely ; and give in drench one pound 
of Glauber-salts, with two drachms of Jamaica ginger. 
Nothing more will be required by way of treatment. 

In the inflammatory stage, bleeding should seldom be 
resorted to, except where the animal is in full condition. 
Apply the following blister to the sides, well rubbed in : oil 
of turpentine, one ounce ; croton-oil, twelve drops ; aqua 
ammonia, half an ounce ; linseed-oil, four ounces ; mix all 
together. Give internally one pound of salts in drench, and 
follow with one of the following powders every four hours : 
nitrate of potash, one ounce ; tartrate of antimony and pul- 
verized digitalis leaves, of each, one drachm ; mix all together, 
and divide into eight powders. Or th.e following may be 
given with equal advantage : nitrate of potash, one and a 
half ounces; nitrate of soda, six ounces ; mix, and divide into 
six powders ; one to be given in wash or gruel every six 
hours. 



302 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

PROTRUSION OP THE BLADDER. 

This sometimes occurs during the throes in dilficult cases 
of parturition in cows, and the aid of a skillful veterinary 
surgeon is requisite to replace the inverted bladder. 



PUERPERAL FEVER. 

This disease — milk fever, or dropping after calving — rarely 
occurs until the animal has attained mature age. The first 
symptoms make their appearance in from one to five or six 
days after parturition. It appears to be a total suspension 
of nervous function, independent of inflammatory action, 
which is suddenly developed, and, in favorable cases, as 
suddenly disappears. It is called dropping after calving, 
from its following the parturient state. 

Symptoms. — Tremor of hind legs ; a staggering gait, which 
soon terminates in loss of power in the hind limbs; pulse 
rises to sixty or eighty per minute ; milk diminishing in 
quantity as the disease progresses ; the animal soon goes 
down, and is unable to rise, moans piteously ; eyes set in the 
head ; general stupor ; and slow respiration. 

Treatment. — This disease, though generally regarded as a 
febrile disorder, will not yield to the general practice of 
taking blood, as a large majority of the cases so treated die. 
The bowels must be opened, but the veins never. Give 
Epsom-salts, one pound ; Jamaica ginger, two ounces ; dis- 
solve in warm water, one quart, and drench. The author 
usually gives with good effect, some five or six hours after 
the salts, two ounces of nitric ether and one ounce of tincture 
of opium, in half a pint of water. Rub well in, along the 



PUERPERAL FEVER — QUARTER EVIL. 303 

back and loins, the following : strong mustard, three ounces ; 
aqua ammonia and water, each one and a half ounces. Some 
modifications in the treatment of this disease, as well as of 
most others, will be necessary under certain circumstances, 
which can only be determined by the veterinary practitioner. 

QUARTER EVIIi. 

In some sections of the country, this disease — known by 
the other names of black quarter, and joint murrain — is 
quite common among young cattle, and is generally fatal in 
its termination. There is little or no warning of its approach. 
The first animals in a herd to be attacked are generally those 
in a full, plethoric condition. 

Symptoms. — The joints suddenly become swollen, and so 
painful as to produce severe lameness, particularly in the 
hind parts. General irritative fever exists in the system, 
attended with great tenderness of the loins ; the head is 
' poked out ; eyes red and bulging ; the roots of the horns, 
as well as the breath, are hot ; the muzzle dry, and nostrils 
expanded ; pulse rises to seventy or eighty, full and hard ; 
respiration is hurried; the animal is constantly moaning, and 
appears to be unconscious of surrounding objects ; the swelling 
of the limbs extends to the shoulder and haunch ; the animal 
^otters, falls and dies in from twelve to twenty-four hours. 

Treatment. — Early bleeding is requisite here, to be followed 
by active purgatives ; after which, give one of the following 
powders every half hour : nitrate of potassa, two ounces ; 
tartrate of antimony and pulverized digitalis, of each one 
and a half drachms ; mix, and divide into eight powders. These 
should not be renewed. Cold linseed tea should be freely given. 



304 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

RABIES. 

Hydrophobia in cattle is the result of the bite of a rabid 
dog, from which bite no animal escapes. The effects pro- 
duced by the wound made by the teeth of such an animal, 
after the virus is once absorbed into the circulation of the 
blood, are so poisonous that all treatment is useless. The 
proper remedies must be instantly applied to prevent this 
absorption, or the case is utterly hopeless. Among men, 
nine out of every ten bitten by rabid dogs escape the terrible 
effects resulting from this dreadful disorder, without resorting 
to any applications to prevent it. It is a well-established 
fact, that men, when bitten by dogs, are generally wounded 
in some part protected by their clothing, which guards them 
from the deleterious effects of the saliva which covers the 
teeth, and which, at such times, is deadly poison. The teeth, 
in passing through the clothing, are wiped clean, so that the 
virus is not introduced into the blood ; hence the compara- « 
tively few cases of rabies occurring in man. When, however, 
the wound is made upon an exposed surface, as the flesh of 
the hand, or of the face, this fatal disease is developed in 
spite of every precaution, unless such precautions are 
immediately taken. For this reason, cattle when bitten, do 
not escape the disease. 

Symptoms. — The animal separates itself from the rest of 
the herd, standing in a kind of stupor, with the eyes half- 
closed ; respiration natural ; pulse quickened ; temperature 
of body and limbs natural ; the slightest noise agitates, caus- 
ing the eyes to glare and exciting bellowing ; the bark of a 
dog produces the most violent effects ; the animal foams at 



RABIES — RED WATER. . 305 

the mouth and staggers as it walks ; if water is offered, the 
muzzle is plunged into it, but the victim cannot drink ; in 
making the effort, the most fearful consequences are produced. 
The animal now seeks to do mischief, — and the quicker it is 
then destroyed, the better. 

Treatment. — This must be applied quicklj, or not at all. 
The moment an animal is bitten, that moment the wound 
should be searched for, and when found, should be freely 
opened with a knife, and lunar caustic, caustic potash, or 
the per-manganate of potash at once applied to all parts of 
the wound, care being taken not to suffer a single scratch to 
escape. This, if attended to in time, will save the animal. 



BED •WATER. 

This disease derives its name from the color of the urine 
voided in it. It is one of the most common complaints of 
horned cattle, and one of the most troublesome to manage. 

Symptoms. — Respiration hurried ; rumination ceases ; a 
high degree of fever presented ; the animal moans, arches 
the back, and strains in passing the urine, which is tinged 
with blood, or presents the appearance of pure blood. Prof. 
Gamgee, of the Edinburgh Yeterinary College, says : " The 
cause is almost invariably feeding on turnips that have 
grown on damp, ill-drained land ; and very often a change 
of diet stops the spread of this disease in the byre. Other 
succulent food, grown under similar circumstances, may pro- 
duce the same symptoms, tending to disturb the digestive 
organs and the blood-forming process. 

" In the course of my investigations as to the cause ot 
various cattle-diseases, and of red water in particular. I have 
20 



20(5 . CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

found that it is unknown on well-drained farms and in 
dairies where turnips are used only in a moderate degree. 
The lands of poor people furnish the roots most likely to 
induce this disorder; and I can confirm the statement of the 
late Mr. Gumming, of Elton, who, in his very interesting 
essay upon this subject, says, particularly in reference to 
Aberdeenshire, that it is ' a disease essentially attacking the 
poor man's cow ; and to be seen and studied, requires a 
practice extending into the less favorably situated parts of 
the country. On large farms, where good stock is well kept, 
and in town dairies, where artificial food is used to supple- 
ment the supply of turnips, it is" seldom now seen.' 

" Symptoms. — General derangement attracts the dairyman's 
attention, and, upon observing the urine which the animal 
has voided, it is seen to be of a red, or of a reddish brown, 
or claret color; sometimes transparent, at others clear. The 
color increases in depth ; other secretions are checked ; the 
animal becomes hide-bound, and the milk goes off. Appetite 
and rumination are suspended ; the pulse becomes extremely 
feeble and frequent, though — as in all debilitating, or anaemic, 
disorders — the heart's action is loud and strong, with a 
decided venous pulse, or apparent regurgitation, in the 
large veins of the neck. 

" In some cases, if even a small quantity of blood be with- 
drawn, the animal drops in a fainting state. In red water, 
the visible mucous membranes are blanched, and the extremi- 
ties cold, indicating the languid state of the blood's circula- 
tion and the poverty of the blood itself. Constipation is one 
of the most obstinate complications ; and many veterinary 
surgeons — aware that, if the bowels can be acted on, the 



RHEUMATISM. 307 

animal is cured — nave employed purgatives in quantities 
far too large, inducing at times even death. Occasionally, 
diarrhoea is one of the first, and not of the unfavorable, 
symptoms." 

Treatment. — Give one pint of linseed-oil ; clysters of soap 
and water should be freely used ; and give plenty of linseed- 
tea to drink. When the urine is abundant, give one ounce 
of tincture of opium, with one drachm of powdered aloes, 
three times, at intervals of six or eight hours. 



EHETJMATISM. 

This is a constitutional inflammatory affection of the joints, 
affecting the fibrous tissue and serous, or synovial membrane. 
It is caused by exposure to cold and wet ; being quite 
common in low, marshy sections. 

Symptoms. — Loss of appetite ; upon forcing the animal to 
move, every joint seems stiffened ; nose dry ; coat staring ; 
constipation is also an attendant symptom ; the joints, one 
or more, become swollen and painful. This may be regarded 
as a metastic, or shifting disease ; first one part, and then 
another, seems to be affected. 

Treatment. — Mild purgatives should be used ; one-half- 
ounce doses of colchicum-root pulverized will be found 
.useful ; one-ounce balls of pine-tar may also be given with 
advantage. As a local application, the author has found 
nothing to equal kerosene oil, one pint, to two ounces of 
aqua ammonia, well rubbed in, two or three times a day. 



^08 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

STKAJSrGKULATION" OF THE INTESTINES. 

This disease in cattle, — popularly styled Knot, or Gut-tie, — 

in consequence of the peculiar arrangement of the abdominal 

viscera, is of very rare occurrence. When, however, it does 

. occur, the symptoms accompanying are those of inflammation 

of the intestines. 

No kind of treatment will be successful, and the poor brute 
must suffer until death comes to its relief. 



THRUSH IN THE MOUTH. 

Aptha, or thrush in the mouth, is a vesicular disease of the 
mouth, sometimes occurring as an epizootic. It is often 
mistaken for blain, — inflammation of the tongue, or black 
tongue, — and usually occurs in the winter, or early in the 
spring. It appears in the form of vesicles, or pustules all 
over the mouth, occasionally extending to the outside of the 
lips. These pustules break, discharging a thin, sanious fluid, 
leaving minute ulcers in their places. 

This disease yields readily to treatment, when it is properly 
applied. Three ounces of Epsom-salts, once a day for three 
or four days, should be given in drench ; wash the mouth 
well with a solution of alum, tincture of myrrh, or vinegar 
and honey, and it will disappear in a few days. 



TUMORS. 

These enlargements so common in cattle, have been so 
admirably described, in the Veterinarian for 1843, by John 
R alph,Y. S., — who has been so successful in the treatment of 
these morbid growths, that the benefit of his experience is 



TUMORS. 309 

here given. He says : " Of all the accidental productions met 
with among cattle, with the exception of wens, a certain kind 
of indurated tumor, chiefly situated about the head and 
throat, has abounded most in my practice. 

" The affection often commences in one of the thyroid 
glands, which slowly but gradually increases in size, feels 
firm when grasped, and evinces very little tenderness. 
Generally the attendant is alarmed by a snoring or wheezing 
noise emitted by the animal in respiration, before he is aware 
of the existence of any tumefaction. This continues to in- 
crease, embracing in its progress the adjacent cellular and 
muscular tissues, and frequently the submaxillary and parotid 
glands. It becomes firmly attached to the skin through 
which an opening is ultimately effected by the pressure of 
pus from the centre of the tumor. 

The swelling often presents an irregular surface, and 
various centres of maturation exist ; but the evacuations only 
effect a partial and temporary reduction of its bulk, in conse- 
quence of the continued extension of the morbid growth and 
ulcerative process which often proceed towards the pharynx, 
rendering respiration and deglutition still more difficult, until 
at length the animal sinks from atrophy or phthisis pulmo- 
nalis. 

" In the early part of my practice, having been frustrated 
in my attempts to establish healthy action in these ulcers, 
and I'cferring to the works that I had on surgery for informa- 
tion, I concluded that they bore some resemblance to cancer 
in the human being, and determined to attempt extirpation. 
Subsequently, numerous cases have occurred in which I have 
successfully carried that determination into effect. I have 



310 CATTJiE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

had some instances of failure, which failure always arose 
from some portion of the morbid growth having been left. 

" In the first stage, I have reason to believe that the tumor 
may be dispersed by the general and topical use of the 
iodurets. After the suppuration, I have tried them in 
vain, 

" As soon as the nature of the tumor is clearly developed, 
I generally attempt its removal, and, when most prominent 
by the side of the larynx, I proceed in the following manner : 
— Having cast the beast, turned the occiput toward the 
ground, and bolstered it up with bundles of straw, I proceed 
to make an incision through it, if the skin is free, parallel 
with, and over, and between the trachea and sterno-maxil- 
larns, extending it sufficiently forward into the inter-maxillary 
spaces. If I find it firmly attached to the apex of the tumor, 
I then enclose it in a curvilinear incision and proceed to 
detach the healthy skin to beyond the verge of the tumor. 

"Its edges being held by an assistant, the knife is directed 
downwards through the subcutaneous parts, and all those 
that exhibit the slightest change from healthy structure are 
removed. 

"By tying any considerable blood-vessel before dividing 
it, and by using the handle of the scalpel and the fingers in 
detaching the portion of the parotid gland towards the ear 
the hemorrhage was always inconsiderable. 

" The wound is then treated in the ordinary way ; except 
that detergents and even antiseptics are often needed to 
arouse healthy action, and the addition of some preparation 
of iodine is often made to the digestive. In directing the 
constitutional treatment, our chief aim must be to support 



TUMORS. 311 

the animal system with plenty of gruel until rumination is 
restored. 

" I need not note that the operation should be performed 
after the animal has fasted some hours. 

"As the success of the operation depends on an entire 
removal of the diseased parts, and as the submaxillary and 
parotid glands, with important branches of nerves and blood- 
vessels, are often enveloped therein, we must not hesitate to 
remove the former, nor to divide the latter. It has occa- 
sionally happened that a rupture has been made in the 
oesophagus, or pharynx, during the operation. In that case, * 
a portion of the gruel with which the animal is drenched 
escapes for a few days ; but I always found that the wound 
healed by granulation, without any particular attention. 

" The weight of these tumors varies from a few ounces to 
some pounds. One that I removed from a two-year- old 
Galloway bullock, weighed six pounds and a quarter. A 
considerable portion of the skin that covered it was excised 
and included in the above weight. It comprehened one of 
the parotid glands, and I had to divide the trunk of the 
carotid artery and jugular vein. 

" This affection may be distinguished from parotiditis and 
other phlegmasice by the action of constitutional disturbance, 
and heat, and tenderness, and by the lingering progress it 
makes. I was once called to a bull laboring under alarming 
dyspnoea that had gradually increased. No external en 
largement was perceptible ; but on introducing my hand into 
the mouth, a large polypus was found hanging from the 
velum palati into the pharynx, greatly obstructing the 
elevation of the epiglottis and the pa.ssage of food. After 



812 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

performing tracheotomy, to prevent suffocation, I passed a 
ligature around its pedicle in the way suggested by the old 
anatomist, Cheselden. 

" A section of one of these tumors mostly displays several 
abscesses, with matter varying in consistency and often very 
fetid, enclosed in what seems to me to be fibro-cartilaginous 
cysts, the exterior of which sometimes gradually disappears 
in the surrounding more vascular abnormal growth. Osseous 
matter (I judge from the grating of the scalpel upon it) occa- 
sionally enters into the composition of the cysts. 

" I have treated this affection in cattle of the Long-horned, 
Short-horned, Galloway, and Highland breeds ; and from the 
number of bulls in this class of patients, have reason to con- 
clude that they are more liable to it than the female. 

" About twelve months ago, I examined the head of a cow, 
on the right facial region of which there existed an enormous 
tumor, extending from the eye to the lips, and which I mis- 
took during life for a periosteal enlargement. On cutting into 
it, my mistake was evident. There was scarcely a trace of 
the original bones beneath the mass ; even those forming the 
nasal sinuses on that side were replaced by a formation much 
resembling the cysts before alluded to, and full of abscesses. 
The progress of the disease was decisively marked in the 
inferior rim of the orbital cavity, where the osseous matter 
was being removed, and the morbid structure deposited." 



ULCERS ABOUT THE JOINTS. 

Occasionally, the joints assume a tumefied appearance, 
generally ulcerating, and causing painful wounds. 

Treatment. — The application of one part of alum to two 



WARBLES. 



313 



parts of prepared chalk, powdered and sprinkled upon tlie 
parts, is usually all that is required. 



"WARBLES. 

It has been a prevalent opinion among farmers, that war- 
bles are so many evidences of the good condition of their 
cattle. It must, how- ___^--=:f;-===^=y^ 
ever, be borne in ' ^ 

mind that the warbles "^^^ 
are the larvce of the 
cestrus bovis, which -^ 
is said to be the most 
beautiful variety of 
gad-fly. This fly, 
judging from the 
objects of its attack, 
must be particularly 
choice in its selection 
of animals upon 
which to deposit its 
eggs, as it 



chooses those poor 
in flesh, or in an un- 
healthy condition. From this circumstance, probably, has 
arisen the opinion above-mentioned. 

These warbles — or larvce of the cestrus bovis — so nearly 
resemble bots in the horse — or larvce oestrus equi — that, were 
it not for their increased size, they might readily be mistaken 
the one for the other. There is, however, one other differ- 
ence, and that is in the rings which encircle the body ; those 




HOHB AGAIN. 



L 



314 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

of the former being perfectly smooth, while those of the 
latter ai'e prickly, and from one third to one half smaller. 

The author was called, in the year 1856, to see the prize 
cow, Pet, belonging to James Kelly, of Cleveland, Ohio, 
whose extraordinary yield of butter and milk had been re- 
ported in the Ohio Farmer, a short time previous to his visit. 
This animal was found by him in rather poor condition ; the 
causes of which he could only trace to the existence of these 
worms, comfortably located, as they were, beneath the 
animal's hide, and forming small tumors all along the spinal 
column, each being surrounded by a considerable quantity of 
pus. A number of these were removed by means of a 
curved bistoury and a pair of forceps, since which time — as 
he has been informed — the animal has rapidly improved, 
regaining her former good condition. 

Some may urge that this is an isolated case ; but an ex- 
amination of cattle for themselves, will convince them to the 
contrary. It may be added, that two other cows, belonging 
to the same gentleman, were also examined at the same time,. — 
one of them being in good condition, and the other, out of 
condition. From the back of the latter several of these 
insects were removed, since which time she also has much 
improved. The former was entirely free from them. These 
cows were all kept in the same pasture, received the same 
care, and were fed on the same food, and at the same time ; 
and as the removal of these larvae has been productive of 
such beneficial results, have we not a right to infer that these 
insects are injurious ? 

Tf we go further and examine, in the spring of the year, all 
cattle which are subject to them, instead of finding them in 



WARBLES — WORMS, 315 

the fine condition which one would naturally expect, — con- 
sidering the abundance of fresh young grass whose vigorous 
life they may incorporate into their own, — they are out of 
condition, and out of spirits, with a laggard eye, a rough 
coat, and, in some cases, a staggering gait, as though their 
strength had failed in consequence. 

How shall such attacks be prevented ? During the months 
of August and September this gad-fly is busily engaged in 
depositing its eggs. Some are of the opinion that they are 
placed on the hairs of the animal ; others, that the skin is 
perforated, and the egg deposited in the opening, which 
■would account for the apparent pain manifested by cattle 
at and after the time of such deposit. Be this as it may, it is 
certain that the maggot works its way into the muscular fibre 
of the back, and depends upon the animal's blood for the 
nourishment which it receives. 

The author has been informed, by persons in whom he 
ought to have confidence, that the free use of the card, 
during the above-named months, is a specific protection 
against the attacks of the oestrus boms. He repeats this 
information here, not without diffidenee ; since so large a 
majority of stock-owners evince, by their lack of familiarity 
with the practical use of this convenient and portable instru- 
ment, an utter disbelief in its reliability and value. 



WORMS. 

Cattle are not so subject to worms proper as are the other 
domestic animals ; nor, when these parasites do exist, is any 
injurious effect apparent, except it be in the case of young 
calves of a weakly constitution. Worms are most commonly 



316 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

located in the small intestines, and cause there considerable 
irritation, and consequently, general emaciation, or at least 
a tendency to it. 
The cause, however, is easily removed by administering 

OSes of sulphate of iron, one-half drachm each, in molasses 

nee or twice a day. 

WORMS IN THE BRONCHIAL TUBES. 

Inflammation of the bronchial tubes is often caused by 
worms of the strongylus species. Upon examination after 
death, the bronchial passages are completely blocked-up by 
these hangers-on. 

Symptoms. — A rough, staring coat ; hide-bound ; painful 
cough ; respiration hurried, etc. 

Treatment. — But little can be done by way of treatment 
in this disease. The administration of small doses of spirits 
of turpentine has, in some instances, proved successful. 



SURGICAL OPERATIONS. 

CASTRATION. 

The period most commonly selected for this operation is 
between the first and third months. The nearer it is to the 
expiration of the first month, the less danger attends the 
operation. 

Some persons prepare the animal by the administration 
of a dose of physic ; but othei's proceed at once to the opera- 
tion when it best suits their convenience, or that of the 
farmer. Care, however, should be taken that the young 



CASTRATION. 317 

Animal is in perfect health. The mode formerly practised 
was simple enough : — a piece of whip-cord was tied as 
tightly as possible around the scrotum. The supply of blood 
being thus completely cut off, the bag and its contents soon 
became livid and (jlead, and were suffered to hang, by som 
careless operators, until they dropped off, or they were cut 
off on the second or third day. 

It is now, however, the general practice to grasp the 
scrotum in the hand, between the testicles and the belly, and 
to make an incision in one side of it, near the bottom, of 
sufficient depth to penetrate through the inner covering of 
the testicle, and of sufficient length to admit of its escape. 
The testicle immediately bursts from its bag, and is seen 
hanging by its cord. 

The careless or bi'utal operator now firmly ties a piece 
of small string around the cord, and having thus stopped_the 
circulation, cuts through the cord, half an inch below the 
ligature, and removes the testicle. He, however, who has 
any feeling for the poor animal on which he is operating, 
considers that the only use of the ligature is to compress the 
blood-vessels and prevent after-hemorrhage, and, therefore, 
saves a great deal of unnecessary torture by including them 
alone in the ligature, and afterwards dividing the rest of the 
cord. The other testicle is proceeded with in the same way 
and the operation is complete. The length of the cord shoul 
be so contrived that it will immediately retract, or be drawn 
back, into the scrotum, but not higher, while the ends of the 
string hang out through the wound. In the course of about 
a week, the strings will usually drop off, and the wounds will 
speedily heal. There will rarely be any occasion to make 



318 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

any application to the scrotum, except fomentation of it, if 
much swelling should ensue. 

A few, whose practice cannot be justified, seize the testicle 
as soon as it escapes from the bag, and, pulling violently, 
reak the cord and tear it out. It is certain that when a 
blood-vessel is thus ruptured, it forcibly contracts, and very 
little bleeding follows; but if the cord breaks high up, and 
retracts into the belly, considerable inflammation has occa- 
sionally ensued, and the beast has been lost. 

■ The application of torsion — or the twisting of the arteries 
by a pair of forceps which will firmly grasp them — has, in a 
great degree, superseded every other mode of castration, both 
in the larger and the smaller domesticated animals. The 
spermatic artery is exposed, and seized with the forceps, 
which are then closed by a very simple mechanical contri- 
vance ; the vessel is drawn a little out from its surrounding 
tissue, the forceps are turned around seven or eight times, 
and the vessel liberated. It will be found to be perfectly 
closed ; a small knot will have formed on its extremity ; it 
will retract into the surrounding surface, and not a drop 
more of blood will flow from it ; the cord may then be 
divided, and the bleeding from any little vessel arrested in 
the same way. Neither the application of the hot iron, nor 
of the wooden clamps, whether with or without caustic, can 
be necessary in the castration of the calf. 

A new instrument was introduced in France, some few 
years since, for this purpose, called the acraseur, — so con- 
structed as to throw a chain over the cord, which is wound 
up by means of a screw working upon the chain, and at the 



CASTRATION — TRACHEOTOMY. 319 

same time the cord is twisted oif. 'No bleeding follows this 
method of operating. 

This instrument is constructed upon the same principle as 
the acraseur for use in the human family, for the removal 
of hemorrhoids, etc., the dimensions of the two only varying. 

The advantages resulting from the use of this instrument 
over all other methods are, that the parts generally heal 
within a week, — the operation is not so painful to the 
animal, — it is less troublesome to the operator, — also to the 
owner of the animal, — and lastly, it is a safer and more 
scientific operation. Its success in France soon gave it a 
reputation in England, and recently it has been introduced 
by the author into this country, and with the best results. 
Contractors, hearing of the success attending this new mode 
of operating, have visited him from all parts of the country 
to witness its performance, and not one has returned without 
leaving an order for this instrument, — so well convinced have 
they been of its decided superiority over all other methods. 



THACHEOTOMY. 

In consequence of the formation of tumors about the 
throat in cattle, from inflammation of the parotid gland, blain, 
etc., so characteristic of this species of animals, it sometimes 
becomes necessary to perform this operation in order to save 
their lives. It never fails to give instant relief 

After the animal has been properly secured, — which is done 
by an assistant's holding the nose with one hand, and one of 
the horns with the other, — the operator draws the skin tight 
over the windpipe with the thumb and fingers of his left 
hand ; then, with the scalpel in his right, cuts through the 



820 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

skin, making an incision about three inches long, dissecting up 
the skin on each side, which brings the trachea, or windpipe, in 
full view. He then cuts out a piece of the cartilaginous 
rings, about two inches long and about half an inch wide. 
This simple operation has saved the lives of very many valu- 
able animals. The wound readily heals, and seldom leaves 
any perceptible blemish, if the work is properly performed. 



SPAYINQ. 

To secure a more uniform flow and a richer quality of milk, 
cows are sometimes spayed, or castrated. The milk of spayed 
cows is pretty uniform in quality ; and this quality will be, 
on an average, a little more than before the operation was 
performed. In instances where the results of this operation 
have been carefully noted, — and the operation is rarely resorted 
to in this country, in comparison with the custom in France 
and other continental countries, — the quality of the milk has 
been greatly improved, the yield becoming regular for some 
years, and varying only in accordance with the difference 
in the succulence of the food. 

The proper time for spaying is about five or six weeks 
after calving, or at the time when the largest quantity of 
milk is given. There seems to be some advantages in spaying 
for milk and butter dairies, where attention is not paid to 
the raising of stock. The cows are more quiet, never being 
liable to returns of seasons of heat, which always more or 
less affect the milk, both in quantity and quality. They 
give milk nearly uniform in these respects, for several years, 
provided the food is uniformly succulent and nutritious. 
Tlicir milk is influenced like that of other cows, though to a 



SPAYING. 321 

less extent, by the quality and quantity of food ; so that in 
winter, unless the animal is properly attended to, the yield 
will decrease somewhat, but will rise again as good feed 
returns. This uniformity for the milk-dairy is of immense 
adv^antage. Besides, the cow, when old and inclined to dry 
up, takes on fat with greater rapidity, and produces a 
juicy and tender beef, superior, at the same age, to that of 
the ox. 

The following method of performing this operation is 
sanctioned by the practice of eminent veterinary surgeons in 
France : — 

Having covered the eyes of the cow to be operated upon, 
she is placed against a wall, provided with five rings firmly 
fastened and placed as follows : the first corresponds to the top 
of the withers ; the second, to the lower anterior part of the 
breast ; the third is placed a little distance from the angle of the 
shoulder ; the fourth is opposite to the anterior and superior 
part of the lower region ; and the fifth, which is behind, 
answers to the under-part of the buttocks. A strong 
assistant is placed between the wall and the head of the 
animal, who firmly holds the left horn in his left hand, and 
with his right, the muzzle, which he elevates a little. This 
done, the end of a long and strong-plaited cord is passed 
through the ring which corresponds to the lower part of the 
breast, and fastened ; the free end of the cord is brought 
along the left flank, and through the ring which is below and 
in front of the withers. This is brought down along the breast 
behind the shoulder and the angle of the fore-leg in order to 
pass it through the third ring; then it must be passed 
around against the oute^' angle of the left hip, and fastened 
21 



322 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

after having been drawn tiglitlj to the posterior ring, by a 
gimi^le bovv-uot. 

The cow being thus firmly fixed to the wall, a cord is 
fastened by a slip-noose around her hocks, to keep them 
ogether in such a manner that she cannot kick the operator, 
the free end of the cord and the tail being held by an assistant. 
The cow thus secured cannot, during the operation, move 
forward, nor lie down, and the operator has all the ease 
desirable, and is protected from accident. 

The operator next — placed opposite to the animal's left flank, 
with his back turned a little toward the head of the animal — cuts 
off the hair which covers the hide in the middle of the flanks, 
at an equal distance between the back and hip, for the space 
of thirteen or fourteen centimetres in circumference (the 
French centimetre is rather more than thirty-nine one hun- 
dredths of an inch) ; a convex bistoury is placed, opened, 
between his teeth, the edge out, the joints to the left ; then, 
with both hands, he seizes the hide in the middle of the flank, 
and forms of it a wrinkle of the requisite elevation, running 
lengthwise of the body. The assistant seizes with his right 
hand the right side of this wrinkle ; the operator takes the 
bistoury and cuts the wrinkle, at one stroke, through the 
middle ; the wrinkle having been sufi"ered to go down, a 
separation of the hide is presented, of sufficient length to 
admit the introduction of the hand ; the edges of the hide are 
separated with the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, and 
in like manner the abdominal muscles are cut through, for the 
distance of a centimetre from the lower extremity of the in- 
cision made in the hide, — the iliac slightly obliquely, and the 
lumbar across ; a puncture of the peritoneum, at the upper 



SPAYING. 323 

extremity of the wound, is then made with the straight 
bistoury ; the buttoned bistoury is then introduced, and 
moved obliquely from above to the lower part, up to the ter- 
mination of the incision made in the abdominal muscles. 

The flank being opened, the right hand is introduced into 
the abdomen, and dh-ected along the right side of the cavity 
of the pelvis, behind the paunch, and underneath the rectum, 
to the matrix ; after the position of these viscera is ascer- 
tained, the organs of reproduction, or ovaries, are searched 
for, which are at the extremity of the matrix ; when found, 
they are seized between the thumb and fore-finger, detached 
completely from the ligaments which keeps them in their 
place, and by a light pull, the cord and the vessels, the 
uterine or Fallopian tube, are separated at their place of union 
with the ovarium, by means of the nails of the thumb and 
forefinger, which present themselves at the point of touch, 
thus breaking the cord and bringing away the ovary. 

The hand is again introduced into the abdominal cavity, 
and the remaining ovaries brought away in like manner. A 
suture is then placed of three or four double threads, waxed 
at an equal distance, and at two centimetres, or a little less, 
from the lips of the wound, passing it through the divided 
tissues ; a movement is made from the left hand with the piece 
of thread ; having reached that point, a fastening is made 
with a double knot, the seam placed in the intervals of the 
thread from the right, and as the lips of the wound are ap- 
proached, a fastening is effected by a simple knot, with a 
bow, care being taken not to close too tightly the lower part 
of the seam, in order to allow the suppuration, which may be 
established in the wound, to escape. The wound is then 



324 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

covered up with a pledget of lint, kept in its place by three 
or four threads passed through the stitches, and the operation 
is complete. 

It happens, sometimes, that in cutting the muscles before 
mentioned, one or two of the arteries are severed. Should 
much blood escape, a ligature must be applied before opening 
the peritoneal sac ; since, if this precaution is omitted, blood 
will escape into the abdomen, which may occasion the most 
serious consequences. 

For the first eight days succeeding, the animal should have 
a light diet, and a soothing, lukewarm draught ; if the weather 
should be cold, cover with a woollen covering. She must be 
prevented from licking the wound, and from rubbing it 
against other bodies. The third day after the operation, 
bathe morning and evening about the wound with water of 
mallows lukewarm, or anoint it with a salve of hog's lard, and 
administer an emollient glyster during three or four days. 

Eight days after the operation, take away the bandage, the 
lint, the fastenings, and the thread. The wound is at that 
time, as a general thing, completely cicatrized. Should, 
however, some slight suppuration exist, a slight pressure 
must be used above the part where it is located, so as to 
cause the pus to leave, and if it continues more than five or 
six days, emollients must be supplied by alcotized water, or 
chloridized, especially in summer. The animal is then to be 
brought back gradually to her ordinary nourishment. 

In some cows, a swelling of the body is observable a short 
time after having been spayed, attributable to the introduc- 
tion of cold air into the abdomen during the operation ; but 
this derangement generally ceases within twenty-four hours. 



SPAYING. 325 

Should the contrary occur, administer one or two sudorific 
draughts, such as wine, warm cider, or a half-glass of brandy, 
in a quart of warm water, — treatment which suffices in a short 
time to restore a healthy state of the belly, — the animal at the 
same time being protected by two coverings of wool. 

The only precaution, in the way of management, to be 
observed as a preparative for the operation is, that on the 
preceding evening not so copious a meal should be given. 
The operation should also be performed in the morning 
before the animal has fed, so that the operator may not find 
any obstacle from the primary digestive organs, especially 
the paunch, which, during its state of ordinary fullness, might 
prevent operating with facility. 

The advantages of spaying milch-cows are thus summed 
up by able French writers : First, rendering permanent the 
secretion of milk, and having a much greater quantity within 
the given time of every year; second, the quality of milk 
being improved ; third, the uncertainty of, and the dangers 
incident to, breeding being, to a great extent, avoided ; 
fourth, the increased disposition to fatten even when giving 
milk freely, or when, from excess of age or from accidental 
circumstances, the secretion of milk is otherwise checked ; 
fifth, the very short time required to produce a marketable 
condition ; and sixth, the meat of spayed cattle being of a 
quality superior to that of ordinary cattle. 

This operation would seem to have originated in this 
country The London Veterinary Journal of 1834 contains 
the following, taken from the United States Southern Agri- 
culturist: — "Some years since, I passed a summer at 
Natchez, and put up at a hotel there, kept by Mr. Thomas 



326 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

Winn. During the time that I was there I noticed two 
remarkably fine cows, which were kept constantly in the 
stable, the servant who had charge of the horses, feeding 
them regularly three times a day with green guinea grass, 
cut with a sickle. These cows had so often attracted my 
attention, on account of the great beauty of their form, and 
deep red color, the large size of their bags, and the high con- 
dition in which they were kept, that I was at length induced 
to ask Mr. Winn to what breed of cattle they belonged, and 
his reasons for keeping them constantly in the stable in pre- 
ference to allowing them to run in the pasture, where they 
could enjoy the benefit of air and exercise, and at the same 
time crop their own food, and thereby save the labor and 
trouble of feeding them ? Mr. Winn, in reply to these in- 
quiries, stated that the two cows which I so much admired 
were of the common stock of the country, and he believed, 
of Spanish origin ; but they were both spayed cows, and that 
they had given milk either two or three years. Considering 
this a phenomenon (if not in nature at least in art), I made 
further inquiries of Mr. Winn, who politely entered into a 
very interesting detail, communicating facts which were as 
extraordinary as they were novel. Mr. Winn, by way of 
preface, observed that he, in former years, had been in the habit 
of reading English magazines, which contained accounts of 
the plowing-matches which were annually held in some of 
the southern counties of England, performed by cattle, and 
that he had noticed that the prizes were generally adjudged 
to the plowman who worked with spayed heifers ; and 
although there was no connection between that subject and 
the facts which he should state, it was, nevertheless, the 



SPAYING. 32 1 

cause that first directed his mind into the train of thought 
and reasoning which finally induced him to make the experi- 
ments, which resulted in the discovery of the facts which he 
detailed, and which I will narrate as accurately as my 
memory will enable me to do it, after the lapse of more than 
twenty years. Mr. Winn's frequent reflections had (he said) 
led him to the belief ' that if cows were spayed soon after 
calving, and while in a full flow of milk, they would continue 
to give milk for many years without intermission, or any 
diminution of quantity, except what would be caused by a 
change from green to dry, or less succulent food." To test 
this hypothesis, Mr. Winn caused a very good cow, then in 
full milk, to be spayed. The opei'ation was performed about 
one month after the cow had produced her third calf; it was 
not attended with any severe pain, or much or long continued 
fever. The cow was apparently well in a few days, and very 
soon yielded her usual quantity of milk, and continued to 
give freely for several years without any intermission or 
diminution in quantity, except when the food was scarce and 
dry ; but a full flow of milk always came back upon the return 
of a full supply of green food. This cow ran in the Missis- 
sippi low grounds or swamp near Natchez, got cast in deep 
mii*e, and was found dead. Upon her death, Mr. Winn 
caused a second cow to be spayed. The operation was en 
tirely successful. The cow gave milk constantly for severa 
years, but in jumping a fence stuck a stake in her bag, that 
inflicted a severe wound, which obliged Mr. Winn to kill her. 
Upon this second loss, Mr. Winn had two other cows spayed, 
and, to prevent the recurrence of injuries from similar causes 
with those which had occasioned him the loss of the first two 



328 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

spayed cows, he resolved to keep them always in the stable, 
or some safe enclosure, and to supply them regularly with 
green food, which that climate throughout the greater part 
of, if not all, the year enabled him to procure. The result, 
in regard to the last two spayed cows, was, as in the case of 
the first two, entirely satisfactory, and fully established, as 
Mr. Winn believed, the fact, that the spaying of cows, while 
in full milk, will cause them to continue to give milk during 
the residue of their lives, or, until prevented by old age. 
When I saw the last two spayed cows it was, I believe, 
during the third year that they had constantly given milk 
after they were spayed. The character of Mr. Winn (now 
deceased) was highly respectable, and the most entire confi- 
dence could be reposed in the fidelity of his statements ; and 
as regarded the facts which he communicated in relation to 
the several cows which he had spayed, numerous persons 
with whom I became acquainted, fully confirmed his state- 
ments." 

In November 1861, the author was called to perform this 
operation upon the short-horn Galloway cow, Josephine 
the Second, belonging to Henry Ingersoll, Esq., of this city. 
This cow was born May 8th, 1860. The morning was cold 
and cloudy. About ten o'clock the cow w^as cast, with the 
assistance of R. McClure, Y. S., after which she was placed 
under the influence of chloric ether. He then made an in- 
cision, about five inches in length, through the skin and walls 
of the abdomen, midway between the pelvis bone and the 
last rib on the left side, passing in his right hand, cutting 
away the ovaries from the Fallopian tubes with the thumb- 
nail. The opening on the side was then closed by means of 



SPAYING. 329 

the interrupted suture. The animal recovered from the in- 
fluence of the ansBsthetic in about fifteen minutes, ■^vhen she 
was allowed to rise, and walk back to her stall. 

TJpon the morning of the second day succeeding the 
operation, the animal was visited and found to be in good 
spirits, apparently suffering very little pain or inconvenience 
from the operation, and the wound healing nicely. 

Since that time, he has operated upon some twenty cows, 
all of which, with a single exception, have thus far proved 
satisfactory. 

Several of these cows are under the direction of a com- 
mittee from the Philadelphia Society for promoting Agricul- 
ture, whose duty it is to have a daily record kept of each 
cow's yield of butter and milk, for one year from the time 
of spaying. Their report will be perused by the agricultural 
community with much interest. 

The author's own experience will not justify him in speak- 
ing either in favor of, or against, this operation ; as suflBcient 
time has not as yet elapsed to satisfy him as to its relative 
advantages and disadvantages. He, however, regards the 
operation as comparatively safe. The French estimate the 
loss at about fifteen per cent., and the gain at thirty per cent. 
Of those upon which he has operated, not a single animal 
died. 



330 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 



A LIST OF MEDICINES USED IN TREATING 
CATTLE. 

The medicines used in the treatment of the diseases of 
cattle, are essentially the same as those in vogue for the 
diseases of the human being and the horse, — the only differ- 
ence being in their combination and the quantities adminis- 
tered. 

Absorbents. — Medicines which destroy acidities in the 
stomach and bowels ; such as chalk, magnesia, etc. 

Alteratives. — Medicines which restore the healthy func- 
tions of secretion, by gradually changing the morbid action 
m an impaired constitution. Those in mo.st common use 
are ^thiops mineral, antimony, rosin, sulphur, etc., which 
form the principal ingredients in all condition-powders, and 
are chiefly useful in diseases of the skin, such as hide-bound, 
mange, surfeit, etc. 

Alterative Powder. — Sulphur pulverized, one pound; 

black antimony, one half a pound ; nitrate of potassa, four 

ounces ; sulphate of iron, one half a pound ; linseed meal, 

one pound ; mix well ; dose, one half an ounce, night and 

.morning. 

Antacids. — Agents which neutralize, by their chemical 
action, acids in the stomach ; as ammonia, carbonate of 
potassa, chalk, lime-water, magnesia, and soda. 

Anthelmintics. — Remedies used for the expulsion of 
worms from the stomach and intestines. These may act 
chemically or by their cathartic operation. The most 



LIST OP MEDICINES. 331 

reliable are ^Etliiops mineral, uux vomica, preparations of 
mercury, wormwood, etc. 

Anthelmintic Powders. — Nux vomica, in one half-drachm 
doses, two or three times daily, to an ox or cow ; for calves, 
the dose must be diminished, according to age. 

Antidotes. — Medicines which neutralize the effects of 
poisons by a chemical union, forming an insoluble compound, 
or a mild, harmless one. Alkahne solutions are antidotes 
for the mineral acids ; as soap in solution, a simple remedy, 
and always at hand. Lard, magnesia, and oil are antidotes 
for poisoning by arsenic ; albumen, — in the form of the white 
of an egg, — milk, etc., for corrosive sublimate, and other 
mercurial preparations. 

Antiseptics. — Medicines which prevent putridity in ani- 
mal substances, and arrest putrefaction, when already existing. 
These are used both externally and internally. The chief 
specifics of this class are the acids, alcohol, ammonia, asa- 
fcetida, camphor, charcoal, chloride of lime, cinchona, ether, 
and opium. 

Antispasmodics. — Medicines which exert their power in 
allaying inordinate motions or spasms in the system, arising 
from various causes, such as debility, worms, etc. Those 
most generally in use are ammonia, asafoetida, camphor, 
cinchona, ether, lactacarium, mercury, and opium. 

Antispasmodic draught. — Tincture of opium, one ounce ; 
nitric ether, two ounces ; water, one-half pint. Mix for 
drench ; if repeated, it should be followed by a purgative, as 
soon as the spasms have subsided. Or, use the following : 
sulphuric ether, one to two ounces ; water, one-half pint. 
Mix for drench; repeat every hour, if necessary. 



332 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

Aromatics. — Medicines possessing a grateful, spicy scent, 
and an agreeable, pungent taste ; as anise-seed, cardamoms, 
cinnamon, cloves, ginger, etc. They are principally used in 
combination with purgatives, stomachics, and tonics. 

Astringents. — Medicines which serve to diminish exces- 
sive discharges, as in diabetes, diarrhoea, etc. The principal 
agents of this class are the acids, alum, chalk, lime-water, 
opium, and the sulphate of copper, lead, iron, or zinc. 

Astringent powder. — Opium, one drachm ; prepared chalk, 
half an ounce; Jamaica ginger, six drachms. Mix, and 
divide into four powders ; one to be given every hour, in a 
little flour gruel. Or, the following : opium, one drachm ; 
catechu, two drachms ; prepared chalk, one ounce. Mix, and 
divide into four powders ; to be given as before. 

Cardiacs. — Cordials — so termed, from their possessing 
warm and stimulating properties — given to invigorate the 
system. 

Cathartics. — Medicines — also known as purgatives — 
which cause free evacuations of the bowels. The only pur- 
gatives used by the author in his cattle practice, as a general 
rule, are aloes, cream of tartar, Epsom-salts, lard and linseed- 
oil. These answer all the indications, where purgatives are 
useful ; indeed, no better purgative for cattle can be found 
than Epsom-salts, combined with a carminative or aromatic 
drug, such as ginger. 

Caustics. — Substances which burn or destroy parts, by 
combining with them and causing their disorganization ; 
used to destroy unhealthy action, or morbid growths, such as 
foul ulcers, foul in the foot, warts, etc. The most powerful 
remedial of this class is actual cauterization with a red-hot 



A LIST OF MEDICINES. 333 

iron ; caustic potash, lunar caustic, nitrous and sulphuric 
acids, permanganate of potash, etc., are also used. 

Cordials. — Best brandy, three ounces; orange peel, one 
drachm ; tepid water, one pint. Mix all together, for one 
dose. Or, this for a single dose : ale, one pint ; Jamaica 
ginger, two drachms. Or, the following, also a single dose : 
allspice, three drachms ; ginger, one drachm ; caraway seeds, 
two drachms. 

Demulcents. — Mucilaginous medicaments, w^hich have the 
power of diminishing the effects of stimulating substances 
upon the animal system. Of this class, garden rue, or 
marsh-mallow, gum-arabic, and gum-tragacanth are the most 
useful. 

Detergents. — Agents which remove foulness from ulcers. 

Detergent Powder. — Prepared chalk, two ounces ; alum, 
one ounce. Mix ; to be sprinkled on the part, after wasliing 
with Ca.stile-soap and water. This powder is also an admira- 
ble application for foot-rot in sheep. 

Diaphoretics. — Agents which increase the natural dis- 
charge through the pores of the skin, and in some animals 
induce perspiration. 

Digestives. — Medicines which promote suppuration. 

Digestive Ointment. — Mix together equal portions of 
spirits of turpentine and lard. Or, mix together with a 
gentle heat the following : Venetian turpentine, one ounce ; 
lard, one ounce ; pulverized sulphate of copper, two drachms. 
Or this, mixed : rosin, two ounces ; spirits of turpentine, one 
ounce ; red precipitate, one-half an ounce ; lard, two ounces. 

Diuretics. — Medicines that stimulate the action of the 
kidneys, and augment the secretion of urine. These are very 



334 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

useful in swellings of the legs or body. Take of nitrate of 
potash and rosin, each six drachms ; mix, and divide in three 
powders ; one to be given daily. Or, the following : spirits 
of turpentine, half an ounce ; Castile-soap, one ounce ; 
Jamaica ginger one drachm ; opium, one drachm. Mix : 
and divide in two balls ; one to be given each day. 

Emollients. — Medicines which relax the lining tissues, 
allay irritation, and soften the parts Involved, — generally of a 
mucilaginous, or oily character. Lard, linseed meal, and 
marsh-mallows are chiefly used. 

LiTHONTRiPTics. — Medicines possessing the power of 
dissolving calculi, or stones in the urinary passages ; com- 
posed principally, according to the researches of modern 
chemists, of lithic or uric acid. The preparation most suc- 
cessfully employed by the author in such cases is muriatic 
acid, in doses of from one to two drachms, in a pail of water, 
once or twice a day. 

Narcotics. — Medicines that stupefy, and produce sleep. 
Belladonna, camphor, hyoscyamus and opium, are among the 
narcotics in common use. 

Nauseants. — Agents which cause loss of appetite, and 
produce the sensation of vomiting, without affecting it. For 
this purpose, aloes, tartrate of antimony, white hellebore, 
etc., are used. 

Parturients. — Agents which act upon the uterus. In 
cases of difficult parturition, or calving, resort is occasionally 
had to them. Ergot of rye is the most powerful. 

Refrigerants. — Cooling applications, which reduce the 
temperature of the blood and body ; as cold water, ether, 
lead-water, etc. 



nST OP MEDICINES. 335 

Rubefacients. — Mediciues which gentlj irritate the skin, 
producing redness on white surfaces. Of this class, are aqua 
ammonia, creosote, mustard, turpentine, etc. 

Sedatives. — Agents which depress the vital energies, 
without destroying life ; as aconite, digitalis, hellebore, hy- 
drochloric acid, hyoscyamus, opium, and tartrate of anti- 
mony. 

Tonics. — Medicines which increase the action of the 
muscular system,' giving strength and vigor to the animal. 
These are among the most useful remedies known to man, 
and are beneficial in all cases of debility, toning up the 
stomach, and improving the appetite and condition of the 
animal. 

Tonic Powder — Pulverized gentian-root, one ounce ; 
Jamaica ginger, one half an ounce ; anise-seed, six drachms. 
Mix, and divide in eight powders ; one to be given night and 
morning. 

Traumatics. — Medicines which excite the healing process 
of wounds ; as aloes, friar's balsam, myrrh, rosin, sulphate 
of copper or zinc, tar, etc. 

Traumatic lotion. — Mix tincture of aloes, one ounce ; 
tincture of myrrh, two ounces. Or, melt together, tar, one 
ounce ; rosin, two ounces ; lard, four ounces. Or, mix sul- 
phate of zinc, one drachm ; rain-water, one half pint. Or, 
use the following, the celebrated friar's balsam ; benzoin, in 
powder, four ounces ; balsam of Peru, two ounces ; Soco- 
trine aloes, one half ounce ; rectified spirits, one quart. Di- 
gest for ten or twelve days ; then filter for use. 



336 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES, 

DOSES OF VARIOUS REMEDIES USED IN" 
CATTLE PRACTICE. 

Aconite. — [_Monk^s hood; Wolffs bane.^ An active 
poison. Used as a sedative in tincture ; ten to twenty drops 
in water. 

-^THiops Mineral. — \_nydrargyri Sulphuretum.'] One to 
two drachms. 

Alcohol. — A stimulant ; three to six ounces. 

Allspice — \_Piinento berries.'] Aromatic; two to four 
drachms. 

Aloes. — Cathartic and tonic ; tonic dose, one half to one 
drachm — cathartic, one to two ounces. 

Alum. — \_Alumen.'] Irritant, astringent, and sedative ; 
two to four drachms. 

Ammonia. — \_Aqua ammonia; Liquor ammonia; Harts- 
horn.] Principally used in combination with mustard, as an 
external irritant, and internally, as a diffusible stimulant; 
two to six drachms. Of carbonate of ammonia, three to 
six drachms. 

Anise-seed. — [Fruit of the Pimpinella Anisum.'] One to 
two drachms. 

Antimony. — [^Sulphate of Antimony.'] Used in condition- 
powders ; one to three drachms. Muriate of antimony. [0^7, 
or butter, of antimony.] Caustic ; very good in foul in the 
foot. Tartarized antimony. \_Tartar emetic] One to four 
drachms. The author, in the last instance, varies from the 
dose prescribed by veterinary authors, never giving it in more 



DOSES OP VARIOUS MEDICINES. 33T 

than one-half-drachm doses, believing its action thus more 
certain and satisfactory. 

AsAF(ETiDA. — Stimulant ; two to four drachms. 

Axunge. — J^Hog^s Lard.^ Ointment, principally ; maybe 
used as purgative in doses of from one to one and a half 
pounds. 

Balsam op Peru. — Stimulant, and tonic ; two to four 
drachms. 

Belladonna. — \_Deadly Nightshade.'] Narcotic, anti- 
spasmodic, and irritant poison ; one to two drachms. 

Benzoin. — \_Gum Benjamin.'] Ointment; see Traumatics. 

Calomel. — [_Hydrargyri Ghloridum.] One half to one 
drachm. 

Camomile. — [^Anthemis.] Stomachic, carminative, and 
tonic ; one to two ounces. 

Camphor. — \_Gamphora Officinarum.] Narcotic and 
irritant ; in small doses, sedative and stimulant ; one to four 
drachms. 

Cantharides. — \_Spanish Flies.] Internally, stimulant and 
diuretic ; twenty to thirty grains. Externally, vesicant ; used 
in form of ointment, or tincture.. 

Caraway. — [Fruit of the Carum Carisi.] Used chiefly 
for flavoring purposes. 

Cardamoms. — [Fruit of the Elettaria Cardamomum.] 
Used to communicate an agreeable flavor to other medicines 

Catechu. — \^Acacia Catechu.] Astringent, and anti- 
septic ; three to six drachms. 

Chalk. — [Carbonate of Lime; Calcis Carhonas.] Two 
to three ounces. 
22 



338 CATTLE AND THEIR^ DISEASES. 

Charcoal. — [(7ar6o Ligni.'] Antiseptic ; one half to 
one ounce. 

Cinchona. — \_Peruvian Bark.']. Astringent and tonic; 
one to two ounces. 

Copper, Sulphate op. — \_Blue Vitriol.] Tonic and astrin- 
gent ; two to four drachms. 

Creosote. — [ Greosotum.] A sedative, anodyne, astringent, 
narcotic, and irritant poison ; fifteen to twenty drops. 

Croton Oil. — [Crotonis Oleum.] Internally, as a ca- 
thartic, six to ten drops in linseed-oil ; externally, as a 
counter-irritant. 

Digitalis. ■^—[jPoa; Glove.] Sedative and diuretic ; one to 
two scruples. 

Epsom- Salts. — \^Sulphate of magnesia.] Cathartic ; one 
oound, combined with ginger. 

Ergot. — [Sptiry-ed rye.] Parturient ; two to six drachms. 

Ether. — Stimulant, narcotic, and anaesthetic ; one to two 
ounces. 

Gentian. — [Root of Gentiana lutea]. Stomachic and 
tonic ; one to two ounces. 

Ginger. — \_Zengiher officinale.] Stomachic, carminative, 
and slightly tonic ; one to two ounces. 

Gum-arabic. — {^Gummi Acacice.] Demulcent and emol- 
lient; one to two ounces. 

Gum-tragacanth. Same action and same doses as the 
former. 

Hellebore. — \^HeUeborus.] Irritant poison, and sedative; 
twenty to thirty grains. 

Hyoscyamus. — l^Nenbane.] Narcotic, anodyne, and anti- 
spasmodic ; ten to twenty grains. 



DOSES OF VARIOUS MEDICINES. 339 

Iodine. — \^Iodineum.'] Internally, as a tonic; two to 
three scruples ; also as a tincture, and in ointments for 
reducing enlargements of the soft tissues. 

Iron, Sulphate of. — [Ferri Sulphas; Green Vitriol, 
Copperas.^ Irritant, astringent, and tonic; two to four 
drachms. 

Koosso. Anthelmintic ; two to four drachms. 

Lime, Chloride of. Antiseptic ; dose internally, one to 
two drachms. 

Linseed oil. Cathartic ; one pint. 

Lunar Caustic. — [Nitrate of Silver.^ Used as a caustic. 

Magnesia. — [See Epsom-Salts.] 

Marsh- MALLOW. — [Althece Radix.'] Demulcent and emol- 
lient ; principally used for poultices and fomentations. 

Muriatic Acid. — [Hydrochloric Acid; Spirit of Salt.'] 
tonic, irritant, and caustic ; dose internally, one to two 
drachms. 

Mustard. — [Sinapis. ] Counter-irritant ; used principally 
as an external application. 

Myrrh. — Stimulating tonic to unhealthy sores; seldom 
used internally. 

Nitric Acid. — [Aquafortis.] Astringent and tonic ; one 
to two drachms in water. Used also as a caustic. 

Nux YoMiCA. — [Seeds of Slrychnos.] In large doses, a 
deadly poison ; in medicinal doses, a powerful tonic and 
anthelmintic ; one half to one drachm. 

Opium. — [Papaver Somniferum.] Narcotic, sedative, apo- 
dyne, stimulant, and anti-spasmodic ; two to four drachms. 

Potash, Carbonate of. — [Potassce Carbonas.] Antacid 
and diuretic ; three to six drachms. 



340 CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

Potash, Caustic. — [^Potassafusa. ] Used only as a caustic. 

PoTASSA, Permanganate of. — Used externally as a 
caustic. 

Rosin. — Diuretic ; two to three ounces. 

Salt, Common. — [^Chloride of Sodium.'] Irritant, cathar 
tic, stimulant, and antiseptic ; one to one and a half pounds. 

Salts, Glauber. — [^Sulphate of Soda.] Cathartic and 
diuretic ; one to one and a half pounds. 

Saltpetre. — \_Nitrate of Polassa.] Diuretic, febrifuge, 
and refrigerant; one half to one ounce. 

Sublimate, Corrosive. — \_ProtocTTloride pf Mercury.] 
Seldom used internally ; externally, caustic and stimulant. 

Sulphur. — \_Brimstone.] Stimulant and laxative; three 
to four ounces. 

Sulphuric Acid. — Irritant, caustic, and astringent ; two 
to three drachms. 

Tartar, Cream of. — \_Potass(B Tartras.] Cathartic ; three 
to four ounces. 

Turpentine. — Stimulant, anthelmintic, diuretic, and laxa- 
tive ; one to two ounces. 

Zinc, Sulphate or. — \_White Vitriol.] Astringent and 
tonic ; one to two drachms. 



SHEEP, SWINE, A-ND POULTRY. 



PREFACE. 



Encoukaged by the favorable reception of his former works, the 
author presents in the following pages what is intended by him as a 
popular compendium relative to Sheep, Swine, and Poultry. 

It would not have been a difficult matter to collect material bear- 
ing upon each distinct class sufficient for an entire volume of the 
present size. Indeed, the main trouble experienced has been the 
selecting of such facts and suggestions only as seemed to him of 
paramount practical importance. He has not deemed it advisable 
to cumber liis work with items of information which could be of 
service to particular sections and localities only ; but has rather 
endeavored to present, in a concise, yet comprehensible shape, what- 
ever is essential to be understood concerning the animals in question. 

The amateur stock-raiser and the wealthy farmer will, of course, 
call to their aid all the works, no matter how expensive or volumi- 
nous, which are to be foimd bearing upon the subject in which they 
are for the time interested. Tlie present volume can scarcely be 
expected to fill the niche which such might desire to see occupied. 

The author's experience as a veterinary surgeon among the great 
body of our farmers convinces him that what is needed by them in 
the premises is a treatise, of convenient size, containing the essential 
features of the treatment and management of each, couched in 
language free from technicality or rarely scientific expressions, and 
fortified by the results of actual experience upon the farm. 

Such a place the author trusts this work may occupy. He hopes 
that, while it shall not be entirely destitute of interest for any, it 
will prove acceptable, in a peculiar degree, to that numerous and 
thrifty class of citizens to which allusion has already been made. 

The importance of such a work at the present time cannot well 
be overrated. Take the subject of sheep, for example : the scarcity 
of cotton, resulting from the war in which the nation is engaged, has 

3 



4 PKEFACE. 

caused a great and lucrative development of the wool trade. Afore 
than a million of men in the service of the Government wear nothing 
but woollen ; and in the community generally, Ught fabrics of wool 
are more in demand than ever before. In 18G0, our imports of wool 
from England were less than three millions of pounds ; in 1861, they 
were upward of ten millions ; in 1862, more than eleven and a half 
millions ; while in 1863, at the port of New York, the imports for 
the first five months were upward of twenty-one millions of pounds. , 

Relative to swine, moreover, it may be said that they form so 
considerable an item of our commerce that a thorough information 
as to the best mode of raising and caring for them is highly desirable ; 
while our domestic poultry contribute so much, directly and in- 
directly, to the comfort and partial subsistence of hundreds of 
thousands, that sensible views touching that division will be of service 
in almost every household. 

To those who are familiar with the author's previous works upon 
the Horse and Cattle, it is needless to say any thing as to the method 
adopted by him in discussing the subject of Diseases. To others he 
would say, that only such diseases are described as are likely to 
be actually encountered, and such curatives reconxmended as his 
own personal experience, or that of others upon whose judgment he 
relies, has satisfied him are rational and valuable. 

The following works, among others, have been consulted : 
Eandall's Sheep Husbandry ; Youatt on Sheep ; Goodale's Breeding 
of Domestic Animals ; Allen's Domestic Animals ; Stephens's Book 
of the Farm; Youatt on the Hog; Richardson on the Hog; 
Dixon and Kerr's Ornamental and Domestic Poultry; Bennett's 
Poultry Book ; and Browne's American Poultry Yard. 

To those professional brethren who have so courteously furnished 
him with valuable information, growing out of their own observation 
and practice, he acknowledges himself especially indebted ; and were 
he certain that they would not take offence, he would be pleased to 
mention them here by name. 

Should the work prove of service to our intelligent American 
farmers and stock-breeders as a body, the author's end will have 
been attained. 



CONTENTS. 



SHEEP AHD THEIE DISEASES. 

PAGE 

HISTORY AND VARIETIES 15 

American Sheep ■ 21 

Native Sheep 22 

The Spanish Merino 25 

The Saxon Merino 36 

The New Leicester 41 

The South-Down 47 

The Cotswold 62 

The Cheviot 64 

The Lincoln 66 

Natural Histort op the Sheep *. 57 

Formation of the Teeth 69 

Structure of the Skin 63 

Anatomy of the Wool 64 

Long Wool 76 

Middle Wool 78 

Short Wool 80 

CROSSING AND BREEDING 81 

Breeding 81 

Points of the Merino • 93 

Breeding Merinos 97 

Gener.al Principles of Breeding 106 

Use of Rams .'... 112 

Lambing - 11" 

Management of Lambs 121 

Castration and Docking 127 

5 



6 CONTENTS. 

PACE 

FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT 129 

Feeding 129 

Shade 133 

Fences 133 

Hoppling 133 

Dangerous Rams 134 

Prairie Feeding 135 

Fall Feeding 137 

Winter Feeding 137 

Feeding with other Stock ; 142 

Division of Flocks 142 

Regularity in Feeding 143 

Effect of Food 144 

Yards 146 

Feeding-Racks 147 

Troughs 150 

Barns and Sheds 151 

Sheds 155 

Hay-IIolders 156 

Tagging „ 157 

Washing IGO 

Cutting the Hoofs 10.5 

Shearing 166 

Cold Storms 171 

Sun-Scald 171 

Ticks 171 

Marking or Branding 172 

Maggots 173 

Shortening the Horns '. 174 

Selection and Division .\ 174 

The Crook 176 

Driving and Slaughtering 1"7 

Driving l"? 

Points of Fat Sheep ISl 

Slaughtering 18-1 

Cutting Up 1S6 

Relative qualities 1S7 

Contributions to Manuiiictures 191 



CONTENTS. Y 

PAGE 

DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES 195 

Administering Medicine 197 



Bleeding . 



197 



Feeling the Pulse 199 

. , 200 

Apoplexy 



Braxy ; ^01 

Bronchitis "^^^ 



Catarrh ^02 

Malignant Epizootic Catarrh • ^03 



205 

206 



206 



Colic 

Costiveness 

Diarrhoea 

Disease of the Biflex Canal 207 

Dysentery 208 

Flies 209 

Fouls 209 

Fractures 210 

Garget 211 

•Goitre 211 

Grub in the Head 212 



Hoof-Ail.. 
Hoove 



214 
225 



Hydatid on the Brain 226 

Obstruction of the Gullet 228 

Ophthalmia 229 

Palsy 



Pelt-Rot 

Pneumonia.. 

Poison 

Rot 

Scab 



229 
230 
230 
232 
233 
236 



Small-Pox 239 

Sore Face 242 

Sore Mouth 243 

Ticks 243 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PAOB 

A Leicester Ram , 15 

Rocky Mountain Sheep , 19 

A Merino Ram 25 

A Spanish Sheep-Dog 28 

Oct at Pasture 35 

A Country Scene 41 

A South-Down Ram 47 

The Cots wold 52 

A Cheviot Ewe 54 

Skeleton of the Sheep as Covered by the Muscles 57 

The Wallachian J^heep • 64 

The Happy Trio 81 

The Scotch Sheep-Dog or Colley 100 

Ewe and Lambs 117 

Feeding and Management 129 

A Covered Salting-Box 130 

A Convenient Box-Rack 147 

A Hole-Rack 148 

The Hopper-Rack 150 

An Economical Sheep-Trough 151 

Sheep-Barn with Sheds 152 

A Shed of Rails 155 

Washing Apparatus ■ 162 

ToE-NiPPKRS 166 

Fleece 167 

Shepherd's Crook 176 

The Shepherd and his Flock 179 

Drover's or Butcher's Dog 185 

Quiet Enjoyment - 1*^^ 

An English R^ack for Feeding Sheep 203 

A Barrack for Storing Sheep Fodder 228 

The Broad-Tailed Sheep 236 

8 

i 



CONTENTS. 

« » • » > 

S¥INE AND THEIE DISEASES. 

PAQE 

HISTORY AND BREEDS ^ 

16 

American Swine 

18 
The Byefleld 

18 
The Bedford 

The Leicester "' 

19 

The Yorkshire ' 

20 

The Chinese 

22 

The Suffolk 

23 

The Berkshire 

25 
Natural IIistoet of the Hog 

27 
Formation of the Teeth "' 

BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT 29 

29 
Breedino 

Points of a Good Hog 

* 38 

Treatment during Pregnancy 

39 

Abortion 

„ , .,. 41 

Parturition 

44 
Treatment while Suckling 

Treatment of Young Pigs *^ 

^ ^ ,. 46 

Castration 

„ . 48 

Spaying 

49 
Weaning 

„. . 61 

Ringing 

Feeding and Fattening "^ 

57 

Piggeries 

Slaughtering ^ 

Pickling and Curing ^2 

Value of the Carcass ^ 

9 



10 CONTENTS — ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES 69 

Catching the Pig 70 

Bleeding 71 

Drenching 72 

Catarrh 72 

Cholera 73 

Crackings 76 

Diarrhoea 76 

Feyer « 77 

Foul Skin 79 

Inflammation of the Lungs.. 79 

Jaundice 80 

Leprosy 81 

Lethargy 81 

Mange 82 

Measles s 84 

Murrain 85 

Quinsy., 85 

Staggers 85 

Swelling of the Spleen 85 

Surfeit 87 

Tumors 87 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAOE 

The Wild Boar 7 

The Wild Boar at Bay 14 

The Chinese Hog 21 

The Sdffolk 22 

A Berkshire Boar 21 

Skeleton of the Hog as Covered ry the MnscLES 25 

The Old Country Well , 29 

Wild Hogs 41 

The Old English Hog 61 

A Wicked-Looking Specimen 69 

Hunting the Wild Boar 77 



CONTENTS. 



POTTLTET AHD THEIE DISEASES. 

PAGE 

HISTORY ANDVAKIETIES 7 

The Domestic Fowl 7 

The Bantam 10 

The African Bantam 11 

The Bolton Gray 13 

The Blue Dun 14 

The Chittagong 15 

The Cochin China 16 

The Cuckoo 19 

The Dominique 20 

The Dorking 20 

The Fawn-colored Dorking 23 

The Black Dorking 23 

The Dunghill Fowl 24 

The Frizzled Fowl 24 

The Game Fowl 25 

The Mexican Hen-Cock 27 

The Wild Indian Game 28 

The Spanish Game 28 

The Guilderland 29 

The Spangled Hamburgh 30 

The Golden Spangled 30 

The Silver Spangled 31 

The Java 32 

The Jersey Blue - 32 

The Lark-Crested Fowl 32 

11 



12 CONTENTS. 

HISTORY AND VARIETIES— Continued. PAGE 

The Malay 34 

The Pheasant-Malay 36 

The Plymouth Rock 37 

The Poland 38 

The Black Polish 40 

The Golden Polands .• 41 

The Silver Polands 43 

The Black-topped White 44 

The Shanghae •. 44 

The White Shanghae 47 

The Silver Pheasant 48 

The Spanish 49 

Natural IIistoey of Domestic Fowls 52 

The Guinea Fowl 58 

The Pea Fowl 61 

The Turkey 66 

The Wild Turkey 66 

The Domestic Turkey 71 

The Duck 74 

The Wild Duck 76 

The Domestic Duck 78 

The Goose 82 

The Wild Goose 82 

The Domestic Goose , 84 

The Bernacle Goose - 87 

The Bremen Goose 89 

The Brent Goose 90 

The China Goose 91 

The White China 93 

The Egyptian Goose 94 

. The Java Goose 95 

The Toulouse Goose 95 

The White-fronted Goose 96 

The Anatomy of the Egg 97 

BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT 101 

Breeding 101 

High Breeding 102 

Selection of Stock 109 

Feeding 112 



CONTENTS. 13 

BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT— CoH<m«edr. PAGE 

Bran 115 

Millet 116 

Rice 116 

Potatoes 116 

Green Food 117 

Earth-Worms 117 

Animal Food 118 

Insects 119 

laying 119 

Preservation of Eggs 123 

Choice of Eggs for Sitting 126 

Incubation 129 

Incubation of Turkeys 133 

Incubation of Geese 134 

Rearing of the Young 135 

Rearing of Guinea Fowls 138 

Rearing of Turkeys '. 139 

Rearing of Ducklings '. 141 

Rearing of Goslings 143 

Caponizing 144 

Fattening and Slaughtering 148 

Slaughtering and Dressing 152 

Poultry-Houses 154 

DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES 158 

Asthma 159 

Costiveness 160 

Diarrhcea 161 

Fever 162 

Indigestion 162 

Lice 163 

Loss of Feathers 165 

Pip 165 

Roup 168 

Wounds and Sores 170 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



..»»> 

FAOE 

Varieties of Fowl 7 

The Bantam 11 

Bantam 12 

Bolton Gkays or Creole Fowl 13 

Cochin Chinas 17 

White Dorkings 21 

Gray Game Fowls 26 

Gdeldeelands 29 

Hamburgh Fowls 30 

Malays 34 

Poland Fowls 39 

Sbanghaes 45 

White Shanghaes 47 

Spanish Fowls 49 

The Gdinea Fowl 59 

The Pea Fowl 62 

The Wild Turkey 66 

The Domestic Turkey 72 

The Eider Duck 75 

Wild Duck 77 

Rouen Duck 79 

Wild or Canada Goose 83 

A Bremen Goose 89 

China or IIong Kong Goose 91 

Barnyard Scene 101 

Fighting Cocks...'. 109 

On the Watch 120 

Marquee or Tent-shaped Coops 136 

Duck- Pond and Houses 141 

A Bad Style of Slaughtering 148 

Rustic Poultry-House 155 

A Fancy Coop in Chinese or Gothic Style 156 

Among the Straw 158 

Prairie Hens 163 

Swans 168 

14 




N-J A LEICESTER RAM. , ,i 




With a single exception — that of the dog — there is no 
membei' of the beast family which presents so great a diversitj 
of size, color, form, covering, and general appearance, as 
characterizes the sheep ; and none occupy a wider range of 
climate, or subsist on a greater variety of food. This animd 
is found in every latitude between the Equator and the Arctic 
circle, ranging over barren mountains and through ferlile 
valleys, feeding upon almost every species of edible forage — 
the cultivated grasses, clovers, cereals, and roots — browsing 
on aromatic and bitter, herbs alike, cropping the leaves and 

15 



16 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

barks from stunted forest shrubs and the pungent, resinous 
evergreens. In some parts of J^Torwaj and Sweden, when 
other resources fail, he subsists on fish or flesh during the long, 
rigorous winter, and, if reduced to necessity, even devours his 
own wool. 

In size, he is diminutive or massive ; he has many horns, or 
but two large or small spiral horns, or is polled or hornless. 
His tail may be broad, or long, or a mere button, discoverable 
only by the touch. His covering is long and coarse, or short 
and hairy, or soft and furry, or fine and spiral. His color 
varies from white or black to every shade of brown, dun, buff, 
blue, and gray. This wide diversity results from long do- 
mestication under almost every conceivable variety of con- 
dition. 

Among the antediluvians, sheep were used for sacrificial 
offerings, and their fleeces, in all probability, furnished them 
with clothing. Since the deluge their flesh has been a favorite 
food among many nations. Many of the rude, wandering 
tribes of the East employ them as beasts of burden. The 
uncivilized — and, to some extent, the refined — inhabitants of 
Europe use their milk, not only as a beverage, but for making 
into cheese, butter, and curds — an appropriation of it which is 
also noticed by Job, Isaiah, and other Old Testament writers, 
as well as most of the Greek and Roman authors. The ewe's 
milk scarcely differs in appearance from that of the cow, 
though it is generally thicker, and yields a pale, yellowish 
butter, which is always soft and soon becomes rancid. In 
dairy regions the animal is likewise frequently employed at 
the tread-mill or horizontal wheel, to pump water, churn milk, 
or perform other light domestic work. 



HISTORY AND VARIETIES. IT 

The calling of the shepherd has, from time immemorial, been 
conspicuous, and not wanting in dignity and importance. 
Abel was a keeper of sheep ; as were Abraham and his 
descendants, as well as most of the ancient patriarchs. Job 
possessed fourteen thousand sheep. Rachel, the favored 
mother of the Jewish race, " came with her father's sheep, for 
she kept them." The seven daughters of the priest of Midian 
"came and drew water for their father's flocks." Moses, the 
statesman and lawgiver, " learned in all the wisdom of the 
Egyptians," busied himself in tending " the flocks of Jethro, 
his father-in-law." David, too, that sweet singer of Israel and 
its destined monarch — the Jewish hero, poet, and divine — was 
a keeper of sheep. To shepherds, " abiding in the field, keep- 
ing watch over their flocks by night," came the glad tidings 
of a Saviour's birth. The Hebrew term for sheep signifies, in 
its etymology, fruitfulness, abundance, plenty — indicative of 
the blessings which they were destined to confer upon the 
human family. In the Holy Scriptures, this animal is the 
chosen symbol of purity and the gentler virtues, the victim of 
propitiatory sacrifices, and the type of redemption to fallen 
man. 

Among profane writers. Homer and Hesiod, Virgil and 
Theocritus, introduce them in their pastoral themes ; while 
their heroes and demi-gods — Hercules and Ulysses, Eneas and 
Nuraa — carefully perpetuate them in their domains. 

In modern times, they have engaged the attention of the 

most enlightened nations, ^^ hose prosperity has been intimately 

linked with them, wherever wool and its manufactures have 

been regarded as essential staples. Spain and Portugal, 

during the two centuries in which they figured as the most 
2 



18 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

enterprising European countries, excelled in the production 
and manufacture of wool. Flanders, for a time, took prece- 
dence of England in the perfection of the arts and the enjoy- 
ments of life ; and the latter country then sent what little wool 
she raised to the former to be manufactured. This being soon 
found highly impolitic, large bounties were offered by England 
for the importation of artists and machinery; and by a 
systematic and thorough course of legislation, which looked to 
the utmost, protection and increase of wool and woollens, she 
gradually carried their production beyond any thing the world 
had ever seen. 

Of the original breed of this invaluable animal, nothing 
certain is known ; four varieties having been deemed by 
naturalists entitled to that distinction. 

These are, 1. -The Musimon, inhabiting Corsica, Sardinia, 
and other islands of the Mediterranean, the mountainous parts 
of Spain and Greece, and some other regions bordering upon , 
that inland sea. These have been frequently domesticated and 
mixed with the long-cultivated breeds. 

2. The Argali ranges over the steppes, or inland plains of 
Central Asia, northward and eastward to the ocean. They 
are larger and hardier than the Musimon and not so easily 
tamed. 

3. The Rocky Ilountain Sheep — frequently called the Big- 
horn by our western hunters — is found on the prairies west 
of the Mississippi, and throughout the wild, mountainous 
regions extending through California and Oregon to the Pacific. 
They are larger than the Argali — which in other respects they 
resemble — and are probably descended from them, since they 
could easily cross upon the ice at Behring's Straits, from the 



HISTORY AND VARIETIES. 



19 



north-eastern coast of Asia. Like the Argali, when caught 
young they are readily tamed ; but it is not known that they 
have ever been 
bred with the 
domestic sheep. 5 
Before the coun- 
try was overrun 
by the white 
ram, they prob- 
ably inhabited 
the region bor- 
dering on the 
Mississippi. Fa- 
ther Hennepin — a French 
Jesuit, who wrote some two 
hundred years ago — often 
speaks of meeting with 
goats in his travels through 
the territory which is now embraced by Illinois, Wisconsin, 
and a portion of Minnesota. The wild, clambering propensi- 
ties of these animals — occupying, as they do, the giddy heights 
far beyond the reach of the traveller — and their outer coating 
of hair — supplied underneath, however, with a thick coating 
of soft wool — give them much the appearance of goats. In 
summer they are generally found single ; but when they 
descend from their isolated, rocky heights in winter, they 
are gregarious, marching in flocks under the guidance of 
leaders. 

4. The Bearded Sheep of Africa inhabit the mountains of 
Barbary and Egypt. They are covered with a soft, reddish 




EOCKT MOUNTAIN SHEEP. 



20 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

hair, and have a mane hanging below the neck, and large locka 
of hair at the ankle. 

Many varieties of the domesticated sheep — that is, all the 
subjugated species — apparently differ less from their wild 
namesakes than from each other. 

The fat-rumped and the broad-tailed sheep are much more 
extensively diffused than any other, and occupy nearly all the 
south-eastern part of Europe, Western and Central Asia, and 
Northern Africa. They are supposed, from various passages 
in the Pentateuch in which " the fat and the rump" are spoken 
of in connection with offerings, to be the varieties which were 
propagated by the patriarchs and their descendants, the Jewish 
race. They certainly give indisputable evidence of remote 
and continued subjugation. Their long, pendent, drowsy ears, 
and the highly artificial posterior developments, are character- 
istic of no wild or recently domesticated race. 

This breed consists of numerous sub- varieties, differing in 
all their characteristics of size, fleece, color, etc., with quite as 
many and marked shades of distinction as the modern Europeaa 
varieties. In Madagascar, they are covered with hair ; in the 
south of Africa, with coarse wool ; in the Levant, and along 
the Mediterranean, the wool is comparatively fine ; and from 
that of the fat-rumped sheep of Thibet the exquisite Cash- 
mere shawls of commerce are manufactured. Both rams and 
ewes are sometimes bred with horns, and sometimes with- 
out, and they exhibit a great diversity of color. Some yield a 
carcass of scarcely thirty pounds, while others have weighed 
two hundred pounds dressed. The tail or rump varies greatly, 
according to the purity and style of breeding ; some are less 
than one-eighth, while others exceed one-third of the entire 



AMERICAN SHEEP. 21 

dressed weight. The fat of the rump or tail is esteemed a 
great delicacy ; in hot climates resembling oil, and in colder, 
suet. 

It is doubtful whether sheep are indigenous to Great Britain ; 
but thej are mentioned as existing there at very early periods. 



AMERICAN" SHEEP. 

In North America, there are none, strictly speaking, except 
the Rocky Mountain breed, already mentioned. The broad- 
tailed sheep of Asia and Africa were brought into the United 
States about seventy years ago, under the name of the Tunisian 
Mountain sheep, and bred with the native flocks. Some of 
them were subsequently distributed among the farmers of 
Pennsylvania, and their mixed descendants were highly prized 
as prolific, and good nurses, coming early to maturity, attain- 
ing large weight, of a superior quality of carcass, and yielding 
a heavy fleece of excellent wool. The principal objection made 
to them was the difficulty of propagation, which always 
required the assistance of the shepherd. The lambs were 
dropped white, red, tawny, bluish, or black ; but all, excepting 
the black, grew white as they approached maturity, retaining 
some spots of the original color on the cheeks and legs, and 
sometimes having the entire head tawny or black. The few 
which descended from the original importations have become 
blended with American flocks, and have long ceased to be 
distinguishable from them. The common sheep of Holland 
were early imported by the Dutch emigrants, who originally 
colonized New York ; but they, in like manner, have long since 
ceased to exist as a distinct variety. 

Improved European breeds have been so largely introduced 



22 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

during the present century, that the United States at present 
possesses every known breed which could be of particular benefit 
to its husbandry. By the census of 1860, there were nearly 
twenty-three and a half millions of sheep in this country, 
yielding upwards of sixty and a half million pounds of wool. 
An almost infinite variety of crosses have taken place between 
the Spanish, English, and " native" families ; carried, indeed, 
to such an extent that there are, comparatively speaking, few 
flocks in the United States that preserve entire the distinctive 
characteristics of any one breed, or that can lay claim to un- 
mixed purity of blood. 

The principal breeds in the United States are the so-called 
"Natives;" the Spanish and Saxon Merinos, introduced from 
the countries whose names they bear : the New Leicester, or 
Bakewell ; the South-Down ; the Cotswold ; the Cheviot ; and 
the Lincoln — all from England. 



NATIVE SHEEP. 

This name is popularly applied to the common coarse-woolled 
sheep of the country, which existed here previously to the im- 
portation of the improved breeds. These were of foreign and 
mostly of English origin, and could probably claim a common 
descent from no one stock. The early settlers, emigrating from 
different sections of the British Empire, and a portion of them 
from other parts of Europe, brought with them, in all proba- 
bility, each the favorite breed of his own immediate neighbor- 
hood, and the admixture of these formed the mongrel family 
now under consideration. Amid the perils of war and the in- 
cursions of beasts of prey, they were carefully preserved. As 



NATIVE SHEEP. 23 

early as 1GT6, New England was spoken of as "abounding 
with sheep." 

These common sheep yielded a wool suitable only for the 
coarsest fabrics, averaging, in the hands of good farmers, from 
three to three and a half pounds of wool to the fleece. They 
were slow in arriving at maturity, compared with the im- 
proved English breeds, and yielded, when fully grown, from 
ten to fourteen pounds of a middling quality of mutton to the 
quarter. They were usually long-legged, light in the fore- 
quarter, and narrow on the breast and back ; although some 
rare instances might be found of flocks with the short legs, 
and some approximation to the general form of the improved 
breeds. They were excellent breeders, often rearing, almost 
entirely destitute of care, and without shelter, one hundred 
per cent, of lambs ; and in small flocks, a still larger proportion. 
These, too, were usually dropped in March, or the earlier part 
of April. Restless in their disposition, their impatience of 
restraint almost equalled that of the untamed Argali, from 
which they were descended ; and in many sections of the 
country it was common to see from twenty to fifty of them 
roving, with little regard to enclosures, over the possessions 
of their owner and his neighbors, leaving a large portion of 
their wool* adhering to bushes and thorns, and the remainder 
placed nearly beyond the possibility of carding, by the toiy- 
weed and burdock, so common on new lands. 

To this general character of the native flocks, there was but one 
exception — a considerably numerous and probably accidental 
variety, known as the Otter breed, or Creepers. These were 
excessively duck-legged, with well-formed bodies, full chests, 
broad backs, yielding a close, heavy fleece, of medium quality 



24 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

of wool. They were deserved favorites where indifferent stone 
or wood fences existed, since their power of locomotion was 
absolutely limited to their enclosures, if protected by a fence 
not less than two feet high. The quality of their mutton 
equalled, while their aptitude to fatten was decidedly superior 
to, their longer-legged contemporaries. The race is now quite 
extinct. 

An excellent variety,, called the Arlington sheep, was pro- 
duced by General Washington, from a cross of a Persian ram 
upon the Bakewell, which bore wool fourteen inches in length, 
soft, silky, and admirably suited to combing. These, likewise, 
have long since become incorporated with the other flocks of 
the country. 

The old common stock of sheep, as a distinct family, have 
nearly or quite disappeared, owing to universal crossing, to a 
greater or less extent, with the foreign breeds of later intro- 
duction. The first and second cross with the Merino resulted 
in a decided improvement, and produced a variety exceedingly 
valuable for the farmer who rears wool solely for domestic 
purposes. The fleeces are of uneven fineness, being hairy on 
the thighs, dew-lap, etc. ; but the general quality is much im- 
proved, the quantity is considei'ably augmented, the carcass 
is more compact and nearer the ground, and they have lost 
their unquiet and roving propensities. The cross with the 
Saxon, for reasons hereafter to be given, has not generally 
been so successful. With the Leicester and Downs, the im- 
provement, so far as form size, and a propensity to take on fat 
are concerned, is manifest. 



THE SPANISH MERINO. 25 

THE SPANISH MERINO. 

The Spanish sheep, in different countries, has, either directly 
or indirectly, effected a complete revolution in the character of 

e n t colors — a merino kam. 

black, red, and tawny. The black sheep yielded a fine fleece, 
the finest of that color which was then known ; but the red 
fleece of Baetica — a considerable part of the Spanish coast on 
the Mediterranean, comprising the modern Spanish provinces 
of Gaen, Cordova, Seville, Andalusia, and Granada, which was 
early colonized by the enterprising Greeks — was, according to ^ 
Pliny, of still superior quality, and ."had no fellow." 

These sheep were probably imported from Italy, and of the 
Tarentine breed, which had gradually spread from the coast of 
Syria, and of the Black Sea, and had then reached the western 
extremity of Europe. Many of them mingled with and im- 
proved the native breeds of Spain, while others continued to 
exist as a distinct race, and, meeting with a climate and an 



26 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

herbage suited to them, retained their original character and 
value, and were the progenitors of the Merinos of the present 
day. Columella, a colonist from Italy, and uncle of the writer 
of an excellent work on agriculture, introduced more of the 
Tareutine sheep into Bsetica, where he resided in the reign of 
the Emperor Claudius, in the year 41, and otherwise improved 
on the native breed ; for, struck with the beauty of some 
African rams which had been brought to Rome to be exhibited 
at the public games, he purchased them, and conveyed them 
to his farm in Spain, whence, probably, originated the better 
varieties of the long-woolled breeds of that country. 

Before his time, however, Spain possessed a valuable breed ; 
since Strabo, who flourished under Tiberius, speaking of the 
beautiful woollen cloths that were worn by the Romans, says 
that the wool was brought from Truditania, in Spain. 

The limited region of Italy — overrun, as it repeatedly was, 
by hordes of barbai'ians during and after the times of the latest 
emperors — soon lost her pampered flocks ; while the extended 
regions of Spain — intersected in every direction by almost 
impassable mountains — could maintain their more hardy race, 
in defiance of revolution or change. 

To what extent the improvements which have been noticed 
* were carried is unknown ; but as Spain was at that time highly 
civilized, and as agriculture was the favorite pursuit of the 
greater part of the colonists that spread over the vast territory, 
which then acknowledged the Roman power, it is highly 
probable that Columella's experiments laid the foundation for 
a general improvement in the Spanish sheep — an improvement, 
moreover, which was not lost, nor even materially impaired, 
during the darker ages that succeeded. 



THE SPANISH MEEINO. 2T 

The Merino race possess inbred qualities to an extent sur- 
passed by no others. They have been improved in the general 
weight and evenness of their fleece, as in the celebrated flock 
of Rambouillet ; in the uniformity and excessive fineness of 
the fibre, as in the Saxons ; and in their form and feeding 
qjnalities, in various countries ; but there has never yet been 
deterioration, either in quantity or quality of fleece or carcass, 
wherever they have been transported, if supplied with suitable 
food and attention. Most sheep annually shed their wool if 
undipped ; while the Merino retains its fleece, sometimes for 
five years, when allowed to remain unshorn. 

Conclusive evidence is thus afforded of continued breeding 
among themselves, by which the very constitution of the wool- 
producing organs beneath the skin have become permanently 
established ; and this property is transmitted to a great extent, 
even among the crosses,' thus marking the Merino as an ancient 
and peculiar race. 

The remains of the ancient varieties of color, also, as noticed 
by Pliny, Solinus, and Columella, may still be discovered in 
the modern Merino. The plain and indeed the only reason, 
that can be assigned for the union of black and gray faces with 
white bodies, in the same breed, is the frequent intermixture 
of black and white sheep, until the white prevails in the fleece, 
and the black is confined to the face and legs. It is still apt 
to break out occasionally in the individual, unless it is fixed 
and concentrated in the face and legs, by repeated crosses and 
a careful selection ; and, on the contrary, in the Merino South- 
Down the black may be reduced by a few crosses to small 
spots about the legs, while the Merino hue overspreads the 
countenance. This hue — variously described as a velvet, a 



28 



SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 



buff, a fawn, or a satin-colored countenance, but in which a red 
tinge not infrequently predominates, still indicates the original 
colors of the indigenous breeds of Spain ; and the black wool, 
for which Spain was formerly so much distinguished, is still 
inclined to break out occasionally in the legs and ears of the 
Merino. In some flocks half the ear is invariably brown, and 
a coarse black hair is often discernible in the finest pile. 

The conquest, in the eighth century, by the Moors of those 
fine provinces in the south of Spain, so far from checking, 

served rather to 
encourage the pro- 
duction of fine 
wool. The con- 
querors were not 
only enterprising, 
but highly skilled 
in the useful arts, 
and carried on ex- 
tensive manufac- 
tories of fine 
woollen goods, 
which they exported to different countries. The luxury of the 
Moorish sovereigns has been the theme of many writers ; and 
in the thirteenth century, when the woollen manufacture 
flourished in but few places, there were found in Seville no less 
than sixteen thousand looms. A century later, Barcelona, 
Perpignan, and Tortosa were celebrated for the fineness of 
their cloths, which became staple articles of trade throughout 
the greater part of Europe, as well as on the coast of Africa. 
After the expulsion of the Moors, in the fifteenth century, 




A SPANISH SHEEP DOG. 



THE SPANISH MERINO, 29 

by FeTtlinand and Isabella, the woollen manufacture languished, 
and was, in a great degree, lost to Spain, owing to the rigor- 
ous banishment of nearly one million industrious Moors, most 
of whom were weavers. As a consequence, the sixteen thou- 
sand looms of Seville dwindled down to sixty. The Spanish 
government perceived its fatal mistake too late, and subsequent 
efforts to gain its lost vantage-ground in respect to this manu- 
facture proved fruitless. During all that time, however, the 
Spanish sheep appear to have withstood the baneful influence 
of almost total neglect ; and although the Merino flocks and 
Merino wool have improved under the more careful manage- 
ment of other countries, the world is originally indebted to 
Spain for the most valuable material in the manufacture of cloth. 

The perpetuation of the Merino sheep in all its purity, amid 
the convulsions which changed the entire political framework 
of Spain and destroyed every other national improvement, 
strikingly illustrates the primary determining power of blood 
or breeding, as well as the agency of soil and climate — possibly 
too much underrated in modern times. 

These Spanish sheep are divided into two classes : the 
stationary, or those that remain during the whole of the year 
on a certain farm, or in a certain district, there being a suffi- 
cient provision for them in winter and in summer ; and the 
migratory, or those which wander some hundreds of miles 
twice in the year, in quest of pasturage. The principal breed 
of stationary sheep consists of true Merinos ; but the breeds 
most sought for, and with which so many countries have been 
enriched, are the Merinos of the migratory description, Avhich 
pass the summer in the mountains of the north, and the winter 
on the plains toward the south of Spain. 



30 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

The first impression made bj the Merino sheep on one un- 
acquainted with its value would be unfavorable. The wool 
l^ing closer and thicker over the body than in most other 
breeds, and being abundant in yolk — or a peculiar secretion 
from the glands of the skin, which nourishes the wool and 
causes it to mat closely together — is covered with a dirty 
crust, often full of cracks. The legs are long, yet small in the 
bone ; the breast and the back are narrow, and the sides some- 
what flat ; the fore-shoulders and bosoms are heavy, and too 
much of their weight is carried on the coarser parts. The 
horns of the male are comparatively large, curved, and with 
more or less of a spiral form ; the head is large, but the fore- 
head rather low. A few of the females are horned ; but, 
generally speaking, they are without horns. Both male and 
female have a peculiar coarse and unsightly growth of hair on 
the forehead and cheeks, which the careful shepherd cuts away 
before the shearing-time ; the other part of the face has a 
pleasing and characteristic velvet appearance. Under the 
throat there is a singular looseness of skin, which gives them 
a remarkable appearance of throatiness, or hollowncss in the 
neck. The pile or hair, when pressed upon, is hard and un- 
yielding, owing to the thickness into which it grows on the 
pelf, and the abundance of the yolk, retaining all the dirt and 
gravel which falls upon it ; but, upon examination, the fibre 
exceeds, in fineness and in the number of serrations and curves, 
that which any other sheep in the world produces. The 
average weight of the fleece in Spain is eight pounds from 
the ram, and five from the ewe. The staple differs in length 
in different provinces. When fatted, these sheep will Aveigh 
from twelve to sixteen pounds per quarter. 



THE SPANISH MERINO. 31 

The excellence of the Merinos consist in the unexampled 
fineness and felting property of their wool, and in the weight 
of it yielded by each individual sheep ; the closeness of that 
wool, and the luxuriance of the yolk, which enable them to 
support extremes of cold and wet quite as well as any other 
breed ; the readiness with which they adapt themselves to 
every change of climate, retaining, with common care, all their 
fineness of wool, and thriving under a burning tropical sun, 
and in the frozen regions of the north; an appetite which 
renders them apparently satisfied with the coarsest food ; a 
quietness and patience into whatever pasture they are turned ; 
and a gentleness and tractableness not excelled in any other 
breed. 

Their defects — partly attributable to the breed, but more to 
the improper mode of treatment to which they are occasionally 
subjected — are, their unthrifty and unprofitable form ; a 
tendency to abortion, or barrenness ; a difficulty of yeaning, or 
giving birth to their young; a paucity of milk; and a too 
frequent neglect of their lambs. They are likewise said, not- 
withstanding the fineness of their wool, and the beautiful red 
color of the skin when the fleece is parted, to be more subject 
to cutaneous affections than most other breeds. Man, however, 
is far more responsible for this than iN ature. Every thing was 
sacrificed in Spain to fineness and quantity of wool. These 
were supposed to be connected with equality of temperature, 
or, at least, with freedom from exposure to cold ; and, therefore, 
twice in the year, a journey of four hundred miles was under- 
taken, at the rate of eighty or a hundred miles per week — the 
spring journey commencing when the lambs were scarcely four 
months old. It is difficult to say in what way the wool of the 



32 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

migratory sheep was, or could be, benefited by these periodical 
journeys. Although among them is found the finest and most 
valuable wool in Spain, yet the stationary sheep, in certain 
provinces — Segovia, Leon, and Estremadura — are more valua- 
ble than the migratory flocks of others. Moreover, the fleece 
of some of the German Merinos — which do not travel at all, 
and are boused all the winter — greatly exceeds that obtained 
from the best migratory breed — the Leonese — in fineness and 
felting property; and the wool of the migratory sheep has 
been, comparatively speaking, driven out of the market by 
that from sheep which never travel. With respect to the 
carcass, these harassing journeys, occupying one-quarter of the 
year, tend to destroy all possibility of fattening, or any 
tendency toward it, and the form and the constitution of the 
flock are deteriorated, and the lives of many sacrificed. 

The first importation of Merinos into the United States took 
place in 1801 ; a banker of Paris, Mr. Delessert, having shipped 
four, of which but one arrived in safety at his farm near 
Kingston, in New York ; the others perished on the passage. 
The same year, Mr. Seth Adams, of Massachusetts, imported 
a pair from France. In 1802, Chancellor Livingston, then 
American Minister at the court of Versailles, sent two choice 
pairs from the Rambouillet flock — which was started, in 1786, 
by placing four hundred ewes and rams, selected from the 
choicest Spanish flocks, on the royal farm of that name, in 
France — to Claremont, his country-seat, on the Hudson river. 
In the latter part of the same year. Colonel Humphreys, 
American Minister to Spain, shipped two hundred, on his 
departure from that country. The largest importations, how- 
ever, were made through Hon. William Jarvis, of Yermont, 



THE SPANISH MERINO. 33 

then American Consul at Lisbon, Portugal, in 1809, 1810, 
and 1811, who succeeded in obtaining the choicest sheep of that 
countiy. Various subsequent importations took place, which 
need not be particularized. 

The cessation of all commercial intercourse with England, in 
1808 and 1809, growing out of difficulties with that country, 
directed attention, in an especial manner, toward manufactur- 
ing and wool-growing. The Merino, consequently, rose into 
importance, and so great was the interest aroused, that from a 
thousand to fourteen hundred dollars a head was paid for them. 
Some of the later importations, unfortunately, arrived in the 
worst condition, bringing with them those scourges of the ■ 
sheep family, the scab and the foot-rot : which evils, together 
with increased supply, soon brought them down to less than a 
twentieth part of their former price. When, however, it was 
established, by actual experiment, that their wool did not 
deteriorate in this country, as had been feared by many, and 
that they became readily acclimated, they again rose into 
favor. The prostration of the manufacturing interests of the 
country, which ensued soon afterwards, rendered the Merino 
of comparatively little value, and ruined many who had 
purchased them at their previous high prices. * Since that 
period, the valuation of the sheep which bear the particular 
wool has, as a matter of course, kept pace with the fluctuations 
in the price of the wool. 

The term Merino, it must be remembered, is but the general 
appellation of a breed, comprising several varieties, presenting 
essential points of difference in size, form, quality and quantity 
of wool. These families have generally been merged, by inter- 
breeding, in the United States and other countries which have 
3 



34 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES, 

received the race from Spain. Purity of Merino blood, and 
actual excellence in the individual and its ancestors, form the 
only standard in selecting sheep of this breed. Families have, 
indeed, sprung up in this country, exhibiting wider points of 
difference than did those of Spain, This is owing, in some 
cases, doubtless, to particular causes of breeding ; but more 
often, probably, to concealed or forgotten infusiona of other 
blood. The question, which has been at times raised, whether 
there are any Merinos in the United States, descendants of the 
early importations, of unquestionable purity of blood, has been 
conclusively settled in the affirmative. 

The minor distinctions among the various families into 
which, as has already been intimated, the American Merino 
has diverged, are numerous, but may all, perhaps, be classed 
under three general heads, 

The^r.sf is a large, short-legged, strong, exceedingly hardy 
sheep, carrying a heavy fleece, ranging from medium to fine, 
free from hair m properly bred flocks ; somewhat inclined to 
throatiness, but not so much so as the Rambouillets ; bred to 
exhibit external concrete gum in some flocks, but not commonly 
so ; their wool rather long on back and belly, and exceedingly 
dense ; wool whiter within than the Rambouillets ; skin the 
same rich rose-color. Sheep of this class are larger and 
stronger than those oi'iginally imported, carry much heavier 
fleeces, and in well-selected flocks, or individuals, the fleece 
is of a decidedly better quality. 

The second class embraces smaller animals than the preced- 
ing; less hardy ; wool, as a general thing, finer, and covered 
with a black, pitchy gum on its extremities ; fleece about one- 
fourtji lighter than in the former class. 



THE SPANISH MERINO. 



35 



The third class, bred at the South, mostly, includes animals 
still smaller and less hardy, and carrying still finer and lighter 
fleeces. The fleece is destitute of external gum. The sheep 
and wool have a close resemblance to the Saxon ; and, if not 
actually mixed with that blood, they have been formed into a 
similar variety, by a similar course of breeding. 

The mutton of 
the Merino, not- 
withstanding the 
prejudices exist- 
ing on the sub- 
ject, is short- 
grained, and of 
good flavor, when 
killed at a proper 
age, and weighs 
from ten to four- 
teen pounds to 
the quarter. It 
is remarkable for 
its longevity, re- 
taining its teeth, o^^t at pasture. 
and continuing to breed two or three years longer than the 
common sheep, and at least half a dozen years longer than the 
improved English breeds. It should, however, be remarked, 
in this connection, that it is correspondingly slow in arriving 
at maturity, as it does not attain its full growth before 
three, years of age; and the ewes, in the best managed 
flocks, are rarely permitted to breed before they reach that 
age. 




36 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

The Merino is a far better breeder than any other fine-woollcd 
sheep, and its lambs, when newly dropped, are claimed to be 
hardier than the Bakewell, and equally so with the high-bred 
South-Down. The ewe, as has been intimated, is not so good 
a nurse, and will not usually do full justice to more than one 
lamb. Eighty or ninety per cent, is about the ordinary 
number of lambs reared, though it often reaches one hundred 
per cent., in carefully managed or small flocks. 

Allusion has heretofore been made to the cross between the 
Merino and the native sheep. On the introduction of the 
Saxon family of the Merinos, they were universally engrafted 
on the parent stock, and the cross was continued until the 
Spanish blood was nearly bred out. When the admixture 
took place with judiciously selected Saxons, the results Avere 
not unfavorable for certain purposes. These instances of 
judicious crossing were, unfortunately, rare. Fineness of 
wool was made the only tests of excellence, no matter how 
scanty its quantity, or how diminutive or miserable the 
carcass. The consequence was, as might be supposed, the 
ruin of most of the Merino flocks. 



THE SAXOiSr MERINO. 

The indigenous breed of sheep in Saxony resembled 
that of the neighboring states, and consisted of two distinct 
varieties — one bearing a wool of some value, and the other 
yielding a fleece applicable only to the coarsest manufactures. 

At the close of the seven years war, Augustus Frederic, the 
Elector of Saxony, imported one hundred rams and two 
hundred ewes from the most improved Spanish flocks, and 
placed a part of them on one of his own farms, in the neighbor- 



THE SAXON MERINO. 31 

hood of Dresden, which he kept unmixed, as he desired to 
ascertain how far the pure Spanish breed could be naturalized 
in that country. The other part of the flock was distributed 
on other farms, and devoted to the inaprovement of the Saxon 
sheep. 

It was soon sufficiently apparent that the Merinos did not 
degenerate in Saxony. Many parcels of their wool were not 
inferior to the choicest Leonese fleeces. The best breed of the 
native Saxons was also materially improved. The majority 
of the shepherds were, however, obstinately prejudiced against 
the innovation ; but the elector, resolutely bent upon accom- 
plishing his object, imported an additional number, and com- 
pelled the crown-tenants, then occupying lands under him, to 
purchase a certain number of the sheep. 

Compulsion was not long necessary ; the true interest of the 
shepherds was discovered ; pure Merinos rapidly increased iu 
Saxony, and became perfectly naturalized. Indeed, after a 
considerable lapse of years, the fleece of the Saxon sheep 
began, not only to equal the Spanish, but to exceed it in fine- 
ness and manufacturing value. To this result the government 
very materially contributed, by the establishment of an agri- 
cultural school, and other minor schools for shepherds, and by 
distributing various publications, which plainly and intelligibly 
showed the value and proper management of the Merino. 
The breeders were selected with almost exclusive reference to 
the quality of the fleece. Great care was taken to prevent ex- 
posure throughout the year, and they were housed on every 
slight emergency. By this course of breeding and treatment 
the size and weight of the fleece were reduced, and that hardi- 
ness and vigor of constitution, which had universally charac- 



38 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

terized the migratory Spanish breed, were partially impaired. 
In numerous instances, this management resulted in permanent 
injury to the character of the flocks. 

The first importation of Saxons into this country was made 
in 1823, by Samuel Heustau, a merchant of Boston, Massa- 
chusetts, and consisted of four good rams, of which two went 
to Boston, and the others to Philadelphia. The following 
year, seventy-seven — about two-thirds of which number only 
were pure-blooded — were brought to Boston, sold at public 
auction at Brooklyn, N.Y., as " pure-blooded electoral Saxons," 
and thus scattered over the country. Another lot, composed 
of grade sheep and pure-bloods, was disposed of, not long 
afterwards, by public sale, at Brighton, near Boston, and 
brought increased prices, some of them realizing from four 
hundred to five hundred and fifty dollars. 

These prices gave rise to speculation, and many animals, of 
a decidedly inferior grade, were imported, which were thrown 
upon the market for the most they could command. The sales 
in many instances not half covering the cost of importation, 
the speculation was soon abandoned. In 182Y, Henry D. 
Grove, of Hoosic, N. Y., a native of Germany, and a highly 
intelligent and thoroughly bred shepherd, who had accom- 
panied some of the early importations, imported one hundred 
and fifteen choice animals for his own breeding, and, in the 
following year, eighty more. These formed the flock from 
which Mr. Grove bred, to the time of his decease, in 1844. 
The average weight of fleece from his entire flock, nearly all 
of which were ewes and lambs, was ten pounds and fourteen 
ounces, thoroughly washed on the sheep's back. This was 
realized after a short summer and winter's keep, when the 



THE SAXON MERINO. 39 

quantity of hay or its equivalent fed to the sheep did not 
exceed one and a half pounds, by actual weight, per day, 
except to the ewes, which received an additional quantity just 
before and after lambing. This treatment was attended with 
no disease or loss by death, and with an increase of lambs, 
equalling one for every ewe. 

The Saxon Merino differs materially in frame from the 
Spanish ; there is more roundness of carcass and fineness of 
bono, together with a general form and appearance indicative 
of a disposition to fatten. Two distinct breeds are noticed. 
One variety has stouter legs, stouter bodies, head and neck 
comparatively short and broad, and body round ; the wool grows 
most on the face and legs ; the grease in the wool is almost 
pitchy. The other breed, called Escurial, has longer legs, with 
a long, spare neck and head ; very little wool on the latter ; 
and a finer, shorter, and softer character in its fleece, but less 
in quantity. 

From what has just been stated it will be seen that there are 
few Saxon flocks in the United States that have not been 
reduced to the quality of grade sheep, by the promiscuous 
admixture of the pure and the impure which were imported 
together ; all of them being sold to our breeders as pure stock. 
Besides, there are very few flocks which have not been again 
crossed with the Native or the Merino sheep of our country, 
or with both. Those who early purchased the Merino crossed 
them with the Native ; and when the Saxons arrived those 
mongrels were bred to Saxon rams. This is the history of 
three-quarters, probably, of the Saxon flocks of the United 
States. 

As these sheep have now so long been bred toward the 



40 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

Saxon that their wool equals that of the pure-bloods, it may 
well be questioned whether they are any worse for the admix- 
ture ; when crossed only with the Merino, it is, undoubtedly, 
to their advantage. The American Saxon, with these early 
crosses In its pedigree, is, by general admission, a hardier and 
more easily kept animal than the pure Escurial or Electoral 
Saxon. Climate, feed, and other causes have, doubtless, con- 
spired, as in the case of the Merino, to add to their size and 
vigor; but, after every necessary allowance has been made, 
they generally owe these qualities to those early ci-osses. 

The fleeces of the American Saxons weigh, on the average, 
from two or two and a quarter to three pounds. They are, 
comparatively speaking, a tender sheep, requiring regular 
supplies of good food, good shdter in winter, and protection in 
cool weather from storms of all kinds ; but they are evidently 
hardier than the parent German stock. In docility and 
patience under confinement, in late maturity and longevity, 
they resemble the Merinos, from which they are descended ; 
though they do not mature so earl}^ as the Merino, nor do they 
ordinarily live so long. They are poorer nurses ; their lambs 
are smaller, fatter, and far more likely to perish, unless 
sheltered and carefully watched ; they do not fatten so well, 
and, being considerably lighter, they consume an amount of 
food considerably less. 

Taken together, the American Saxons bear a much finer 
wool than the American Merinos ; though this is not always 
the case, and many breeders of Saxons cross with the Merino, 
for the purpose of increasing the weight of their fleeces with- 
out deteriorating its quality. Our Saxon wool, as a whole, 
falls considerably' below that of Germany; though individual 



THE NEW LEICESTER. 



41 



specimens from Saxons in Connecticut and Oliio compare well 
with the highest German grades. This inferiority is nut 
attributable to climate or other natural causes, or to a wane of 
skill on the part of our breeders ; but to the fact that but a very 
few of our manufacturers have ever felt willing to make that dis- 
crimination in prices which would render it profitable to breed 
those small and delicate animals which produce this exquisite 
quality of wool. 



THE NEW LEICESTER. 
The unimproved Leicester was a large, heavy, coarse-woolled 
breed of sheep, inhabiting the midland counties of England. 

It was a 




period regarded only size and weight of fleece. 

About the middle of the last century, Robert Bakewell, of 
Dishley, in Leicestershire, first applied himself to the improve- 
ment of the sheep in that country. Before his improvements, 
aptitude to fatten and symmetry of shape — that is, such shape 
as should increase as much as possible the most valuable parts 



42 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

of the animal, and diminish the offal in the same proportion — 
were entirely disregarded. Perceiving that smaller animals 
increased in weight more rapidly than the very large ones 
that they consumed less food, that the same quantity of herbao-e 
applied to feeding a large number of small sheep, would pro- 
duce more meat than when applied to feeding the smaller 
number of large sheep, which alone it would support, and that 
sheep carrying a heavy fleece of wool possessed less propensity 
to fatten than those which carried one of a more moderate 
weight, he selected from the different flocks in his neighbor- 
hood, without regard to size, the sheep which appeared to him 
to have the greatest propensity to fatten, and whose shape 
possessed the peculiarities which, in his judgment, would 
produce the largest proportion of valuable meat, and the 
smallest quantity of bone and offal. 

He was also of opinion that the first object to be attended to 
in breeding sheep is the value of the carcass, and that the 
fleece ought always to be a secondary consideration ; and this 
for the obvious reason that, while the addition of two or three 
pounds of wool to the weight of a sheep's fleece is a difference 
of great amount, yet if this increase is obtained at the ex- 
pense of the animal's propensity to fatten, the farmer may lose 
by it ten or twelve pounds of mutton. 

The sort of sheep, therefore, which he selected were those 
possessed of the most perfect symmetry, with the greatest 
aptitude to fatten, and rather smaller in size than the sheep 
generally bred at that time. Having formed his stock from 
sheep so selected, he carefully attended to the peculiarities of 
the individuals from which he bred, and, so far as can be ascer- 
tained — for all of Mr. Bakewell's measures were kept secret, 



THE NEW LEICESTER. 



43 



even from his most intimate friends, and be died without 
throwing, voluntarily, the least light on the subject — did not 
object to breeding from near relations, when, by so doing, he 
brought together animals likely to produce a progeny possess- 
ing the characteristics which he wished to obtain. 

Having thus established his flock, he adopted the practice — 
which has since been constantly followed by the most eminent 
breeders of sheep — of letting rams for the season, instead of 
selling them to those who wished for their use. By this 
means the ram-breeder is enabled to keep a much larger 
number of rams in his possession ; and, consequently, his 
power of selecting those most suitable to his flock, or which 
may be required to correct any faults in shape or quality which 
may occur in it, is greatly increased. By cautiously using a 
ram for one season, or by observing the produce of a ram let 
to some other breeder, he can ascertain the probable qualities 
of the lambs which such ram will get, and thus avoid the 
danger of making mistakes which would deteriorate the value 
of his stock. The farmers, likewise, who hire the rams, have 
an opportunity of varying the rams from which they breed 
much more than they otherwise could do ; and they are also 
enabled to select from sheep, of the best quality, and from 
those best calculated to effect the greatest improvement in 
their flocks. 

The idea, when first introduced by him, was so novel that 
he had great difficulty in inducing the farmers to act upon it ; 
and his first ram was let for sixteen shillings. So eminent, 
however, wks his success, that, in 178*1, he let three rams, for 
a single season, for twelve hundred and fifty pounds (about 
six thousand two hundred dollars), and was offered ten hundred 



44 



SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 



and fifty pounds (about five thousand two hundred dollars) 
for twenty ewes. Soon afterwards he received the enormous 
price of eight hundred guineas (or four thousand dollars) for 
two-thirds of the services of a ram for a single season, reserving 
the other third for himself. 

The improved Leicester is of large size, but somewhat 
smaller than the original stock, and in this respect falls con- 
siderably below the coarser varieties of Cotswold, Lincoln, etc. 
Where there is a sufficiency of feed, the New Leicester is un- 
rivalled for its fattening propensities ; but it will not bear hard 
stocking, nor must it be compelled to travel far in search of its 
food. It is, in fact, properly and exclusively a lowland sheep. 
In its appropriate situation — on the luxuriant herbage of the 
highly cultivated lands of England — it possesses unequalled 
earliness of maturity ; and its mutton, when not too fat, is of a 
good quality, but is usually coarse, and comparatively deficient 
in flavor, owing to that unnatural state of fatness which it so 
readily assumes, and which the breeder, to gain weight, so 
generally feeds for. The wethers, having reached their second 
year, are turned off in the succeeding February or March, and 
weigh at that age from thirty to thirty-five pounds to the 
quarter. The wool of the New. Leicester is long, averaging, 
after the first shearing, about six inches ; and the fleece of the 
American animal weighs about six pounds. It is of coarse 
quality, and little used in the manufacture of cloth, on account 
of its length, and that deficiency of felting properties common, 
in a greater or less extent, to all English breeds. As a 
combing wool, however, it stands first, and is used in the 
manufacture of the finest worsteds, and the like textures. 

The high-bred Leicesters of Mr. Bakewell's stock became 



THE NEW LEICESTER. 45 

shy breeders and poor nurses; but crosses subsequently 
adopted have, to some extent, obviated these defects. The 
lambs are not, however, generally regarded as very hardy, and 
they require considerable attention at the time of yeaning, 
particularly if the weather is even moderately cold or stormy. 
The grown sheep, too, are mufch affected by sudden changes 
in the weather ; an abrupt change to cold being pretty certain 
to be registered on their noses by unmistakable indications of 
catarrh or "snuffles." 

In England, where mutton is generally eaten by the laboring 
classes, the meat of this variety is in very great demand ; and 
the consequent return which a sheep possessing such fine 
feeding qualities is enabled to make renders it a general 
favorite with the breeder. Instances are recorded of the most 
extraordinary prices having been paid for these animals. They 
have spread into all parts of the British dominions, and been 
imported into the other countries of Europe and into the 
United States. 

They Avere first introduced into our own country, some 
forty years since, by Christopher Dunn, of Albany, N. Y. 
Subsequent importations have been made by Mr. Powel, of 
Philadelphia, and various other gentlemen. The breed, how- 
ever, has never proved a favorite with any large class of 
American farmers. Our long, cold winters — but, more especi- 
ally, our dry, scorching summers, when it is often difficult to 
obtain the rich, green, tender feed in which the Leicester 
delights — together with the general deprivation of green feed 
in the winter, rob it of its early maturity, and even of the 
ultimate size which it attains in England. Its mutton is too 
fat, and the fat and lean are too little intermixed to suit 



46 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

American taste. Its wool is not veiy salable, owing to the 
dearth of worsted manufactures in our country. Its early 
decay and loss of wool constitute an objection to it, in a country 
where it is often so difficult to advantageously turn off sheep, 
particularly ewes. But, notwithstanding all these disad- 
vantages, on rich lowland farms, in the vicinity of considerable 
markets, it will always in all probability make a profitable 
return. 

The head of the New Leicester should be hornless, long, 
small, tapering towards the muzzle, and projecting horizontally 
forward ; the eyes prominent, but with a quiet expression ; the 
ears thin, rather long, and directed backward ; the neck full 
and broad at its base, where it proceeds from the chest, so 
that there is, with the slightest possible deviation, one con- 
tinued horizontal line from the rump to the poll ; the breast 
broad and full; the shoulders also broad and round, and no 
uneven or angular formation where the shoulders join either 
the neck or the back — particularly no rising of the withers, or 
hollow behind the situation of these bones ; the arm fleshy 
throughout its whole extent, and even down to the knee ; the 
bones of the leg small, standing wide apart ; no looseness of 
skin about them, and comparatively void of wool ; the chest 
and barrel at once deep and round ; the ribs forming a con- 
siderable arch from the spine, so as, in some cases — and espe- 
cially when the animal is in good condition — to make the 
apparent width of the chest even greater than the depth ; the 
barrel ribbed well home ; no irregularity of line on the back or 
belly, but on the sides ; the carcass very gradually diminishing 
in width towards the rump ; the quarters long and full, and, 
as with the fore-legs, the muscles extending down to the hock; 



THE SOUTH-DOWN. 



4T 



the thighs also wide and full ; the legs of a moderate length ; 
and the pelt also moderately thin, but soft and elastic, and 
covered with a good quantity of white wool, not so long as in 
some breeds, but considerably finer. 



THE SOUTH-DOWJSr. 

A long range of chalky hills, diverging from the chalky 
stratum which intersects England from Norfolk to Dorchester, 
is termed the South- 
Downs. They enter 
the county of Sussex 
on the west side, and 
are continued almost 
in a direct line, as far ^^ 
as East Bourne, 
where they reach the 
sea. They may be 
regarded as occupy- 
ing a space of more 

than sixty miles in length, and about five or 
six in breadth, consisting of a succession of 
open downs, with few enclosures, and distinguished by their 
situation and name from a more northern tract of similar 
elevation and soil, passing through Surrey and Kent, and 
terminating in the cliffs of Dover, and of the Forelands. On 
these downs a certain breed of sheep has been produced for 
many centuries, in greater perfection than elsewhere ; and 
hence have sprung those successive colonies which have found 
their way abroad and materially benefited the breed of sbort- 
woolled sheep wherever they have gone. 




A SOCTH-DOWN RAM 



48 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

It is only, however, within a comparatively recent period 
that they have been brought to their present perfection. As 
recently as IITG they were small in size, and of a form not 
superior to the common woolled sheep of the United States ; 
they were far from possessing a good shape, being long and 
thin in the neck, high on the shoulders, low behind, high on 
the loins, down on the rump, the tail set on very low, perpen- 
dicular from the hip-bones, sharp on the back ; the ribs flat, 
not bowing, narrow in the fore-quarters, but good in the leg, 
although having big bones. Since that period a course of 
judicious breeding, pursued by Mr. John Ellman, of Glynde, 
in Sussex, has mainly contributed to raise this variet}' to its 
present value ; and that, too, without the admixture of the 
slightest degree of foreign blood. 

This pure, improved family, it will be borne in mind, is 
spoken of in the present connection ; inasmuch as the original 
stock, presenting, with trifling modifications, the same charac- 
teristics which they exhibited seventy-five years ago, are yet 
to be found in England ; and the intermediate space between 
these two classes is occupied by a variety of grades, rising or 
falling in value, as they approximate to or recede from the 
improved blood. 

The South-Down sheep are polled, but it is probable that 
the original breed was horned, as it is not unusual to find 
among the male South-Down Iambs some with small horns. 
The dusky, or at times, black hue of the head and legs fully 
establishes the original color of the sheep, and, perhaps of all 
sheep ; while the later period at which it was seriously attempted 
to get rid of this dingy hue proving unsuccessful, only confirms 
this view. Many of the lambs have been dropped entirely black. 



THE SOUTH-DOWN. 49 

It is an upland sheep, of medium size, and its wool — which 
in point of length belongs to the middle class, and differs 
essentially from Merino wool of any grade, though the fibre in 
some of the finest fleeces may be of the same apparent fineness 
with half or one-quarter blood Merino — is deficient in felting 
properties, making a fuzzy, hairy cloth, and is no longer used 
in England, unless largely mixed with foreign wool, even for 
the lowest class of cloths. As it has deteriorated, however, it 
has increased in length of staple, in that country, to such an 
extent that improved machinery enables it to be used as a 
combing-wool, for the manufacture of worsteds. Where this 
has taken place it is quite as profitable as when it was finer 
and shorter. In the United States, where the demand for 
combing-wool is so small that it is easily met by a better 
article, the same result would not probably follow. Indeed, it 
may well be doubted whether the proper combing length will 
be easily reached, or at least maintained in this country, in the 
absence of that high feeding system which has undoubtedly 
given the wool its increased length in England. The average 
weight of fleece in the hill-fed sheep is three pounds ; on rich 
lowlands, a little more. 

The South-Down, however, is cultivated more pai'ticularly 
for its mutton, which for quality takes precedence of all other — 
from sheep of good size — ^in the English markets. Its early 
maturity and extreme aptitude to lay on flesh, render it 
peculiarly valuable for this purpose. It is turned oflF at the 
age of two years, and its weight at that age is, in England, 
from eighty to one hundred pounds. High-fed wethers have 
reached from thirty-two to even forty ]ionnds a quarter. Not- 
withstanding its weight, it has a patience of occasional short 



50 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

keep, and an endurance of bard stocking, equal to any other 
sheep. This gives it a decided advantage over the bulkier 
Leicesters and Lincolns, as a mutton sheep, in hillj districts 
and those producing short and scanty herbage. It is hardy 
and healthy, though, in common with the other English varie- 
ties, much subject to catarrh, and no sheep better withstands 
our American winters. The ewes are prolific breeders and 
good nurses. 

The Down is quiet and docile in its habits, and, though an 
industrious feeder, exhibits but little disposition to rove. Like 
the Leicester, it is comparatively a short-lived animal, and the 
fleece continues to decrease in weight after it reaches maturity. 
It crosses better with short and middle-woolled breeds than 
the Leicester. A sheep possessing such qualities, must, of 
necessity, be valuable in upland districts in the vicinity of 
markets. The Emperor of Russia paid Mr. Ellraan tluce 
hundred guineas (fifteen hundred dollars) for two rams ; and, 
in 1800, a ram belonging to the Duke of Bedford was let for 
one season at eighty guineas (four hundred dollars), two 
others at forty guineas (two hundred dollars) each, and four 
more at twenty-eight guineas (one hundred and forty dollars) 
each. The first importation into the United States was made 
by Col. J. H. Powell, of Philadelphia. A subsequent im- 
portation, in 1834, cost sixty dollars a head. 

The desirable characteristics of the South-Down may be thus 
summed up : The head small and hornless ; the face speckled 
or gray, and neither too long nor too short ; the lips thin, and 
the space between the nose and the eyes narrow ; the undcr- 
jaw or chap fine and thin ; the ears tolerably wide and well- 
covered with wool, and the forehead also, and the whole space 



THE SOUTH-DOWN. 51 

between the ears well protected by it, as a defence against the 
fly ; the eye full and bright, but not prominent ; the orbits of 
the eye, the eye-cap or bone not too projecting, that it may 
not form a fatal obstacle in lambing ; the neck of a medium 
length, thin toward the head, but enlarging toward the 
shoulders, where it should be broad and high and straight in 
its whole course above and below. 

The breast should be wide, deep, and projecting forward 
between the fore-legs, indicating a good constitution and a 
disposition to thrive; corresponding with this, the shoulders 
should be on a level with the back, and not too wide above ; 
they should bow outward from the top to the breast, indicating 
a springing rib beneath, and leaving room for it; the ribs 
coming out horizontally from the spine, and extending far 
backward, and the last rib projecting more than others ; the 
back flat from the shoulders to the setting on of the tail ; the 
loin broad and flat ; the rump broad, and the tail set on high, 
and nearly on a level with the spine. 

The hips should be wide ; the space between them and the 
last rib on each side as narrow as possible, and the ribs 
generally presenting a circular form like a barrel ; the belly as 
straight as the back ; the legs neither too long nor too short ; 
the fore-legs straight from the breast to the foot, not bending 
inward at the knee, and standing far apart, both before and 
behind ; the hock having a direction rather outward, and the 
twist, or the meeting of the thighs behind, being particularly 
full; the bones fine, yet having no appearance of weakness, and 
of a speckled or dark color ; the belly well defended with 
wool, and the wool coming down before and behind to the 



52 



SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 



knee and to the hock ; the wool short, close, curled and fine, 
and free from spiry projecting fibres. 



THE COTSWOIiD. 

The Cotswolds, until improved by modern crosses, were a 
very large, coarse, long-legged, flat-ribbed variety, light in the 

fore-quarter, and 
'^^ ^ shearing a long, 
g heavy, coarse 
fleece of wool. 
They were for- 
^ merly bred only 
^ on the hills, and 
fatted in the val- 
leys, of the Severn 
and the Thames ; 
but with the en- 
closures of the 




THE COTSWOLD. 



Cotswold hills, and the improvement of their cultivation, they 
have been reared and fatted in the same district. They were 
hardy, prolific breeders, and capital nurses ; deficient in early 
maturity, and not possessing feeding properties equalling 
those of the South-Down or New Leicester. 

They have been extensively crossed with the Leicester 
sheep — producing thus the modern or improved Cotswold — by 
which their size and fleece have been somewhat diminished, 
but their carcasses have been materially improved, and their 
maturity rendered earlier. The wethers are sometimes fat- 
tened at fourteen months old, when they weigh from fifteen to 



THE COTSWOLD. 53 

twenty-four pounds to a quarter ; and at two vears old, in- 
crease to twenty or thirty pounds. 

The wool is strong, mellow, and of good color, though rather 
coarse, six to eight inches in length, and from seven to eight 
pounds per fleece. The superior hardihood of the improved 
Cotswold over the Leicester, and their adaptation to common 
treatment, together with the prolific nature of the ewes, and 
their abundance of milk, have rendered them in many places 
rivals of the New Leicester, and have obtained for them, of 
late years, more attention to their selection and general treat- 
ment, under which management still farther improvement has 
been made. They have also been used in crossing other 
breeds, and have been mixed with the Hampshire Downs. 
Indeed, the improved Cotswold, under the name of new, or 
improved Oxfordshire sheep, have frequently been the success- 
ful candidates for prizes offered for the best long-woolled 
sheep at some of the principal agricultural meetings or shows 
in England. The quality of their mutton is considered superior 
to that of the Leicester; the tallow being, less abundant, with 
a larger development of muscle or flesh. 

The degree to which the cross between the Cotswold and 
Leicester may be carried, must depend upon the nature of the 
old stock, and on the situation and character of the farm. In 
exposed situations, and somewhat scanty pasture, the old blood 
should decidedly prevail. On a more sheltered soil, and on 
land that will bear closer stocking, a greater use may be made 
of the Leicester. Another circumstance that should guide the 
farmer is the object which he has principally in view. If he 
expects to derive his chief profits from the wool, he will look 



54 



SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 



to the primitive Cots wolds ; if he expects to gain more as a 
grazier, he will use the Leicester ram more freely. 

Sheep of this breed, now of established reputation, have been 
imported into the United States by Messrs. Corning and 
Gotham, of Albany, and bred by the latter. 



THE CHEVIOT. 

On the steep, storm-lashed Cheviot hills, in the extreme 
north of England, this breed first attracted notice for their 

great hardiness 
in resisting cold, 
and for feeding 
on coarse, heath- 
ery herbage. A 
cross with the 
Leicester, pretty 
generally resorted 
to, constitutes the 
improved variety. 
The Cheviot 
readily amalga- 
mates with the 
Leicester — the rams employed in the system of breeding, 
which has been extensively introduced for producing the first 
cross of this descent, being of the pure Leicester breed — and 
the progeny is superior in size, weight of wool, and tendency 
to fatten, to the native Cheviot. The benefit, however, may 
be said to end with the first cross ; and the progeny of this 
mixed descent is greatly inferior to the pure Leicester in form 




A CHEVIOT EWB. 



THE CHEVIOT. 55 

and fattening properties, and to the pure Cheviot in hardiness 
of constitution. 

The improved Cheviot has greatly extended itself through- 
out the mountains of Scotland, and in many instances sup- 
planted the black-faced breed ; but the change, though often 
advantageous, has in some cases been otherwise — the latter 
being somewhat hardier, and more capable of subsisting on 
heathy pasturage. They are a hardy race, however; well 
suited for their native pastures, bearing, with comparative im- 
punity, the storms of winter, and thriving well on poor keep. 
The purest specimens are to be found on the Scotch side of the 
Cheviot hills, and on the high and stony mountain farms which 
lie between that range and the sources of the Teviot. These 
sheep are a capital mountain stock, provided the pasture re- 
sembles those hills, in containing a good proportion of rich" 
herbage. Though less hardy than the black-faced sheep of 
Scotland, they are more profitable as respects their feeding, 
making more flesh on an equal quantity of food, and making 
it more quickly. . 

They have white faces and legs, open countenances, lively 
e3^es, and are without horns ; the ears are large, and somewhat 
singular, and there is much space between the ears and eyes ; 
the carcass is long ; the back straight ; the shoulders rather 
light ; the ribs circular; and the quarters good. The legs are 
small in the bone, and covered with wool, as well as the body, 
with the exception of the face. The wether is fit for the 
butch* at three years old, and averages from twelve to 
eighteen pounds a quarter ; the mutton being of a good quality, 
though inferior to the South-Down, and of less flavor than the 



56 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

black-faced. The Cheviot, though a mountain breed, is quiet 
and docile, and easily managed. 

The wool is about the quality of, Leicester, coarse and long, 
suitable only for the manufacture of low coatings and flushings. 
It closely covers the body, assisting much in preserving it from 
the effects af wet and cold. The fleece averages about three 
and a half pounds. Formerly, the wool was extensively em- 
ployed in making cloths ; but having given place to the finer 
Saxony wools, it has sunk in price, and been confined to comb- 
ing purposes. It has thus become altogether a secondary 
consideration. 

The Cheviots have become an American sheep by their 
repeated importations into this country. The wool on several 
choice sheep, imported by Mr. Carmichael, of New York, was 
from five to seven inches long, coarse, but well suited to 
combins:. 



THE LINCOLN". 

The old breed of Lincolnshire sheep was hornless, had white 
faces, and long, thin, and weak carcasses ; the ewes weighed 
from fourteen to twenty pounds a quarter ; the three-year old 
wethers from twenty to thirty pounds ; legs thick, rough and 
white ; pelts thick ; wool long — from ten to eighteen inches — 
and covering a slow-feeding, coarse-grained carcass of mutton. 

A judicious system of breeding, which avoided Bakewell's 
errors, has wrought a decided improvement in this breed. The 
improved Lincolns possess a rather more desirable robiJstness, 
approaching, in some few specimens, almost to coarseness, as 
compared with the finest Leicesters ; but they are more hardy, 
and less liable to dise'ase. They attain as large a size, and 



THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SHEEP. 



57 



yield as great an amount of wool, of about the same value. 
This breed, indeed, scarcely differs more from the Cotswold 
than do flocks of a similar variety, which have been separately 
bred for several generations, from each other. They are pro- 
lific, and when well-fed, the ewes will frequently produce two 
lambs at a birth, for which they provide liberally from their 
udders till the time for weaning. The weight of the fleece 
varies from four to eight pounds per head. 

Having alluded to the principal points of interest connected 
with the various breeds of sheep in the United States, our 
next business is with 



THE NATUEAL HISTOKY OF THE SHEEP. 
7>^ 




36 " ^HO 

SKELETOX OF THE SHEEP A3 COVERED BT THE MUSCLES. 

1. The intermaxillary bone. 2. The nasal bones. 3. The upper jaw 4 The union of 
the nasal and upper jaw-bones. 5. The union of the molar and lachrymal bones. 
6. The orbits of the eye. 7. The frontal bone. 8. The lower jaw. 9 The incisor 
teeth, or nippers. 10. The molars or grinders. 11. The ligament of the neck support- 
ing the head. 12. The seven vertebrfe, or thp bones of the neck. 13 The thirteen 
vertebra, or bones of the back. 14. The six vertebra of the loins. 13. The sacral bone. 



58 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

IG. The bones of the tail, varying in different breeds from twelve to twenty-one. 
17. The haunch and pelvis. IS. The eight true ribs, with their cartilages. 19. The 
five false ribs, or those that are not attached to the breast-bone. 20. The breast-bone. 
21. The scapula, or shoulder-blade. 22. The humerus, bone of the arm, or lower part 
of the shoulder. 23. The radius, or bone of the fore-arm. 24. The ulna or elbow. 
25. The knee with its different bones. 26. The metacarpal or shank-bones — the larger 
bones of the leg. 27. A rudiment of the smaller metacarpal. 2S. One of the sessamoid 
bones. 29. The first two bones of the foot — the pasterns. 30. The proper bones of the 
foot. 31. The thigh-bone. 32. The stifle-joint aad its bone— the patella. 33. The 
tibia, or bone of the upper part of the leg. 34. The point of the hock. 35. The other 
bones of the hock. 36. The metatarsal bones, or bone of the hind-leg. 37. Kudiment 
of the small metatarsal. 38. A sessamoid bone. 39. The first two boues of the foot— 
the pasterns. 40. The proper bones of the foot. 

Division. Vertebrata — possessing a back-bone. 
Class. Mamvialia — such as give suck. 
Order. Ruminantia — chewing the cud. 
Family. CapridcB — the goat kind. 
Genus. Oris — the sheep family. 

Of this Genus there are three varieties : 
Oris, Ammon, or Argali. 
Oris Musmon. 
Oris Aries, or Domestic Sheep. 

Of the latter — with which alone this treatise is concerned — 
there are about forty well known varieties. Between the oris, 
or sheep, and the capra, or goat, another genus of the same 
family, the distinctions are well marked, although considerable 
resemblance exists between them. The horns of the sheep 
have a spiral direction, while those of the goat have a direction 
upward and backward ; the sheep, except in a single wild 
variety, has no beard, while the goat is bearded ; the goat, in 
bis highest state of improvement, when he is made to produce 
wool of a fineness unequalled by the sheep — as in the Cash- 
mere breed — is mainly, and always, externally covered with 
hair, while the hair on the sheep may, by domestication, be 
reduced to a few coarse hairs, or got rid of altogether ; and, 



FORMATION OF THE TEETH. 59 

finally, the pelt or skin of the goat has thickness very far ex- 
ceeding that of the sheep. 

The age of sheep is usually reckoned, not from the time that 
they are dropped, but from the first shearing ; although the 
first year may thus include fifteen or sixteen months, and 
sometimes more. When doubt exists relative to the age, re- 
course is had to the teeth, since there is more uncertainty 
about the horn in this animal than in cattle ; ewes that have 
been early bred, appearing always, according to the rings on 
the horn, a year older than others that have been longer kept 
from the ram. 



FOEMATION OF THE TEETH. 

Sheep have no teeth in the upper jaw, but the bars or 
ridges of the palate thicken as they approach the forepart of 
the mouth ; there also the dense, fibrous, elastic matter, of 
which they are constituted, becomes condensed, and forms a 
cushion or bed, which covers the converse extremity of the 
upper jaw, and occupies the place of the upper incisor, or 
cutting teeth, and partially discharge their functions. The 
herbage is firmly held between the front teeth in the lower 
jaw and this pad, and thus partly bitten and partly torn 
asunder. Of this, the rolling motion of the head is sufficient 
proof. 

The teeth are the same in number as in the mouth of the ox. 
There are eight incisors or cutting-teeth in the forepart of the 
lower jaw, and six molars in each jaw above and below, and 
on either side. The incisors are more admirably formed for 
grazing than in the ox. The sheep lives closer, and is destined 
to follow the ox, and gather nourishment where that animal 



60 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

would be unable to crop a single blade. This close life not 
only loosens the roots of the grass, and disposes them to spread, 
but by cutting off the short suckers and sproutings — a wise 
pi'ovision of nature — causes the plants to throw out fresh, and 
more numerous, and stronger ones, and thus is instrumental 
in improving and increasing the value of the crop. Nothing 
will more expeditiously and more effectually make a thick, 
permanent pasture than its being occasionally and closely eaten 
down by sheep. 

In order to enable the sheep to bite this close, the upper lip 
is deeply divided, and free from hair about the centre of it. 
The part of the tooth above the gum is not only, as in other 
animals, covered with enamel, to enable it to bear and to pre- 
serve a sharpened edge, but the enamel on the upper part 
rises from the bone of the tooth nearly a quarter of an inch, 
and presenting a convex surface outward, and a concave 
within, forms a little scoop or gorge of wonderful«execution. 

The mouth of the lamb newly dropped is either without in- 
cisor teeth or it has two. The teeth rapidly succeed to each 
other, and before the animal is a month old he has the whole 
ot the eight. They continue to grow with his growth until he 
is about fourteen or sixteen months old. Then, with the same 
previous process of diminution as in cattle, or carried to a still 
greater degree, the two central teeth are shed, and attain their 
full growth when the sheep is two years old. 

In examining a flock of sheep, however, there will often be 
very considerable difference in the teeth of those that have not 
been sheared, or those that have been once sheared ; in some 
measure to be accounted for by a difference in the time of 
lambing, and likewise by the general health and vigor of the 



FORMATION OF THE TEETH. 61 

animal. There will also be a material difference in different 
animals, attributable to the good or bad keep which they have 
had. Those fed on good land, or otherwise well kept, will 
generally take the start of others that have been half starved, 
and renew their teeth some months sooner than these. There 
are also irregiilarities in the times of renewing the teeth, not 
to be accounted for by either of these circumstances ; in fact, 
not to be explained by any known circumstance relating to the 
breed or the keep of the sheep. The want of improvement in 
sheep, which is occasionally observed, and which cannot be 
accounted for by any deficiency or change of food, may some- 
times be justly attributed to the tenderness of the mouth when 
the permanent teeth are protruding through the gums. 

Between two and three years old the next two incisors are 
shed ; and when the sheep is actually three years old, the four 
central teeth are fully grown ; at four year^old, he has six 
^ teeth fully grown ; and at five years old — one year before the 
horse or the ox can be said to be full-mouthed — all the teeth 
are perfectly developed. The sheep is a much shorter-lived 
animal than the horse, and does not often attain the usual age 
of the ox. Their natural age is about ten years, to which age 
they will breed and thrive- well; though there are recorded 
Instances of their breeding at the age of fifteen, and of liviffg 
twenty years. 

The careless examiner may be sometimes deceived with re- 
gard to the four-year-old mouth. He will see the teeth per- 
fectly developed, no diminutive ones at the sides, and the 
mouth apparently full ; and then, without giving himself the 
trouble of counting the teeth, he will conclude that the animal 
is five years old. A process of displacement, as well as of 



62 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

diminution, Las taken place here ; the remaining outside milk- 
teeth have not only shrunk to less than a fourth part of their 
original size, but the four-year-old teeth have grown before 
them and perfectly conceal them, unless the mouth is com- 
pletely opened. 

After the permanent teeth have all appeared and are fully 
grown, there is no criterion as to the age of the sheep In 
most cases, the teeth remain sound for one or two years, and 
then, at uncertain intervals — either on account of the hard 
work in Avhich they have been employed, or from the natural 
effect of age — they begin to loosen and fall out ; or, by reason 
of their natural slenderness, they are broken ofiF. When 
favorite ewes, that have been kept for breeding, begin to lose 
condition, at six or seven years old, their mouths should be 
carefully examined. If any of the teeth are loose, they should 
be extracted, and a chance given to the animal to show how 
far, by browsing early and late, she may be able to make up ' 
for the diminished number of her incisors. It frequently 
happens that ewes with broken teeth, and some with all the 
incisors gone, will keep pace in condition with the best in the 
flock ; but they must be well taken care of in the winter, and, 
indeed, nursed to an extent that, would scarcely answer the 
fajmer's purpose to adopt as a general rule, in order to prevent 
them from declining to such a degree as would make it very 
difficult afterward to fatten them for the butcher. It may cer- 
tainly be taken as a general rule, that when sheep become 
broken-mouthed they begin to decline. 

Causes of which the farmer is utterly ignorant, or over 
which he has no control, will sometimes hasten the loss of the 
teeth. One thing, however, is certain — that close feeding, 



STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN. 63 

causing additional exercise, does wear them down ; and that 
the sheep of farmers who stock unusually and unseasonably 
hard, lose their teeth much sooner than others do. 



THE STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN, 

The skin of the sheep, in common with that of most animals, 
is composed of three textures. Externally is the cuticle, or 
scarf-skin, which is thin, tough, devoid of feeling, and pierced 
by innumerable minute holes, through which pass the fibres 
of the wool and the insensible perspiration. It seems to be 
of a scaly texture ; although is not so evident as in many other 
animals, on account of a peculiar substance — the yolk — which 
is placed on it, to protect and nourish the roots of the wool. 
It is, however, sufficiently evident in the scab and other cuta- 
neous eruptions to which this animal is liable. 

Below this cuticle is the rete miicosum, a soft structure ; its 
fibres having scarcely more consistence than mucilage, and 
being with great difficulty separated from the skin beneath. 
This appears to be placed as a defence to the terminations of 
the blood-vessels and nerves of the skin, which latter are, in a 
manner, enveloped and covered by it. The color of the skin, 
and probably that of the hair or wool also, is determined by 
the rete mucosum ; or, at least, the hair and wool are of the 
same color as this substance. 

Beneath the rete mucosum is the cutis, or true skin, com- 
posed of numberless minute fibres crossing each other in every 
direction ; highly elastic, in order to fit closely to the parts 
beneath, and to yield to the various motions of the body ; and 
dense and firm in its structure, that it may resist external 
injury. Blood-vessels and nerves innumerable pierce it, and 



64 



SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 



appear on its surface in the form of papillce, or minute 
eminences ; while, through thousands of little orifices, the ex- 
helant absorbents pour out the superfluous or redundant fluid. 
The true skin is composed, principally or almost entirely, of 
gelatine ; so that, although it may be dissolved by long-con- 
tinued boiling, it is insoluble in water at the common tempera- 
ture. This organization seems to have been given to it, not 
only for the sake of its preservation while on the living animal, 
but that it may afterwards become useful to man. The sub- 
stance of the hide readily combining with the tanning principle, 
is converted into leather. 



THE ANATOMY OF THE WOOL. 

On the skin of most animals is placed a covering of feathers, 
fur, hair, or wool. These are all essentially the same in com- 
position, being 
composed of an 
animal substance 
resembling coagu- 
lated albumen, to- 
gether with sul- 
phur, silica, carbon- 
ate and phosphate 
of lime, and oxides 
of iron and manga- 
nese. 

Wool is not con- 
fined to the sheep. The under-bair of some goats is 
not only finer than the fleece of any sheep, but it oc- 
casionally has the crisped appearance of wool ; being, in fact, 




ANATOMY OP THE WOOL. 65 

wool of diflferent qualities in different breeds — in some, rival- 
ling or excelling that of the sheep, but in others very coarse. 
A portion of wool is also found on many other animals ; as 
the deer, elk, the oxen of Tartary and Hudson's Bay, the gnu, 
the camel, many of the fur-clad animals, the sable, the polecat, 
and several species of the dog. 

Judging from the mixture of wool and hair in the coat of 
most animals, and the relative situation of these materials, it is 
not improbable that such was the character of the fleece of the 
primitive sheep. It has, indeed, been asserted that the primi- 
tive sheep was entirely covered with hair ; but this is, doubt- 
less, incorrect. There exists, at the present day, varieties of 
the sheep occupying extensive districts, that are clothed out- 
wardly with hair of different degrees of fineness and sleekness ; 
and underneath the external coat is a softer, shorter, and closer 
one, that answers to the description of fur — according to most 
travellers — but which really possesses all the characteristics of 
wool. It is, therefore, highly improbable that the sheep — 
which has now become, by cultivation, the wool-bearing 
animal in a pre-eminent degree — should, in any country, at 
any time, have ever been entirely destitute of wool. Sheep 
of almost every variety have at times been in the gardens of 
the London (Eng.) Zoological Society; but there has not 
been one on which a portion of crisped wool, although exceed- 
ingly small, has not been discovered beneath the hair. In all 
the regions over which the patriarchs wandered, and extending 
northward through the greater part of Europe and Asia, the 
sheep is externally covered with hair ; but underneath is a fine, 
short, downy wool, from which the hair is easily separated. 
5 



g6 SHEEP AND TUEIR DISEASES. 

This is the case with the sheep at the Cape of Good Hope, 
and also in South America. 

The change from hair to wool, though much influenced by 
temperature, has been chiefly eff'ected by cultivation. Wherever 
hairy sheep are now found the management of the animal is 
in a most disgraceful state ; and among the cultivated sheep 
the remains of this ancient hairy covering only exists, to any 
great extent, among those that are comparatively neglected or 
abandoned. 

The filament of the wool has scarcely pushed itself through 
the pore of the skin, when it has to penetrate through another 
and singular substance, which, from its adhesiveness and color, 
is called the yolk. This is found in greatest quantity about 
the breast and shoulders — the very parts that produce the 
best, and healthiest, and most abundant wool — and in propor- 
tion as it extends, in any considerable degree, over other 
parts, the wool is then improved. It differs in quantity in 
different breeds. It is very abundant on the Merinos ; it is 
suflBciently plentiful on most of the southern breeds, either to 
assist in the production of the wool, or to defend the sheep 
from the inclemency of the weather ; but in the northern 
districts, where the cold is more intense and the yolk of wool 
is deficient, a substitute for it is sometimes sought by smearing 
the sheep with a mixture of tar, oil, or butter. Where there is 
a deficiency of yolk, the fibre of the wool is dry, harsh, and 
weak, and the whole fleece becomes thin and hairy ; where the 
natural quantity of it is found, the wool is soft, oily, plentiful 
and strong. 

This yolk is not the inspissated or thickened perspiration of 
the animal it is not composed of matter which has been acci- 



ANATOMY OF THE WOOL. 61 

dentally picked up, and which has lodged in the wool ; but it is 
a peculiar secretion from the glands of the skin, destined to be 
one of the agents in the nourishment of the wool, and at the 
same time, by its adhesiveness, to mat the wool together, and 
form a secure defence from the wet and cold. 

Chemical experiments have established its composition, as 
follows : first, of a soapy matter with a basis of potash, which 
forms the greater part of it ; second, a small quantity of car- 
bonate of potash ; third, a perceptible quantity of acetate of 
potash ; fourth, lime, in a peculiar and unknown state of com- 
bination ; fifth, an atom of muriate of potash ; sixth, an animal 
oil, to which its peculiar odor is attributable. All these 
materials are believed to be essential to the yolk, and not 
found in it by mere accident, since the yolk of a great number 
of samples — Spanish, French, English, and American — has 
been subjected to repeated analyses, with the same result. 

The yolk being a true soap, soluble in water, it is not diflB- 
cult to account for the comparative ease with which sheep 
that have the natural proportion of it are washed in a running 
stream. There is, however, a small quantity of fatty matter 
in the fleece, which is not in combination with the alkali, and 
which, remaining attached to the wool, keeps it a little glutin- 
ous, notwithstanding the most careful washing. 

The fibre of the wool having penetrated the skin and escaped 
from the yolk, is of a circular form, generally larger toward the 
extremity, and also toward the root, and in some instances 
very considerably so. The filaments of white wool, when 
cleansed from grease, are semi-transparent; their surface in 
some places is beautifully polished, in others curiously in- 
crusted, and they reflect the rays of light in a very pleasing 



68 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

manner. When viewed by the aid of a powerful achromatic 
microscope, the central part of the fibre has a singularly glit- 
tering appearance. Minute filaments, placed very regularly, 
are sometimes seen branching from the main Irunk, like 
boughs from the principal stem. This exterior polish varies 
much in different wools, and in wools from the same breed of 
sheep at different times. When the animal is in good con- 
dition, and the fleece healthy, the appearance of the fibre is 
really brilliant ; but when the state of the constitution is bad, 
the fibre has a dull appearance, and either a wan, pale light, 
or sometimes scarcely any, is reflected. As a general rule, the 
filament is most transparent in the best and most useful wools, 
whether long or short. It increases with the improvement of 
the breed, and the fineness and healthiness of the fleece ; yet it 
must be admitted that some wools have different degrees of 
the transparency and opacity, which do not appear to affect 
their value and utility. It is, however, the difference of trans- 
parency in the same fleece, or in the same filament, that is 
chiefly to be noticed as improving the value of the wool. 

As to the size of the fibre, the terms " fine" and " coarse," 
as commonly used, are but vague and general descriptions of 
wool. All fine fleeces have some coarse wool, and all coarse 
fleeces some fine. The most accurate classification is to dis- 
tinguish the various qualities of wool in the order in which 
they are esteemed a^nd preferred by the manufacturer — as the 
following: first, fineness with close ground, that is, thick- 
matted ground ; second, pureness ; third, straio-ht-haired, when 
broken by drawing ; fourth, elasticity, rising after compression 
in the hand ; fifth, staple not too long ; sixth, color ; seventh, 
what coarse exists to be very coarse ; eighth, tenacity ; and 



ANATOMY OF THE WOOL. 69 

ninlli, not much pitch-mark, though this is no disadvantage, 
except the loss of weight in scouring. The bad or disagree- 
able properties are — thin, grounded, tossy, curly-haired, and, 
if in a sorted state, little in it that is very fine ; a tender 
staple, as elasticity, many dead white hairs, very yolky. 
Those who buy wool for combing and other light goods that 
do not need milling, wish to find length of staple, fineness of 
hair, whiteness, tenacity, pui'eness, elasticity, and not too 
many pitch-marks. 

The property first attracting attention, and being of greater 
importance than any other, is the fineness of the pile — the 
quantity of fine wool which a fleece yields, and the degree of 
that fineness. Of the absolute fineness, little can be said, 
varying, as it does, in difi"erent parts of the same fleece to a 
very considerable degree, and the diameter of the same fibre 
often being exceedingly different at the extremity and the 
centre. The micrometer has sometimes indicated that the 
diameter of the former is five times as much as that of the 
latter ; and, consequently, that a given length of yield taken 
from the extremity would weigh twenty-five times as much as 
the same length taken from the centre and cleansed from 
all yolk and grease. That fibre may be considered as coarse 
whose diameter is more than the five-hundredth part of an 
inch ; in some of the most valuable samples of Saxony wool it 
has not exceeded the nine-hundredth . part ; yet in some 
animals, whose wool has not been used for manufacturing 
purposes, it is less than one twelve-hundredth part. 

The extremities of the wool, and frequently those portions 
which are near to the root, are larger than the intermediate 
parts. The extremity of the fibre has, generally, the greatest 



TO SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

bulk of all. It is the product of summer, soon after shearing- 
time, when the secretion of the matter of the wool is in- 
creased, and when the pores of the skin are relaxed and open, 
and permit a larger fibre to protrude. The portion near the 
root is the growth of spring, when the weather is getting 
warm ; and the intermediate part is the offspring of winter, 
when under the influence of the cold the pores of the skin 
contract, and permit only a finer hair to escape. If, however, 
the animal is well fed, the diminution of the bulk of the fibre 
will not be followed bj weakness or decay, but, in proportion 
as the pile becomes fine, the value of the fleece will be in- 
creased ; whereas, if cold and starvation should go hand-in- 
hand, the woolly fibre will not only diminish in bulk, but in 
health, strength, and worth. 

The variations in the diameter of the wool in different parts 
of the fibre will also curiously correspond with the degree of 
heat at the time the respective portions were produced. The 
fibre of the wool and the record of the meteorologist will 
singularly agree, if the variations in temperature are suffi- 
ciently distinct from each other for any appreciable part of 
the fibre to form. It follows from this, that — the natural 
tendency to produce wool of a certain fibre being the same — 
sheep in a hot climate will yield a comparatively coarse wool, 
and those in a cold climate will carry a finer, but at the same 
time a closer and a warmer fleece. In proportion to the 
coarseness of a fleece will generally be its openness, and its 
inability to resist either cold or wet ; while the coat of softer, 
smaller, more pliable wool will admit of no interstices between 
its fibres, and will bid defiance to frost and storms. 

The natural instinct of the sheep would seem to teach the 



ANATOMY OF THE WOOL. Tl 

wool-grower the advantage of attending to the influence of 
temperature upon the animal. He is evidently impatient of 
heat. In the open districts, and where no shelter is near, he 
climbs to the highest parts of his walk, that, if the rays of the 
sun must still fall on him, he may nevertheless be cooled by 
the breeze ; but, if shelter is near, of whatever kind, every 
shaded ^spot is crowded with sheep. The wool of the Meri- 
nos after shearing-time is hard and coarse to such a degree 
as to render it very difficult to suppose that the same animal 
could bear wool so opposite in quality, compared with that 
which had been clipped from it in the course of the same 
season. As the cold weather advances, the fleeces recover 
their soft quality. 

Pasture has a far greater influence on the fineness of the 
fleece. The staple of the wool, like every other part of the 
sheep, must increase in length or in bulk when the animal has 
a superabundance of nutriment ; and, on the other hand, the 
secretion which forms the w^ool must decrease like every 
other, when sufficient nourishment is not afforded. When 
little cold has been experienced in the winter, and vegetation 
has scarcely been checked, the sheep yields an abundant crop 
of wool, but the fleece is perceptibly coarser as well as 
heavier. When the frost has been severe, and the ground 
long covered with snow, if the flock has been fairly supplied 
with nutriment, although the fleece may have lost a little in 
weight, it will have acquired a superior degree of fineness, 
and a proportional increase of value. Should, however, the 
sheep have been neglected and starved during this continued 
cold weather, the fleece as well as the carcass is thinner, and 



T2 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

although it maj have preserved its smallness of filament, it 
has lost in weight, and strength, and usefulness. 

Connected with fineness is irueness of staple — as equal in 
growth as possible over the animals — a freedom from those 
shaggy portions, here and there, which are occasionally 
observed on poor and neglected sheep. These portions are 
always coarse and comparatively worthless, and they indicate 
an irregular and unhealthy action of the secretion of wool, 
which will also probably weaken or render the fibre diseased 
in other parts. Included in trueness of fibre is another 
circumstance to which allusion has already been made — a 
freedom from coarse hairs which project above the general 
level of the wool in various parts, or, if they are not exter- 
nally seen, mingle with the wool and debase its qualities. 

Soundness is closely associated with trueness. It means, 
generally speaking, strength of the fibre, and also a freedom 
from those breaches or withered portions of which something 
has previously been said. The eye will readily detect the 
breaches ; but the hair generally may not possess a degree of 
strength proportioned to its bulk. This is ascertained by 
drawing a few hairs out of the staple, and grasping each of 
them singly by both ends, and pulling them until they break. 
The wool often becomes injured by felting while it is on the 
sheep's back. This is principally seen in the heavy breeds, 
especially those that are neglected and half-starved, and 
generally begins in the winter season, when the coat has been 
completely saturated wMth water, and it increases until shear- 
ing-time, unless the cob separates from the wool beneath, and 
drops ofl*. 

Wool is generally injured by keeping. It will probably in- 



ANATOMY OP THE WOOL. 73 

crease a little in weight for a few months, especially if kept in 
a damp place ; but after that it will somewhat rapidly become 
lighter, until a very considerable loss will often be sustained. 
This, however, is not the moral of the case ; for, except very 
great care is taken, the moth will get into the bundles and 
injure and destroy the staple ; and that which remains un- 
touched by them will become considerably harsh and less 
pliable. If to this the loss of the interest of money is added, 
it will be seen that he seldom acts wisely who hoards his wool, 
when he can obtain what approaches to a fair remunerating 
price for it. 

Softness of the wool is evidently connected with the pres- 
ence and quality of the yolk. This substance is undoubtedly 
designed not only to nourish the hair, but to give it richness 
and pliability. The growth of the yolk ought to be promoted, 
and agriculturists ought to pay more attention to the quantity 
and quality of yolk possessed by the animals selected for the 
purpose of breeding. 

Bad management impairs the pliability of the wool, by 
arresting the secretion of the yolk. The softness of the wool 
is also much influenced by the chemical elements of the soil. 
A chalky soil notoriously deteriorates it ; minute particles of 
the chalk being necessarily brought into contact with the 
fleece and mixing with it,, have a corrosive efiect on the fibre, 
and harden it and render it less pliable. The particles of chalk 
come in contact with the yolk — there being a chemical affinity 
between the alkali and the oily matter of the yolk — immedi- 
ately unite, and a true soap is formed. The first storm washes 
a portion of it ; and the wool, deprived of its natural pabulum 
and unguent, loses some of its vital properties — its pliability 



74 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

among the rest. The slight degree of harshness which has 
been attributed to the English South-Down has been explained 
in this way. 

The felting property of wool is a tendency of the fibres to 
entangle themselves together, and to form a mass more or less 
difficult to unravel. By moisture and pressure, the fibres of 
the wool may become matted or felted together into a species 
of cloth. The nianufactui'e of felt was the first mode in which 
wool was applied to clothing, and felt has long been in uni- 
versal use for hats. The fulling of flannels and broadcloths is 
effected by the felting principle. By the joint influence of the 
moisture and the pressure, certain of the fibres are brought 
into more intimate contact with each other ; they adhere — not 
only the fibres, but, in a manner, the threads — and the cloth 
is taken from the mill shortened in all its dimensions ; it has 
become a kind of felt, for the threads have disappeared, and it 
can be cut in every direction with very little or no unravelling ; 
it is altogether a thicker, warmer, softer fibre. This felting 
property is one of the most valuable qualities possessed by 
wool, and on this property are the finer kinds of wool especially 
valued by the manufacturer for the finest broadcloths. This 
naturally suggests a consideration of the various forms in the 
structure on which it depends. 

The most evident distinction between the qualities of hair 
and wool is the comparative stralghtness of the former, and 
the crisped or spirally-curling form which the latter assumes. 
If a little lock of wool is held up to the light, every fibre of it 
is twisted into numerous minute corkscrew-like ringlets. This 
is especially seen in the fleece of the short-woolled sheeps ; but, 



ANATOMV OF THE WOOL. T5 

although less striking, it is obvious even in wool of the largest 
staple. 

The spirally-curving form of wool used, erroneously, to be 
considered as the chief distinction between the covering of the 
goat and the sheep ; but the under-coat of some of the former 
is finer than that of any sheep, and it is now acknowledged 
frequently to have the crisped and curled appearance of wool. 
In some breeds of cattle, particularly in one variety of the 
Devons, the hair assumes a curled and wavy appearance, and 
a few of the minute spiral ringlets have been occasionally seen. 
It is the same with many of the Highlands ; but there is no 
determination to take on the true crisped character, and 
throughout its whole extent, and it is still nothing but hair. 
On some foreign breeds, however, as the yak of Tartary, and 
the ox of Hudson's Bay, some fine and valuable wool is pro- 
duced. 

There is an intimate connection between the fineness of the 
wool and the number of the curves, at least in sheep yielding 
wool of nearly the same length ; so that, whether the wool of 
different sheep is examined, or that from different parts of the 
same sheep, it is enough for the observer to take advice of the 
number of curves in a given space, in order to ascertain with 
sufficient accuracy the fineness of the fibre. 

To this curled form of the wool not enough attention is, as a 
general thing, paid by the breeder. It is, however, that on 
which its most valuable uses depend. It is that which is 
essential to it in the manufactory of cloths. The object of the 
carder is to break the wool in pieces at the curves — the prin- 
ciple of the thread is the adhesion of the particles together by 
their curves ; and the fineness of the thread, and consequent 



76 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES, 

fineness of the cloth, will depend on the minuteness of these 
curves, or the number of them found in a given length of fibre. 

It will readily be seen that this curling form has much to do 
with the felting property of wool ; it materially contributes to 
that disposition in the fibres which enables them to attach and 
intwine themselves together ; it multiplies the opportunities 
for this interlacing, and it increases the difficulty of unravelling 
the felt. 

The felting property of wool is the most important, as well 
as the distinguishing one ; but it varies essentially in different 
breeds, and the usefulness and the consequent value of the 
fleece, for clothing purposes, at least, depend on the degree to 
which it is pursued. 

The serrated — notched, like the teeth of a saw — edge of 
wool, which has been discovered by means of the microscope, 
is also, as well as the spiral curl, deemed an important quality 
in the felting property. Repeated microscopic observations 
have removed all doubts as to the general outline of the woolly 
fibre. It consists of a central stem or stalk, probably hollow, 
or, at least, porous, possessing a semi-transparency, not found 
in the fibre of hair. From this central stalk there springs, at 
different distances, on different breeds of sheep, a circlet of leaf- 
shaped projections. 



LONG WOOL. 

The most valuable of the long-woolled fleeces are of British 
origin. A considerable quantity is produced in France and 
Belgium ; but the manufacturers in those countries acknowl- 
edge the superiority of the British wool. Long wool is dis- 
tinguished, as its name would import, by the length of its 



LONG WOOL. T7 

staple, the average of which is about eight inches. It was 
much improved, of late years, both in England and in other 
countries. Its staple has, without detriment to its manufac- ' 
tui'ing qualities, become shorter ; but it has also become finer, 
truer, and sounder. The long-woolled sheep has been im- 
proved more than any other breed ; and the principal error 
which Bakewell committed having been repaired since his 
death, the long wool has progressively risen in value, at least 
for curling purposes. Some of the breeds have staples of 
double the length that has been mentioned as the average one. 
Pasture and breeding are the powerful agents here. 

Probably because the Leicester blood prevails in, or, at least, 
mingles with, every other long-woolled breed, a great simi- 
larity in the appearance and quality of this fleece has become 
apparent, of late years, in every district of England. The 
short-woolled fleeces are, to a very considerable degree, unlike 
in fineness, elasticity, and felting property ; the sheep them- 
selves are still more unlike ; but the long- wools have, in a 
great degree, lost their distinctive points — the Lincoln, for ex- 
ample, has not all of his former gaunt carcass, and coarse, en- 
tangled wool — the Cotswold has become a variety of the 
Leicester — in fact, all the long-woolled sheep, both in appear- 
ance and fleece, have almost become of one variety ; and 
rarely, except from culpable neglect in the breeder, has the 
fleece been injuriously weakened, or too much shortened, for 
the most valuable purposes to which it is devoted. 

In addition to its length, this wool is characterized by its 
strength, its transparency, its comparative stoutness, and the 
slight degree in which it possesses the felting property. Since 
the extension of the process of combing to wools of a shorter 



T8 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

staple, the application of this wool to manufacturing purposes 
has undergone considerable change. In some respects, the 
.. range of its use has been limited ; but its demand has, on the 
whole, increased, and its value is more highly appreciated. 
Indeed, there are certain important branches of the woollen 
manufacture, such as worsted stuffs, bombazines, musliu-dC' 
laines, etc., in which it can never be superseded ; and its rapid 
extension in the United States, within the past few years, 
clearly shows that a large and increasing demand /or this kind 
of wool will continue at remunerating prices. 

This long wool is classed under two divisions, distinguished 
both by length and the fineness of the fibre. The first — the 
long-comhing ivool — is used for the manufacture of hard yarn, 
and the worsted goods for which that thread is adapted, and 
requires the staple to be long, firm, and little disposed to felt. 
The short-combing wool has, as its name implies, a shorter 
staple, and is finer and more felty ; the felt is also closer and 
softer, and is chiefly used for hosiery goods. 



MIDDLE WOOL. 

This article is of more recent origin than the former, but has 
rapidly increased in quantity and value. It can never super- 
sede, but will only stand next in estimation to, the native 
English long fleece. It is yielded by the half-bred sheep-^ 
a race that becomes more numei'ous every year — being a cross 
of the Leicester ram with the South-Down, or some other 
short-woolled ewe ; retaining the fattening property and the 
early maturity of the Leicester, or of both ; and the wool 
deriving length and straightness of fibre from the one, and 
fineness and feltiness from the other. The average length of 



MIDDLE WOOL. 19 

staple is about five inches. There is no description of the finer 
stufi"-goods in which this wool is not most extensively and 
advantageously employed ; and the nails, or portions which 
are broken off by the comb, and left in, whether belonging to 
this description of wool or to the long wool, are used in the 
manufacture of several species of cloth of no inferior quality or 
value. 

Under the breed of middle wools must be classed those 
which, whea there were but two divisions, were known by the 
name of short wools ; and if English productions were alone 
treated of, would still retain the same distinctive appellation. 
To this class belong the South-Down and Cheviot ; together 
with the fleece of several other breeds, not so numerous, nor 
occupying so great an extent of country. From the change, 
however, which insensibly took place in them all — the length- 
ening, and the increased thickness of the fibre, and, more 
especially, fi'om the gradual introduction of other wools 
possessing delicacy of fibre, pliability, and felting qualities 
beyond what these could claim, and at the same time, being 
cheaper in the market — they lost ground in the manufacture 
of the finer cloths, and have for some time ceased to be used 
in the production of them. On the other hand, the changes 
which have taken place in the construction of machinery have 
multiplied the purposes to which they may be devoted, and 
very considerably enhanced their value. 

These wools, of late, rank among the combing wools ; they 
are prepared as much by the comb as by the card, and in some 
places more. On this account they meet with a readier sale, 
at fair, remunerating prices, considering the increased weight 
of each individual fleece, and the increased weight and earlier 



80 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

maturity of the carcass. The South-Downs yield about seven- 
tenths of the pure short wools grown in the British kingdoms ; 
but the half-bred sheep has, as has been remarked, encroached 
on the pure short- woolled one. The average staple of middle- 
wooUed sheep is three and a half inches. 

These wools are employed in the manufacture of flannels, 
army and navy cloths, coatings, heavy cloths for calico printers 
and paper manufacturers, woollen cords, coarse woollens, and 
blankets ; besides being partially used in cassinettes, baizes, 
bockiags, carpets, druggets, etc. 



Short -wool. 

From this division every wool of English production is ex- 
cluded. These wools, yielded by the Merinos, are employed, 
unmixed, in the manufacture of the finer cloths, and, combined 
with a small proportion ot wool from the English breeds, 
in others of an inferior value. The average length of staple is 
about two and a half inches. 

These wools even may be submitted to the action of the 
comb. There may be fibres only one inch in length ; but if 
there are others from two and a half to three inches, so that 
the average of the staple shall be two inches, a thread suffi- 
ciently tenacious may, from the improved state of machinery, 
be spun, and many delicate and beautiful fabrics readily woven, 
which were unknown not many years ago. 




No one breed of sheep combines the highest 
perfection in all those points which give value 
to this race of animals. One is remarkable for the weight, or 
early maturity, or excellent quality of its carcass, while it is 
deficient in quality or quantity of wool ; and another, which is 
valuable for wool, is comparatively deficient in carcass. Some 
varieties will flourish only under certain conditions of food 
and climate ; while others are much less affected by those con- 
ditions, and will subsist under the greatest variations of tem- 
perauire, and on the most opposite qualities of verdure. 

In selecting a breed for any given locality, reference should 
6 81 



82 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

be had, first, to the feed and climate, or the surrounding natural 
circumstances ; and, second, to the market facilities and 
demand. Choice should then be made of that breed which, 
with the advantages possessed, and under all the circum- 
stances, will yield the greatest net value of the marketable 
product. 

R,ich lowland herbage, in a climate which allows it to re- 
main green during a large portion of the year, is favorable to 
the production of large carcasses. If convenient to a market 
where mutton finds a prompt sale and good prices, then all the 
conditions are realized which calls for a mutton-producing, as 
contradistinguished from a wool-yielding, sheep. Under such 
circumstances, the choice should undoubtedly be made from 
the improved English varieties — the South-Down, the ^N'cw 
Leicester, and the improved Cotswolds or New Oxfordshire 
sheep. In deciding between these, minor and more specific 
circumstances must be taken into account. If large numbers 
are to be kept, the Downs will herd — remain thriving and 
healthy when kept together in large numbers — much better 
than the two larger breeds ; if the feed, though generally 
plentiful, is liable to be some\vhat short during the droughts of 
summer, and there is not a certain supply of the most nutritious 
winter feed, the Downs will better endure occasional short 
keep ; if the market demands a choice and high-flavored 
mutton, the Downs possess a decided superiority. If, on the 
other hand, but few are to be kept in the same enclosure, the 
lai'ge breeds will be as healthy as the Downs ; if the pastures 
are somewhat wet or marshy, the former will better subsist on 
the rank herbage which usually grows in such situations ; if 
they do not afford so fine a quality of mutton, they — particu- 



CROSSING AND BREEDING. 83 

larly the Leicester— possess an earlier maturity, and give 
more meat for the amount of food consumed, as well as yield 
more tallow. 

The next point of comparison between the long and the 
middle wooUed families, is the value of their wool. Though 
not the first or principal object aimed at in the cultivation of 
any of these breeds, it is, in this country, an important item or 
incident in determining their relative . profitableness. The 
American Leicester yields about six pounds of long, coarse, 
combing wool ; the Cotswold, somewhat more ; but this per- 
haps counterbalanced by these considerations ; the Downs grow 
three to four pounds of a low quality of carding wool. None 
of these wools are very salable, at remunerating prices, in the 
American markets. Both, however, will appreciate in propor- 
tion to the increase of manufactures of worsted, flannels, 
baizes, and the like. The difference in the weight of the fleeces 
between the breeds is, of itself, a less important consideration 
than it would at first appear, for reasons which will be given 
^when the connection between the amount of wool produced and 
the food consumed by the sheep is noticed. 

The Cheviots are unquestionably inferior to the breeds 
above named, except in a capacity to endure a vigorous 
winter and to subsist on healthy herbage. Used in the 
natural and artificial circumstances which surround sheep- 
husbandry in many parts of England — where the fattest and 
finest quality of mutton is consumed, as almost the only 
animal food of the laboring classes — the heavy, early-maturing 
New Leicester, and the still heavier New Oxfordshire sheep 
seem exactly adapted to the wants of producers and con- 
sumers, and are of unrivalled value. To depasture poorer 



84 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

soils, sustain a folding system, and furnish the mutton 
which supplies the tables of the wealthy, the South-Down 
meets an equal requirement. 

Sufficient attention is by no means paid in many portions 
of the country to the profit which could be made to result 
from the cultivation of the sheep. One of the most serious 
defects in the prevalent husbandry of IS'ew England, for 
example, is the neglect of sheep. Ten times the present 
number might be easily fed, and they would give in meat, 
wool, and progeny, more direct profit than any other 
domestic animal, while the food which they consume would 
do more towards fertilizing the farms than an equal amount 
consumed by any other animal. It is notorious that the 
pastures of that section of the country have seriously dete- 
riorated in fertility and become overrun with worthless weeds 
and bushes to the exclusion of nutritious grasses. 

With sheep — as well as with all other animals — much or 
prolonged exercise in pursuit of food, or otherwise, is unfavor- 
able to taking on fat. Some seem to forget, in their earnest 
advocacy of the merits of the difTerent breeds, that the general 
physical laws which control the development of all the animal 
tissues as well as functions, are uniform. Better organs will, 
doubtless, make a better appropriation of animal food; and 
they may be taught, so to speak, to appropriate it in par- 
ticular directions : in one breed, more especially to the pro- 
duction of fat ; in another, of muck, or lean meat ; in yet 
another, of wool. But, these things being equal, large 
animals will always require more food than small ones. 
Animals which are to be carried to a high state of fatness 
must have plentiful and nutritious food, and they must exer- 



CROSSING AND BREEDING. 85 

cise but little, in order to prevent the unnecessary combustion 
in the lungs of that carbon which forms nearly four-fifths of 
their fat. No art of breeding can counteract these" established 
laws of Nature. 

In instituting a comparison between breeds of sheep for 
wool-growing purposes, it is undeniable that the question is 
not, what variety will shear the heaviest or even the most 
valuable fleece, irrespective of the cost of production. Cost 
of feed and care, and every other expense, must be deducted, 
in order to fairly test the profits of an animal. If a large 
sheep consume twice as much food as a small one, and give 
but once and a-half as much wool, it is obviously more profit- 
able — other things being equal — to keep two of the smaller 
sheep. The next question, then, \s,—from what breed — wath 
the same expense in other particulars — will the verdure of an 
acre of land produce the greatest value of wool ? 

And, first, as to the comparative amount of food consumed 
by the several breeds. There are no satisfactory experiments 
which show that breed, in itself considered, has any particular 
influence on the quantity of food consumed. It is found, with 
all varieties, that the consumption is in proportion to the live 
weight of the grown animal. Of course, this rule is not in- 
variable in its individual application ; but its general soundness 
has been satisfactorily established. Grown sheep take up 
between two and a half and three and a third per cent, of their 
weight, in what is equivalent to dry hay, to keep themselves 
in store condition. 

The consumption of food, then, being proportioned to the 
weight, it follows that, if one acre is capable of sustaining 
three Merinos, weighing one hundred pounds each, it will sus- 



86 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

tain two Leicesters, weighing one hundred and fifty each, and 
two and two-fifth Soutli-Downs, weighing one hundred and 
twenty-five each. Merinos of this v/eight often shear five 
pounds per fleece, taking flocl^s through. The herbage of an 
acre, then, would- give fifteen pounds of Merino wool, twelve 
of Leicester, and .but nine and three-fifths of South-Down — 
estimating the latter as high as four pounds to the fleece. 
Even the finest and lightest-fleeced sheep known as Merinos 
average about four pounds to the fleece ; so that the feed of an 
acre would produce as much of the highest quality of wool 
sold under the name of Merino as it would. of New Leicester, 
and more than it would of South-Down, while the former would 
be worth from fifty to one hundred per cent, more per pound 
than either of the latter. 

Nor does this indicate all the actual difference, as in the 
foregoing estimate the live weight of the English breeds is 
placed low, and that of the Merinos high. The live weight 
of the five-pound fine-fleeced Merino docs not exceed ninety 
pounds ; it ranges, in fact, from eighty to ninety ; so that three 
hundred pounds of live weight — it being understood that all 
of these live weights refer to ewes in fair ordinary, or what is 
called store, condition — would give a still greater product of 
wool to the acre. It is perfectly safe, therefore, to say that 
the herbage of an acre will uniformly give nearly double the 
value of Merino that it will of any of the English long or 
middle wools. 

What are the other relative expenses of these breeds ? The 
full-blooded Leicester is in no respect a hardier sheep than the 
Merino, though some of its crosses are much hardier than the 
pure-bred sheep : indeed, it is less hardy, under the most 



CROSSING AND BREEDING. 81 

favorable circumstances. It is more subject to colds ; its con- 
stitution more readily gives way under disease ; the lambs are 
more liable to perish from exposure to cold, when newly 
dropped. Under unfavorable circumstances — herded in large 
flocks, famished for feed, or subjected to long journeys — its 
capacity to endure, and its ability to rally from sad draw- 
backs, do not compare with those of the Merino. The high- 
bred South-Down, though considerably less hardy than the 
unimproved parent stock, is still fairly entitled to the appella- 
tion of a hardy animal ; it is, in fact, about on a pace with the 
Merino, though it will not bear as hard stocking, without a 
rapid diminution in size and quality. If the peculiar merits 
of the animal are to be considered in determining the expenses, 
as they surely should be, the superior fecundity of the South- 
Down is a point in its favor, as well for a wool-producing as 
a mutton sheep. The ewe not only frequently produces twin 
lambs — as do both the Merino and Leicester — but, unlike the 
latter, she possesses nursing properties to do justice to them. 
This advantage, however, is fully counterbalanced by the 
superior longevity of the Merino. All the English mutton 
breeds begin to rapidly deteriorate in amount of wool, 
capacity to fatten, and general vigor, at about five years old ; 
and their early maturity is no offset to this, in an animal kept 
for wool-growing purposes. This early decay requires earlier 
and more rapid slaughter than is always economically con- 
venient, or even possible. 

It is well, on properly stocked farms, to slaughter or turn 
off the Merino wether at four or five years old, to make room 
for the breeding stock ; but he will not particularly deteriorate, 
and he will richly pay the way with his fleece for several years 



88 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

longer. Breeding ewes are rarely turned off before eight, and 
are frequently kept until ten years old, at which period they 
exhibit no greater marks of age than do the Downs and 
Leicester at five or six. Instances are known of Merino ewes 
breeding uniformly until fifteen years old. The improved 
Cotswold is said to be hardier than the Leicester ; but this 
variety, from their great size, and the consequent amount of 
food consumed by them, together with the other necessary 
incidents connected with the breeding ot such large animals, is 
incapacitated from being generally introduced as a wool-grow- 
ing sheep. All the coarse races have one advantage over the 
Merino : they are less subject to the visitation of the hoof-ail, 
and when untreated, this disease spreads with less violence 
and malignity among them. This has been explained by the 
fact that their hoofs do not grow long and turn under from 
the sides, as do those of the Merino, and thus retain dirt and 
filth in constant contact with the foot. 

Taking into account all the circumstances connected with the 
peculiar management of each race, together with all the inci- 
dents, exigencies, and risks of the husbandry of each, it may 
be confidently asserted that the expenses, other than those 
of feed, are not smaller per head, or even in the number 
required to stock an acre, in either of the English breeds above 
referred to, than in the Merino. Indeed, it may well be 
doubted whether any of those English breeds, except the South- 
Do wn, is on an equality, even, with the Merino, in these 
respects. For wool-growing purposes, the Merino, then, 
possesses a marked and decided superiority over the best 
breeds and families of coarse-woolled sheep. As a mutton 
sheep, it is inferior to some of those breeds ; although not so 



CROSSING AND BREEDING. 89 

much as is popularly supposed. Many persons, who have 
never tasted Merino mutton, and who have, consequently, an 
unfavorable impression of it, would, if required to consume the 
fat and lean together, find it more palatable than the luscious 
and over-fat New Leicester. The mutton of the cross between 
the Merino and the Native would certainly be preferred to the 
Leicester, by anybody but an English laborer, accustomed to 
the latter, since it is short-grained, tender, and of good flavor. 
The same is true of the crosses with the English varieties, 
which will hereafter be treated of more particularly. Grade 
Merino wethers, half-bloods, for example, are favorites with 
the drover and butcher, being of good size, extraordinarily 
heavy for their apparent bulk, by reason of the shortness of 
their wool, compared with the coarse breeds, making good 
mutton, tallowing well, and their pelts, from the greater 
weight of wool on them, commanding an extra price. In 
speaking of the Merino in this connection, no reference is 
made to the Saxons, though they are, as is well known, pure- 
blooded descendants of the former. 

Assuming it, then, as settled, that it is to the Merino race 
that the wool-grower must look for the most profitable sheep, 
a few considerations are subjoined as to the adaptability of 
the widely diverse sub-varieties of the race to the wants and 
circumstances of different portions of the country. 

Upon the first introduction of the Saxons, they were sought 
with avidity by the holders of the fine-woolled flocks of the 
country, consisting at that time of pure or grade Merinos. 
Under the decisive encouragement offered both to the wool- 
grower and the manufacturer by the tariff of 1828, a great 
impetus was given to the production of the finest wools, and 



90 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

the Saxon everywhere superseded, or bred out by crossino-, 
the Spanish Merinos. In New York and New Kngland, the 
latter almost entirely disappeared. In the fine-wool mania 
which ensued, weight of fleece, constitution, and every thing 
else, were sacrificed to the quality of the wool. Then came 
the tariff of 1832, which, as well as that of 1828, gave too 
much protection to both wool-grower and manufacturer, into 
whose pursuits agricultural and mercantile speculators madly 
rushed. Skill without capital, capital without skill, and in 
some cases, probably, thirst for gain without either, laid hold 
of these favored avocations. The natural and inevitable result 
followed. In the financial crisis of 1837, manufacturing, and 
all other monetary enterprises which had not been conducted 
with skill and providence, and which were not based on an 
adequate and vast capital, were involved in a common des- 
truction ; and even the most solid and best conducted institu- 
tions of the country were shaken by the fury of the explosion. 
Wool suddenly fell almost fifty per cent. The grow^er began 
to be discouraged. The breeder of the delicate Saxons — and 
they comprised the flocks of nearly all the large wool-growers 
in the country, at that time — could not obtain for his wool its 
actual first cost per pound. 

When the Saxon growers found that the tariff of 1842 
brought them no relief, they began to give up their costly and 
carefully nursed flocks. The example once set, it became 
contagious ; and then was a period when it seemed as if all 
the Saxon sheep of the country would be sacrificed to this re- 
action. Many abandoned wool-growing altogether, at a heavy 
sacrifice of their fixtures for rearing sheep ; others crossed with 
coarse-woolled breeds ; and, rushing from one extreme to the 



CROSSING AND BREEDING. 91 

other, some even crossed with the English mutton breeds ; or 
some, with* more judgment, went back to the parent Merino 
stock, but usually selected the heaviest and coarsest-woolled 
Merinos, and thus materially deteriorated the character of their 
wool. This period became distinguished by a mania for heavy 
fleeces. The English crosses were, however, speedily aban- 
doned. The Merino regained his supremacy, lost for nearly a 
quarter of a century, and again became the popular favorite. 
It was generally adopted by those who were commencing 
flocks in the new Western States, and gives its type to the 
sheep of those regions. 

The supply of fine wool, then, proportionably decreased, and 
that of medium and coarse increased. Wools, for convenience, 
may be classified as follows : superfine, the choicest quality 
grown in the United States, and never grown here excepting 
in comparatively small quantities ; fine, good ordinary Saxon ; 
good medium, the highest quality of wool usually known in 
the market as Merino ; medium, ordinary Merino ; ordinary, 
grade Merino and selected South-Down fleeces ; and, coarse, 
the English long- wools, etc. This subdivision is, perhaps, 
minute enough for all practical purposes here. 

It soon became apparent that, to sustain our manufacturing 
interest — that engaged in the manufacture of fine cloths — the 
diminution of fine wools should not only be at once arrested, 
but that the growth of them should be immediately and largely 
increased. An increased attention was accordingly bestowed 
upon this branch of industry, and sections of the country 
which had previously held aloof from wool-growing, embarked 
in that calling with commendable enterprise. 

The climate north of forty-one degrees, or, beyond all dis- 



92 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

pute, north of forty-two degrees, is too severe for any variety 
of sheep commonly known, which bear either superfine or fine 
wools. In fact, the only such variety in any thing like general 
use is the Saxon ; and this, as has been remarked, is a delicate 
sheep, entirely incapable of safely withstanding our northern 
winters, without good shelter, good and regularly-administered 
food, and careful and skilful management in all other par- 
ticulars. When the season is a little more than usually back- 
hand, so that grass does not start prior to the lambing season, 
it is difficult to raise the lambs of the mature eM^es ; the young 
ewes will, in many instances, disown their lambs, or, if they 
own them, not have a drop of milk for them ; and if, under 
such circumstances, as often happens, a northeast or a north- 
west storm comes driving down, bearing snow or sleet in its 
wings, or there is a sudden depression of the temperature 
from any cause, no care will save multitudes of lambs from 
perishing. If the time of having the lambs dropped is deferred, 
for the purpose of escaping these evils, they will not attain 
size and strength sufficient to enable them to pass safely 
through their first winter. North of the latitude last named, 
it is necessary, as a general rule, that they be dropped in the 
first half of May, to give them this requisite size and strength ; 
and occasional cold storms come, nearly every season, up to 
that period, and, not unfrequently, up to the first of June. 

These considerations have had their weight even with the 
few large sheepholders in that section, whose farms and build- 
ings have been arranged with exclusive reference to the rear- 
ing of these sheep ; many of whom have adopted a Merino 
cross. With the ordinary farmers — the small sheep-owners, 
who, in the aggregate, grow by far the largest portion of the 



POINTS OF THE MERINO. 93 

northern wools — the Saxon sheep is, for these reasons, in 
marked disrepute. They have not the necessary fixtures for 
their winter protection, and are unwilling to bestow the neces- 
sary amount of care on them. Besides, mutton and wool 
being about an equal consideration with this class, they want 
larger and earlier maturing breeds. Above all, they want a 
strong, hardy sheep, which demands no more care than their 
cattle. The strong, compact, medium-wooUed Merino, or, more 
generally, its crosses with coarse varieties, producing the wool 
classed as ordinary, is the common favorite. In the North- 
west, this 'is especially the case, where the climate is still 
worse for delicate sheep. 

At the South, on the contrary — where these disadvantages 
do not exist to so great an extent, certainly — wool varying 
from good medium upward are more profitable staples for 
cultivation than the lower classes ; and in that section a high 
degree of fineness in fleece has been sought in breeding the 
Merino — the four-pouad fine-fleeced Merino having received 
marked attention. This is a far more profitable animal than 
the Saxon, other things being equal — which is not the case, 
since the former is every way a hardier animal and a better 
nurse ; and, although about twenty pounds heavie'r, and 
therefore consuming more feed, this additional expense is 
more than counterbalanced by the additional care and risk 
attending the husbandry of the Saxon. 



POINTS OF THE MEEINO. 
For breeding purposes, the shape and general appearance 
of the Merino should be as follows : — The head should be 
well carried up, and in the ewe hornless. It would be better, 



~1 



94 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

on many accounts, to have the ram also hornless, but, as 
horns are usually characteristic of the Merino ram, many 
prefer to see them. The face should be rather short, broad 
between the eyes, the nose pointed, and, in the ewe, fine and 
free from wrinkles. The eye should be bright, moderately 
prominent, and gentle in its expression. The neck should be 
straight — not curving downward — short, round, and stout — 
particularly so at its junction with the shoulder, forward of 
the upper point of which it should not sink below the level of 
the back. The points of the shoulder should not rise to any 
perceptible extent above the level of the back. Tl>e back, to 
the hips, should be straight ; the crops — that portion of the 
body immediately back of the shoulder-blades — full ; the ribs 
well arched ; the body large and capacious ; the flank well let 
down ; the hind-quarters full and round — the flesh meeting 
well down between the thighs, or in the "twists." The 
bosom should be broad and full ; the legs short, well apart, 
and perpendicular — that is, not drawn under the body toward 
each other when the sheep is standing. Viewed as a whole, 
the Merino should present the appearance of a low, stout, 
plump, and — though differing essentially from the English 
mutton-sheep model — a highly symmetrical sheep. 

The skin is an important point. It should be loose, singu- 
larly mellow, and of a rich, delicate pink color. A colorless 
skin, or one of a tawny, approaching to a butternut, hue, 
indicates bad breeding. On the subject of wrinkles, there is a 
difference of opinion. As they are rather characteristic of the 
Merino — like the black color in a Berkshire hog, or the 
absence of all color in Durham cattle — these wrinkles have 
been more regarded, by novices, than those points which give 



POINTS OF THE MERINO. 95 

actual value to the animal ; and shrewd breeders have not 
been slow to act upon this hint. Many have contended that 
more wool can be obtained from a wrinkled skin ; and this 
view of the case has led both the Spanish and French 
breeders to cultivate them largely — the latter, to a mon- 
strosity. An exceedingly wrinkled neck, however, adds but 
little to the weight of the fleece — not enough, in fact, to com- 
pensate for the deformity, and the great impediment thus 
placed in the way of the shearer. A smoothly drawn skin, 
and the absence of all dead lap, would not, on the other hand, 
^perhaps be desirable. 

The wool should densely cover the whole body, where it 
can possibly grow — from a point between and a little below 
the eyes, and well up on the cheeks, to the knees and hocks. 
Short wool may show, particularly in young animals, on the 
legs, even below the knees and hocks ; but long wool cover- 
ing the legs, and on the nose, below the eyes, is unsightly, 
without value ; while on the face it frequently impedes the 
sight of the animal, causing it to be in a state of perpetual 
alarm, and disqualifying it to escape real danger. Neither is 
this useless wool the slightest indication of a heavy fleece — 
contraiy to what seems to be thought by some. It is very 
often seen in Saxons shearing scarcely two pounds of wool, 
and on the very lightest fleeced Merinos. 

The amount of gum which the wool should exhibit is 
another mooted point. Merino wool should be yolky, or oily, 
prior to washing — though not to the extreme extent, occa- 
sionally witnessed, of giving it the appearance of being 
saturated with grease. The extreme tips may exhibit a 
sufficient trace of gum to give the fleece a darkish cast, 



96 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

particularly in the ram ; but a black, pitchy gum, resembling 
half-hardened tar, extending an eighth or a quarter of an inch 
into the fleece, and which cannot be removed by ordinary 
washing, is decidedly objectionable. There is a white or 
yellowish concrete gum, not removable by common washing, 
M'hich appears in the interior of some fleeces, and is equally 
objectionable. 

The weight of fleece remaining the same, medium length of 
staple, w^ith compactness, is preferable to long, open wool, 
since it constitutes a better safeguard from inclemencies of 
weather, and better protects the animal from the bad eff"ects 
of cold and drenching fains in spring and fall. The wool 
should be, as nearly as possible, of even length and thickness 
over the entire body. Shortness on the flank, and shortness 
or thickness on the belly, are serious defects. 

Evenness of fleece is a point of the first importance. Many 
sheep exhibit good wool on the shoulder and side, while it is 
far coarser and even hairy on the thighs, dew-lap, etc. Rams 
of this stamp should not be bred from by any one aiming to 
establish a superior fine-woolled flock; and all such ewes 
should gradually be excluded from those selected for breeding. 

The style of the wool is a point of as much importance as 
mere fineness. Some very fine -wool is stifi", and the fibres 
almost straight, like hair. It has a dry, cottony look ; and is 
a poor, unsalable article, however fine the fibre. Softness of 
wool — a delicate, silky, highly elastic feel between the fingers 
or on the lips, is the first thing to be regarded. This is 
usually an index, or inseparable attendant, of the other good 
qualities ; so much so, indeed, that an experienced judge can 
decide, with little difficulty, between the quality of two fleeces, 



BREEDING MERINOS. 97 

[a the da,rk. Wool should be finely serrated, or crimped from 
one extremity to the other : that is, it should present a regular 
series of minute curves ; and, generally, the greater the 
number of these curves in a given length, the higher the 
quality of the wool in all other particulars. The W'^ool should 
open on the back of the sheep in connected masses, instead of 
breaking up into little round spiral ringlets of the size of a 
pipe-stem, which indicate thinness of fleece ; and when the 
wool is pressed open each way with the hands, it should' be 
close enough to conceal all but a delicate rose-colored line of 
skin. The interior of the wool should be a pure, glittering 
white, with a lustre and liveliness of appearance not surpassed 
in the best silk. 

The points in the form of the Merino which the bre^eder is 
called upon particularly to avoid are, a long, thin head, 
narrow between the eyes ; a thin, long neck, arching down- 
ward before the shoulders ; narrow loins ; flat ribs ; steep, 
narrow hind-quarters ; long legs ; thighs scarcely meeting at 
all ; and legs drawn far under the body at the least approach 
of cold. All these points were, separately or conjointly, 
illustrated in many of the Saxon flocks which have been 
swept from the country. Sufficient attention has already 
been paid to the points to be avoided in the fleece. 



BREEDING MEKINOS. 

The first great starting-point, among pure-blood animals, is, 
that "like will beget like." If the sire and ewe sire perfect in 
any given points, the offspring will generally be ; if either is 
defective, the offspring — subject to a law which will possibly 
be noticed — will be half-way between the two ; if both are 
7 



98 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

defect! v^e in the same points, the progeny will be more so than 
either of its parents — it will inherit the amount of defect in 
both parents added together. There are exceedingly few 
perfect animals. Breeding, therefore, is a system of counter- 
balancing — breeding out— in the offspring, the defects of one 
parent, by the marked excellence of the other parent, in 
the same points. The highest blood confers on the parent 
possessing' it the greatest power of stamping its own charac- 
teristics on its progeny ; but, blood being the same, the male 
sheep possesses this power in a greater degree than the 
female. We may, therefore, in the beginning, breed from 
ewes possessing any defects short of cardinal ones, without 
impropriety, provided we possess the proper ram for that 
purpose ; but, where a high standard of quality is aimed at, 
all ewes possessing even considerable defects should gradually 
be thrown out from breeding. Every year should add to the 
vigor of the selection. 

But, from the beginning — and at the beginning, more than 
at any other time — the greatest care should be evinced in the 
selection of the ram. If he has a defect, that defect is to be 
inherited by the whole future flock ; if it is a material one — 
as, foo" example, a hollow back, bad cross, or thin fleece, or a 
highly uneven fleece — the flock will be one of low quality and 
little value. If, on the other hand, he is perfect, the defects 
in the female will be lessened, and gradually bred out. It 
being, however, difficult to find perfect rams, those should be 
taken which have the fewest and lightest defects, and none 
of these material, like those just enumerated. These defects 
are to be mot and counterbalanced by the decided excellence — 
sometimes, indeed, running into a fault — of the ewe, in the 



BREEDING MERINOS. 99 

same points. If the ram, then, is a little too long-legged, the 
shortest-legged ewes should be selected for him ; if gummy, 
the drjest-woolled ; if his fleece is a trifle below the proper 
. standard of fineness — but he has been retained, as often 
happens, for weight of fleece and general excellence — he is to 
be put to the finest and lightest-fleeced ewes, and so on. 
"With a selection of rams, this system of counterbalancing 
would require but little skill, if each parent possessed only a 
single fault. If the ewe be a trifle too thin-fleeced, and good 
in all other particulars, it would require no nice judgment to 
decide that she should be bred to an uncommonly thick- 
fleeced ram. But most animals possess, to a greater or less 
degree, several defects. To select so that every one of t'hese 
in the dam shall meet its opposite in the male, and the con- 
trary, requires not only plentiful materials from which to 
select, but the keenest discrimination. 

After the breeder has successfully established his flock, and 
given them an excellent character, he soon encounters a 
serious evil. He must "breed in-and-in," as it is called — 
that is, interbreed between animals more or less nearly 
related in blood — or he must seek rams from other flocks, at 
the risk of losing or changing the distinctive character of his 
flock, hitherto so carefully sought, and built up with so much 
painstaking. The opponents of in-and-in breeding contend 
that it renders diseases and all other defects hereditary, and 
that it tends to decrease of size, debility, aud a general break- 
ing up of the constitution. Its defenders, on the other hand, 
insist that, if the parents are perfectly healthy, this mode does 
not, of itself, tend to any diminution of healthfulness in the 
offspring ; and they likewise claim — which must be conceded 



100 



SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 



— that it enables the skilful breeder much more rapidly to 
bring his flock to a particular standard or model, and to keep 
it there much more easily — unless it be true that, in course 
of time, they will dwindle and grow feeble. 

So far as the effect on the constitution is concerned, 
both positions may be, to a certain extent, true. But it is, 

perhaps, difficult 
^-__ always to decide 
^- with certainty 
when an animal 
is not only free 
from disease, but 
from all tendency 
or predisposition 
towards it. A 
brother or sister 
may be appar- 
ently healthy — 
may be actually 
so — but may still possess a peculiarity of 
individual conformation which, under cer- 
tain circumstances, will manifest itself. If these circum- 
stances do not chance to occur, they may live until old age, 
apparently possessing a robust constitution. If tried together, 
their offspring — by a rule already laid down — will possess this 
individual tendency in a double degree. If the ram be inter- 
bred with sisters, half-sisters, daughters, granddaughters, 
etc., for several generations, the predisposition toward a 
particular disease — in the first place slight, now strong, and 
constantly growing stronger — will pervade, and become radi- 




THE SCOTCH SHEEP-DOG, 
OE COLLEY. 



BREEDING MERINOS. 101 

callj incorporated into, the constitution of the whole flock. 
The first time the requisite exciting causes are brought to 
bear, the disease breaks out, and, under such circumstances, 
with peculiar severity and malignancy. If it be of a fatal 
character, the flock is rapidly swept away ; if not, it becomes 
chronic, or periodical at frequently recurring intervals. The 
same remarks apply, in part, to those defects of the outward 
form which do not at first, from their slightness, attract the 
notice of the ordinary breeder. They are rapidly increased 
until, almost before thought of by the owner, they destroy the 
value of the sheep. That such are the common effects of 
in-and-in breeding, with such skill as it is commonly con- 
ducted, all know who have given attention to the subject ; 
and for these reasons the system is regarded with decided 
disapprobation and repugnance by nine out of ten of the best 
practical farmers. 

The sheep-breeder can, however, avoid the effects of in-and- 
in breeding, and at the same time preserve the character of 
his flock, by seeking rams of the same breed, possessing, as 
nearly as possible, the characteristics ichich he ivishes to 
preserve in his own Jiock. If this rule is neglected — if he 
draws indiscriminately from all the different varieties or 
families of a breed — some large, and some small — some long- 
woolled, and some short-wooUed — some medium, and some 
superfine in quality — some tall, and some squatty — some 
crusted over with black gum, and some entirely free from it — 
breeding will become a mere matter of bap-hazard, and no 
certain or uniform results can be expected. So many varieties 
cannot be fused into one for a number of generations — as is 
evidenced by the want of uniformity in the Rambouillet flock, 



102 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

which was commenced by a promiscuous admixture of all the 
Spanish families ; and it not merely happens, as between 
certain classes of Saxons, that particular families can never 
be successfully amalgamated. 

If, however, the breeder has reached no satisfactory stan- 
dard — if his sheep are deficient in the requisites which he 
desires— he is still to adhere to the hveed— provided the 
desired requisites are characteristic of the breed he possesses 
— and select better animals to improve his own inferior ones. 
If he has, for instance, an inferior flock of South-Downs, and 
wishes to obtain the qualities of the best Down dams, he 
should seek for the best rams of that breed. But if he wishes 
to obtain qualities not characteristic of the breed he possesses, 
he must cross with a breed which does possess them. If the 
possessor of South-Downs wishes to convert them into a fine- 
woolled sheep similar to the Merino, he should cross his flock 
steadily with Merino rams — constantly increasing the amount 
of Merino, and diminishing the amount of South-Down blood. 
To efi"ect the same result, he would take the same course with 
the common sheep of the country, or with any other coarse 
race. 

There are those, who, forgetting that some of the finest 
varieties now in existence, of several kinds of domestic 
animals, are the result of crosses — bitterly inveigh against the 
practice of crossing, under any and all circumstances. It is, 
it must be admitted, an unqualified absurdity, as frequently 
conducted — as, for example, an attempt to unite the fleece of 
a Merino and the carcass of a Leicester, by crosses between 
those breeds ; but, under the limitations already laid down, 
and with the objects specified as legitimate ones, this objec- 



BREEDING MERINOS. 103 

tion to crossing savors of the most profound prejudice, or the 
most unblushing quackery. It is neither convenient, nor 
within the means of every man wishing to start a flock of 
sheep, to commence exclusively with full-bloods. "With a few 
to breed rams from, and to begin a full-blood stock, the 
breeder will find it his best policy to purchase the best 
common sheep of his country, and gradually grade them up 
with Merino rams. In selecting the ewes, good shape, fair 
size, and a robust constitution, are the main points — the little 
diflference in the quality of the common sheep's wool being of 
no consequence. For their wool, they are to look to the 
Merino ; but good form and constitution they can and ought 
to possess, so as not to entail deep-rooted and entirely 
unnecessary evils on their progeny. 

Satisfactory results have followed crossing a Down ram — 
small, compact, exceedingly beautiful, fine and even fleeced — 
with large-sized Merino ewes. The half-blood ewes- were 
then bred to a Merino ram, and also their female progeny, 
and so on. The South-Downs, from a disposition to take on 
fat, manifested themselves, to a perceptible extent, in every 
generation, and the wool of many of the sheep in the third 
generation — seven-eighths blood Merino, and one-eighth blood 
Down — was very even, and equal to medium, and some of 
them to good medium Merino. Their fleeces were lighter 
than the full-blood Merinos, but increased in weight with each 
succeeding cross back toward the latter. The mutton of the 
first, and even of the second cross was of a beautiful flavor, 
and retained, to the last, some of the superiority of South- 
Down mutton. 

Results are also noted of breeding Leicester ewes — taking 



104 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

one cross of the blood, as in the preceding case — toward the 
Merino. The mongrels, to the second generation — beyond 
which thej were not bred — were about midway between the 
parent stock in size — with wool shorter, but far more fine and 
compact than the Leicester — their fleeces about the same 
weight, five pounds — and, altogether, they were a showy and 
profitable sheep, and well calculated to please the mass of 
farmers. Their fleeces, however, lacked evenness, their 
thighs remaining disproportionately coarser and heavy. 

A difference of opinion exists in relation to the number of 
crosses necessary before it is proper to breed from a mongrel 
ram. Some high authorities assert that it does not admit of 
the slightest doubt that a Merino, in the fourth generation, 
from even the worst-woolled ones, is in every respect equal to 
the stock of the sire — that no difTerence need to be made in 
the choice of a ram, whether he is a full-blood, or a fifteen- 
sixteenths — and that, however coarse the fleece of the parent 
ewe may have been, the progeny in the fourth generation will 
not show it. 

Others, however — while admitting that the only value of 
blood or pedigree, in breeding, is to insure the hereditary 
transmission of the properties of the parent to the offspring, 
and that, as soon as a mongrel reaches the point where he 
stamps his characteristics on the progeny, with the same 
certainty that a full-blood does, he is equally valuable, provided 
he is, individually, as perfect an animal — contend that this 
cannot be depended upon, with any certainty, in rams of the 
fourth Merino cross. They assert that the offspring of such 
crosses invariably lack the style and perfection of thorough-bred 
flocks. The sixth, seventh, or eighth cross might be generally, 



BREEDING MERINOS. 105 

and the last, perhaps, almost invariably, as good as pure-blood 
rams ; yet pure blood is a fixed standard, and were every 
breeder to think himself at liberty to depart from it in his rams, 
each one more or less, according to his judgment or caprice, 
the whole blood of the country would become adulterated. 
No man, assuredly, can be authorized to sell a ram of any 
cross, whether the tenth, or even the twentieth, as a full"- 
blood. 

It is of the utmost importance for those commencing flocks, 
either of full-bloods, or by crossing, to select the choicest rams. 
A grown ram may, by methods which will hereafter be 
described, be made to serve from one hundred to one hundred 
and fifty ewes in a season. A good Merino ram will, moder- 
ately speaking, add more than a pound of wool to the fleece 
of the dam, or every lamb got by it, from a common-woolled 
ewe — that is, if the ewe at three years old sheared three 
pounds of wool, the lamb at the same age will shear four. 
This would give one hundred or one hundred and fifty pounds 
of wool for the use of a ram for a single season ; and every 
lamb subsequently got by him adds a pound to this amount. 
Many a ram gets, during his life, eight hundred or one 
thousand lambs. Nor is the extra amount of wool all. He 
gets from eight hundred to one thousand half-blooded sheep, 
worth double' their dams, and ready to be made the basis of 
another and higher stride in improvement. A good ram, then, 
is as important and, it may be, quite as valuable an animal as 
a good farm-horse stallion. When the number of a ram's 
progeny are taken into consideration, and when it is seen over 
what an immense extent, even in his OAvn direct offspring, his 
good or bad qualities are to be perpetuated, the folly of that 



106 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

economy which would select an inferior animal is sufBclently 
obvious. 

It will be found the best economy in starting a flock, where 
the proper flocks from which to draw rams are not convenient, 
to purchase several of the same breed, of course, but of 
different strains of blood. Thus ram No. 2 can be put on the 
offspring of No. 1, and the reverse ; No. 3 can be put on the 
offspring of both, and both upon the offspring of No. 3. The 
changes which can be rung on three distinct strains of blood, 
without in-and-in breeding close enough to be attended with 
any considerable danger, are innumerable. 

The brother and sister, it will be born in mind, are of the 
same blood; the father and daughter, half; the father and 
granddaughter, one-fourth ; the father and great-granddaughter, 
one-eighth ; and so on. Breeding between animals possessing 
one-eighth of the same blood, would not be considered very 
close breeding ; and it is not unusual, in rugged, well-formed 
families, to breed between those possessing one-fourth of the 
same blood. 

If, however, these rams of different strains are brought 
promiscuously, without reference to similarity of characteristics, 
there may, and probably will, be difference between them ; and 
it might require time and skill to give a flock descended from 
them a proper uniformity of character. Those who breed 
rams for sale should be prepared to furnish different strains 
of blood, with the necessary individual and family uniformity. 



GENERAI. PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 

Some few suggestions upon the general principles to be 
observed in breeding may not be superfluous here, referring 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. lOY 

the reader, who is disposed to investigate this subject in detail, 
to its full discussion in the author's treatise upon " Cattle and 
their Diseases." 

As illustrative of the importance of breeding only from (he 
best, taking care to avoid structural defects, and especially to 
secure freedom from hereditary diseases, since both defects 
and diseases appear to be more easily transmissible than 
desirable qualities, it may be remarked that scrofula is not un- 
common among sheep, and presents itself in various forms. 
Sometimes it is connected With consumption ; sometimes it 
affects the viscera of the abdomen, and particularly the mesen- 
teric glands, in a manner similar to consumption in the lungs. 
The scrofulous taint has been known to be so strong as to 
affect the foetus, and lambs have occasionally been dropped 
with it ; but much oftener they show it at an early age, and 
any affected in this way are liable to fall an easy prey to any 
ordinary or prevalent disease, which develops in such with 
unusual severity. Sheep are also liable to several diseases of 
the brain, and of the respiratory and digestive organs. 
Epilepsy, or " fits," and rheumatism sometimes occur. 

The breeder's aim should be to grasp and render permanent, 
and increase so far as practicable, every variation for the better, 
and to reject for breeding purposes such as show a downward 
tendency. A remarkable instance of the success which has 
often attended the well-directed efforts of intelligent breeders, 
is furnished in the new Mauchamp-Merino sheep, which origi- 
nated in a single animal — a product of the law of variation — 
and which, by skilful breeding and selection, has become an 
established breed of a peculiar type, and possessing valuable 
properties. Samples of the wool of these sheep were shown 



108 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

at the great exhibition iu London, in 1851, as well as at the 
subsequent great agricultural exhibition at Paris, and attracted 
much attention. 

This breed was originated by Mons. J. L. Graux. In 1828, 
a Merino ewe produced a peculiar ram lamb, having a different 
shape from the ordinary Merino, and possessing wool singu- 
larly long, straight, and silky. Two years afterward, Mr. 
Graux obtained by this ram one ram and one ewe, having the 
silky character of wool. Among the produce of the ensuing 
year were four rams and one ewe with similar fleeces; and 
in 1833, there were rams enough of the new sort to serve the 
whole flock of ewes. In each subsequent year, the lambs 
were of two kinds ; one possessing the curled, elastic wool of 
the old Merinos, only a little longer and finer, and the other 
like the new breed. At last, the skilful breeder obtained a 
flock containing the fine, silky fleece with a smaller breed, 
broader flanks, and more capacious chest ; and several flocks 
being crossed with the Mauchamp variety, the Mauchamp- 
Merino breed is the result. 

The pure Mauchamp wool is remarkable for its qualities as 
a combing-wool, owing to the strength, as well as the length 
and fineness of the fibre. It is found of great value by the 
manufacturers of Cashmere shawls, and similar goods, being 
second only to the true Cashmere fleece, in the fine, flexible 
delicacy of the fibre ; and when in combination with Cashmere 
wool, imparting strength and consistency. The quantity of 
this wool has since become as great as that from ordinary 
Merinos, or greater, while its quality commands twenty-five 
per cent, higher price in the French market. Breeders, 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 109 

certainly, cannot watch too closely any accidental peculiarity 
of conformation or characteristic in their flocks. 

The apparent injiuence of the male first having fruitful 
intercourse with a female, upon her subsequent offspring by 
other males, has been noticed by various writers. The follow- 
ing well-authenticated instances are in point : 

A small flock of ewes, belonging to Dr. W. Wells, in the 
island of Granada, was served by a ram procured for the 
pur4)ose. The ewes were All white and woolly ; the ram was 
quite different, being of a chocolate color, and hairy like a 
goat. The progeny were, of course, crosses, but bore a strong 
resemblance to the male parent. The next season, Dr. Wells 
obtained a ram of precisely the same breed as the ewes ; but 
the progeny showed distinct marks of resemblance to the 
former ram, in color and covering. The same thing occurred 
on neighboring estates, under like circumstances. 

Six very superior pure-bred black-faced horned ewes, 
belonging to Mr. H. Shaw, of Lcochel, Cushnie, were served 
by a white-faced hornless Leicester ram. The lambs were 
crosses. The next year they were served by a ram of exactly 
the same breed as the ewes themselves, and their lambs were, 
without an exception, hornless and brownish in the face, 
instead of being black and horned. The third year they were 
again served by a superior ram of their own breed ; and again 
the lambs were mongrels, but showed less of the Leicester 
characteristics than before ; and Mr. Shaw at last parted from 
these fine ewes without obtaining a single pure-bred lamb. 

To account for this result — seemingly regarded by most 
physiologists as inexplicable — Mr. James McGillivray, Y. S., 
of Huntley, has offered an explanation, which has received the 



—1 



110 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES, 

sanction of a number of competent writers. His theory is, 
that when a pure animal of any breed has been pregnant by 
an animal of a different breed, such pregnant animal is a cross 
ever after, the purity of her blood being lost, in consequence 
of her connection with the foreign animal, and herself becoming 
a cross forever, incapable of producing a pure calf of any breed. 
To cross, merely for the sake of crossing, to do so without 
that care and vigilance which are highly essential, is a practice 
which cannot be too much condemned, being, in fact, a national 
evil, if pushed to such an extent as to do away with a useful 
breed of animals, and establish a generation of mongrels in 
their place— ^-a result which has followed in numerous instances 
amongst every breed of animals. 

The principal use of crossing is to raise animals for the 
butcher. The male, being generally an animal of a superior 
breed, and of a vigorous nature, almost invariably stamps his 
external form, size, and muscular development on the offspring, 
which thus bear a strong resemblance to him ; while their 
internal nature, derived from the dam, well adapts them to the 
locality, as well as to the treatment to which their dams have 
been accustomed. 

With sheep, where the peculiarities of the soil, as regards 
the goodness of feed, and exposure to the severities of the 
weather, often prevent the introduction of an improved breed, 
the value of using a new and superior ram is often very con- 
siderable ; and the weight of mutton is thereby materially 
increased, without its quality being impaired, while earlier 
maturity is at the same time obtained. It involves, however, 
more systematic attention than most farmers usually like to 
bestow, for it is necessary to employ a different ram for each 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. Ill 

f)urpose ; that is, a native ram, for a portion of the ewes to 
keep up the purity of the breed, and a foreign ram, to raise the 
improved cross-bred animals for felting, either as lambs or 
sheep. This plan is adopted by many breeders of Leicester 
sheep, who thus employ South-Down rams to improve the 
quality of the mutton. 

One incoQvenience attending this plan is the necessity of 
fattening the maiden ewes as well as the wethers. They may, 
however, be disposed of as fat lambs, or the practice of spay- 
ing (fully explained in " Cattle and their Diseases") might be 
adopted, so as to increase the felting disposition of the animal. 
Crossing, therefore, should be adopted with the greatest 
caution and skill, where the object is to improve the breed of 
animals. It should never be practised carelessly or capriciously, 
but it may be advantageously pursued, with a view to raising 
superior and profitable animals for the butcher. For the latter 
purpose, it is generally advisable to use males of a larger 
breed, provided they possess a disposition to fatten ; yet, in 
such cases, it is of importance that the pelvis of the female 
should be wide and capacious, so that no injury may arise in 
lambing, in consequence of the increased size of the heads of 
the lambs. The shape of the ram's head should be studied, 
for the same reason. 

In crossing, however, for the purpose of establishing a new 
breed, the size of the male must give way to other more im- 
portant considerations ; although it will still be desirable to 
use a large female of the breed which is sought to be improved. 
Thus, the South-Downs have vastly improved the larger 
Hampshires, and the Leicester, the huge Lincolns and the 
Cotswolds. 



112 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES, 

USE OP EAMS. 

Merino rams are frequently used from the first to the tenth 
year, and even longer. The lambs of very old rams are 
commonly supposed not to be as those of middle-aged ones ; 
though where rams have not been overtasked, and have been 
properly fed, little if any difference is discoverable in their 
progeny by reason of their sire's age. A ram lamb should not 
be used, as it retards his growth, injures his form, and, in 
many instances, permanently impairs his vigor and courage 
A yearling may run with thirty ewes, a two-year-old with 
from forty to fifty, and a three-year-old with from fifty to sixty ; 
while some very powerful, mature rams will serve seventy or 
eighty. Fifty, however, is enough, where they run ivith the 
ewes. It is well settled that an impoverished and overtasked 
animal does not transmit his individual properties so decidedly 
to his offspring as does one in full vigor. 

Rams, of course, are not to be selected for ewes by mere 
chance, but according as their qualities may improve those of 
the ewes. It may not be sliperfluous, though seemingly a 
repetition, to state that a good ewe flock should exhibit these 
characteristics : strong bone, supporting a roomy frame, affording 
space for a large development of flesh ; abundance of wool of 
a good quality, keeping the ewes warm in inclement weather, 
and insuring profit to the breeder ; a disposition to fatten early, 
enabling the breeder readily to get rid of his sheep selected for 
the butcher; and a prolific tendency, increasing the flock 
rapidly, and being also a source of profit. Every one of these 
properties is advantageous in itself; but when all are combined 
in the same individuals of a flock, that flock is in a high state 



USE OP RAMS. 113 

of perfection. In selecting rams, it should be observed 
whether or not they possess one or more of those qualities in 
which the ewes may be deficient, in which case their union 
with the ewes will produce in the progeny a higher degree of 
perfection than is to be found in the ewes themselves, and such 
a result will improve the state of the future ewe-flock ; but, on 
the contrary, if the ewes are superior in all points to the rams, 
then, of course, the use of such will only serve to deteriorate 
the future ewe-flock. 

Several rams running in the same flock excite each other to 
an unnatural and unnecessary activity, besides injuring each 
other by constant blows. It is, in every point of view, bad 
husbandry, where it can be avoided, and, as customarily 
managed, is destructive to every thing like careful and 
judicious breeding. The nice adaptation which the male 
should possess to the female is out of the question where half 
a dozen or more rams are running promiscuously with two or 
three hundred ewes. 

Before the rams are let out, the breeding ewes should all be 

brought together in one yard ; the form of each noted, together 

with the length, thickness, quality and style of her wool — 

ascertained by opening the wool on the shoulder, thigh, and 

belly. When every point is thus determined, that ram should 

be selected which, on the whole, is best calculated to perpetuate 

the excellencies of each, both of fleece and carcass, and to best 

counterbalance defects in the mutual offspring. Every ewe, 

when turned in with the ram, should be given a distinct mark, 

which will continue visible until the next shearing. For this 

purpose, nothing is better than Venetian red and hog's lard, 

well incorporated, and marked on with a cob. The ewes for 
8 



114 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

each ram require a differently shaped mark, and the mark 
should also be made on the ram, as noted in the sheep-book. 
Thus it can be determined at a glance by what ram the ewe 
was tapped, any time before the next shearing. The ewes 
selected for each ram are placed in different enclosures, and 
the chosen ram placed with them. Rams require but little 
preparation on being put among ewes. If their skin is red in 
the flanks when the sheep are turned up, they are ready for 
the ewes, for the natural desire is then upon them. Most of 
the ewes will be served during the second week the ram is 
among them, and in the third, all. It is better, however, not 
to withdraw the rams until the expiration of four weeks, when 
the flocks can be doubled, or otherwise re-arranged for winter, 
as may be necessary. The trouble thus taken is, in reality, 
slight — nothing, indeed, when the beneficial results are con- 
sidered. With two assistants, several hundred ewes may be 
properly classified and divided in a single day. 

Where choice rams are scarce, so that it is desirable to make 
the services of one go a great way, or where it is impossible to 
have separate enclosures — as on farms where there are a great 
number of breeding ewes, or where the shepherd system is 
adopted, to the exclusion of fences— resort may be had to 
another method. A but should be built, containing as many 
apartments as the ram is desired to be used, with an alley 
between them, each apartment to be furnished with a feeding- 
box and trough in one corner, and gates or bars opening from 
each into the alley, and at each end of the alley. Adjoining 
these apartments, a yard should be inclosed, of size just suffi- 
cient to hold the flock of breeding ewes. 

A couple of strong rams, of any quality, for about every 



USE OF RAMS. 115 

hundred ewes, are then aproned, their briskets rubbed with 
Yenetian red and hog's lard, and let loose among the ewes. 
Aproning is performed by sewing a belt of coarse sacking, 
broad enough to extend from the fore to the hind legs, loosely 
but strongly around the body. To prevent its slipping forward 
or back, straps are carried round the breast and back of the 
breech. It should be made perfectly secure, or all the labor 
of this method of coupling will be far worse than thrown 
away. The pigment on the brisket should be renewed every 
two or three days ; and it will be necessary to change the 
"teasers" — as these aproned rams are called — about once a 
week, as they do not long retain their courage under such un- 
natural circumstances. Twice a day the ewes are brought 
into the yard in front of the hut. Those marked on their 
rumps by the teasers are taken into the alley. Each is 
admitted once to the ram for which she is marked, and then 
goes out at the opposite end of the alley from which they 
entered, into a field separate from that containing the flock 
from which she was taken. A powerful and vigorous ram, 
from three to seven years old, and properly fed, can thus be 
made to serve from one hundred and fifty to even two hundred 
ewes, with no greater injury than from running loose with 
fifty or sixty. The labor here required is likewise more 
apparent than real, when the operation is conducted in a 
systematic manner. 

Rams will do better, accoraplish more, and last two or three 
years longer, if daily fed with grain, when on service, and it is 
better to continue it. In all cases, they should, after serving, 
be put on good pasture, as they will have lost a good deal of 
condition, being indisposed to settle during the tapping season. 



116 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

A ram should receive the equivalent of from half a pint to a 
pint of oats daily, when worked hard. They are much more 
conveniently fed when kept in huts. If sufiTered to run at 
large, they should be so thoroughly tamed that they will eat 
from a measure held by the shepherd. Careful breeders thus 
train their stock-rams, from the time they are lambs. It is 
very convenient, also, to have them halter-broke, so that they 
can be led about without dragging or lifting them. An iron 
ring attached to one of the horns, near the point, to which a 
cord can be fastened for leading, confining, etc., is very useful 
and convenient. If rams are Avild, it is a matter of consider- 
able difficulty to feed them separately, and it can only be« 
effected by yarding the flock and catching them out. Some 
breeders, in addition to extra feeding, take the rams out of the 
flocks each night, shutting them up in a barn or stable by 
themselves. To this practice there is no objection, and it 
greatly saves their strength. 

Rams should not be suffered to run with the ewes over a 
month, at least in the Northern States. It is much better that 
a ewe go dry than that she have a lamb later than the first of 
June. Besides, after the rutting season is over, the rams 
grow cross, frequently striking the pregnant ewes dangerous 
blows with their heavy horns, at the racks and troughs. 

It is reasonably enough conjectured, that if procreation and 
the first period of gestation take place in cold weather, the 
foetus will be fitted for the climate which rules during the early 
stages of its existence. If this be so — and it is certainly in 
accordance with the laws of Nature — fine-woolled sheep are 
most likely to maintain their excellence by deferring the con- 
nection of the male till the commencement of cold weather ; 



LAMBING. 



IIT 



and, in the Northern States, this is done about the first of 
December, thus bringing the yeaning time in the last of April, 
or the first of May, when the early grass affords a large supply 
and good quality of food. 



LAMBING. 
The ewe goes with young about five months, varying from 
one hundred and forty-five to one hundred and sixty-two days. ' 
Pregnant 
ewes require 
the same 
food as at 
all other 
times. Until 
two or three 
weeks pre- 
ceding lamb- 
ing, it is only 
necessary 
that they, 
like other 
store -sheep, 

be kept in good, plump, ordinary condition ; nor 
are any separate arrangements necessary for them 
after that period, in a climate where they obtain sufficient 
succulent food to provide for a proper secretion of milk. In 
backward seasons in the North, where the grass does not start 
prior to the lambing-time, careful farmers feed their ewes 
on chopped roots, or roots mixed with oat and pea-meal, which 
is excellent economy. Caution is, however, necessary fco 




118 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

prevent injury or abortion, which is often the result of excessive 
fat, feebleness, or disease. The first may be remedied by blood- 
letting and spare diet ; and both the last by restored health 
and generous food. Sudden frights, as from dogs or strange 
objects ; long or severe journeys, great exertions, unwholesome 
food, blows in the region of the foetus, and some other causes, 
produce abortion. 

Lambs are usually dropped, in the North, from the first to 
the fifteenth of May ; in the South, they can safely come 
earlier. It is not expedient to have them dropped when the 
weather is cold or boisterous, as they require too much care ; 
but the sooner the better, after the weather has become mild, 
and the herbage has started sufficiently to give the ewes that 
green food which is required to produce a plentiful secretion 
of milk. It is customary, in the North, to have fields of 
clover, or the earliest grasses, reserved for the early spring- 
feed of the breeding-ewes ; and, if these can be contiguous to 
their stables, it is a great convenience — for the ewes should 
be confined in the latter, on cold and stormy nights, during 
the lambing season. 

If the weather be warm and pleasant, and the nights moder- 
ately warm, it is better to have the lambing take place in the 
pasture ; since sheep are then more disposed to own their 
lambs, and take kindly to them, than in the confusion of a 
small inclosure. In the latter, sheep, unless particularly 
docile, crowd from one side to another when any one enters, 
running over young lambs, pressing them severely, etc. ; ewes 
become separated from their lambs, and then run violently 
round from one to another, jostling and knocking them about ; 
young and timid ewes, when so separated, will frequently 



LAMBING. 119 

neglect tbeir Iambs for an hour or more before they will again 
approach them, while, if the weather is severely cold, the 
lamb, it it has never sucked, is in danger of perishing. 
Lambs, too, when first dropped in a dirty inclosure, tumble 
about, in their first efforts to rise, and the membrane which 
adheres to them becomes' smeared with dirt and dung ; and 
the ewe's refusing to lick them dry much increases the hazard 
of freezing 

In cold storms, however, and in sudden and severe weather, 
all this must be encountered ; and, therefore, every shepherd 
should teach his sheep docility. It requires but a very 
moderately cold night to destroy the new-born Saxon lamb, 
which — the pure blood — is dropped nearly as naked as a child. 
During a severely cold period, of several days continuance, it 
is almost impossible to rear them, even in the best shelter. 
The Merino, South-Down, and some other breeds, will endure 
a greater degree of cold with impunity. Where inclosures 
are used for yeaning, they should be kept clean by frequent 
litterings of straw — not enough, however, to be thrown on at 
any one time, to embarrass the lamb about rising. 

The predisposing symptoms of lambing are, enlargement 
and reddening of the parts under the tail, and drooping of the 
flanks. The more immediate are, when the ewe stretches 
herself frequently ; separating herself from her companions ; 
exhibiting restlessness by not remaining in one place for any 
length of time ; lying down and rising up again, as if dis- 
satisfied with the place ; pawing the ground with a forefoot ; 
bleating, as if in quest of a Iamb ; and appearing fond of the 
lambs of other ewes. In a very few hours, or even shorter 
time, after the exhibition of these symptoms, the immediate 



120 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

symptom of lambing is the expulsion of the bag of water 
from the vagina. When this is observed, the ewe should be 
narrowly watched, for the pains of labor may be expected to 
come on immediately. When these are felt by her, the ewe 
presses or forces with earnestness, changing one place or 
position for another, as if desirous of relief. 

The ewe does not often require mechanical assistance in 
parturition. Her labors will sometimes be prolonged for 
three or four hours, and her loud moanings will evince the 
extent of her pain. Sometimes she will go about several 
hours, and even resume her grazing, with the fore-feet and 
nose of the lamb protruding at the mouth of the vagina. If 
let alone, however. Nature will generally relieve her. In 
case of a false parturition of the foetus — which is compara- 
tively rare — the shepherd may apply his thumb and finger, 
after oiling, to push back the lamb, and assist in gently turn- 
ing it till the nose and forefeet appear. Where feebleness in 
expelling the foetus exists, only the slightest aid should be 
rendered, and that to help the throes of the dam. The 
objection to interfering — except as a last resort — is, that the 
ewe is frightened when caught, and her efforts to expel the 
lamb cease. When aided, in any case, the gentlest force 
should be applied, and only in conjunction with the efforts of 
the ewe. The clearing, or jilacenta, generally drops from the 
ewe in the course of a very short time — in many cases, within 
a few minutes— after lambing. It should be carried away, 
and not allowed to lie upon the lambing-pound. 

Common kale, or curly-greens, is excellent food for ewes 
that have lambed, as its nutritive matter, being mucilaginous, 
is wholly soluble in water, and beneficial in encouraging the 



MANAGEMENT OF LAMBS. 121 

necessary discharges of the ewe at the time of lambing. In 
these respects, it is a better food than Swedish turnips — upon 
which sheep are sometimes fed — which become rather too 
fibrous and astringent, in spring, for the secretion of milk. In 
the absence of kale or cabbage, a little oil-cake will aid the 
discharges and purify the body. New grass also operates 
medicinally upon the system. 



MANAGEMENT OF LAMBS. 

While the lamb is tumbling about and attempting to rise — 
the ewe, meanwhile, licking it dry — it is well to be in no 
haste to interfere. A lamb that gets at the teat without help, 
and procures even a small quantity of milk, knows how to 
help itself afterward, and rarely perishes. If helped, it some- 
times continues to expect it, and will do little for itself for 
two or three days. The same is true where lambs are fed 
from a spoon or bottle. 

But if the lamb ceases to make efforts to rise — especially if 
the ewe has left off licking it while it is wet and chilly — it is 
time to render assistance. It is not advisable to throw the 
ewe down — as is frequently practised — in order to suckle the 
lamb; because instinct teaches the latter to point its nose 
upward in search of the teats. It is, therefore, doubly difficult 
to teach it to suck from the bag of the prostrate ewe ; and 
when it is taught to do this, by being so suckled several times, 
it is awkward about finding the teat in the natural position, 
when it begins to stand and help itself. Carefully disen- 
gaging the ewe from her companions, with his crook — which 
useful article will be hereafter described — the assistant should 
place one hand before the neck and the other behind the 



122 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

buttocks of the ewe, and then, pressing her against his knees, 
he should hold her firmly and still, eo that she will not be 
constantly crowding away from the shepherd, who should sat 
the lamb on its feet, inducmg it to stand, if possible ; if not, 
supporting it on its feet by placing one hand under its body* 
put its mouth to the teat, and encourage it to suck by tickling 
it about the roots of the tail, flanks, etc. , with a finger. The 
lamb, mistaking this last for the caresses of its dam, will re- 
double its efforts to suck. Sometimes it will manifest great 
dullness, and even apparent obstinacy, in refusing for a long 
time to attempt to assist itself, crowding backward, etc. ; but 
the kind and gentle shepherd, who will not sink himself to the 
level of a brute, by resenting the stupidity of a brute, will 
generally carry the point by perseverance. Sometimes milk- 
ing a little into the lamb's mouth, holding the latter close to 
the teat, will induce it to take hold. 

If the ewe has no milk, the lamb should be fed, until the 
natural supply commences, with small quantities of the milk 
of a new-milch cow. This should be mixed, say half and half, 
with water, with enough molasses to give it the purgative 
effect of the first milk, gently warmed to the natural heat — not 
scalded and suffered to cool — and then fed through a bottle 
with a sponge in the opening of it, which the lamb should 
suck, if it can be induced so to do. If the milk is poured in 
its mouth from a spoon or bottle, it is frequently diflficult, as 
before stated, to induce it to suck. Moreover, unless milk is 
poured into the mouth slowly and with care — no faster than 
the lamb can swallow — a speedy wheezing, the infallible 
precursor of death, will show that a portion of the fluid has 



MANAGEMENT OP LAMBS. 123 

been forced into the lungs. Lambs have been frequently 
killed in this way. 

If a lamb becomes chilled, it should be wrapped in a woollen 
blanket, placed in a warm room, and given a little milk as 
soon as it will swallow. A trifle of pepper is sometimes 
placed in the milk, and with good effect, for the purpose of 
rousing the cold and torpid stomach into action. In New 
England, under such circumstances, the lamb is sometimes 
"baked," as it is called — that is, put in a blanket in a moder- 
ately-heated oven, until warmth and animation are restored ; 
others immerse it in tepid water, and subsequently rub it dry, 
which is said to be an excellent method where the lamb is 
nearly frozen. A good blanket however, a warm room, and 
sometimes, perhaps, a little gentle friction will generally 
suffice. 

If a strong ewe, with a good bag of milk, chance to lose her 
lamb, she should be required to bring up one of some other 
ewe's twins, or the lamb of some feeble or young ewe, having 
an inadequate supply of milk. Her own lamb should be 
skinned as soon as possible after death, and the skin sewed 
over the lamb which she is to foster. She will sometimes be a 
little suspicious for a day or two ; and if so, she should be kept 
in a small pen with the lamb, and occasionally looked to. 
After she has taken well to it, the false skin may be removed 
in three or four days. If no lamb is placed on a ewe which 
lost her lamb, and which has a full bag of milk, the milk 
should be drawn from the bag once or twice, or garget may 
ensue ; even if this is not the result, permanent indura- 
tions, or other results of inflammatory action, will take place, 
injuring the subsequent nursing properties of the animal. 



124 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

When milked, it is well to wash the bag for some time in cold 
water, since it checks the subsequent secretions of milk, as well 
as allays inflammation. 

Sometimes a young ewe, though exhibiting sufficient fond- 
ness for her lamb, will not stand for it to suck ; and in this 
case, if the lamb is not very strong and persevering, amd 
particularly if the weather is cold, it soon grows weak, and 
perishes. The conduct of the dam, in such instances, is 
occasioned by inflammatory action about the bag or teats, aad 
perhaps somewhat by the novelty of her position. In this 
case, the sheep should be caught and held until the lamb has 
exhausted her bag, and there will not often be any trouble 
afterward ; though it may be well enough to keep them in a 
pen together until the fact is determined. 

Such pens — necessary in a variety of cases other than 
those mentioned — need not exceed eight or ten feet square, 
and should be built of light materials, and fastened together at 
the corners, so that they can be readily moved by one man, 
or, at the most, two, from place to place, where they are 
wanted. Their position should be daily shifted, when sheep 
are in them, for cleanliness and fresh feed. Light pine poles, 
laid up like a fence, and each nailed and pegged to the lower 
ones at the corners, or laid on, are quite serviceable. Two 
or three sides of a few of them should be wattled with 
twigs, and the tops partly covered, in order to shield feeble 
lambs from cold rains, piercing winds, and the like. 

Young lambs are subject to what is commonly known as 
" pinning" — that is, their first excrements are so adhesive and 
tenacious that the orifice of the anus is closed, and subsequent 
evacuations prevented. The adhering matter, in such cases, 



MANAGEMENT OF LAMBS. 125 

ehould be entirely removed, and the part rubbed with a little 
dry clay, to prevent subsequent adhesion. Lambs will fre- 
quently perish from this cause, if not looked to for the first 
few days. 

The ewes and their young ought to be divided into small 
flocks, and have a frequent change of pasture. Some careful 
shepherds adopt the plan of confining their lambs, allowing 
them to suck two or three times a day. By this method they 
suffer no fatigue, and thrive much faster. It is, however, 
troublesome as well as injurious, since the exercise is essential 
to the health and constitution of the lamb intended for rearing. 
It is admissible only when they are wanted for an early 
market ; and with those who rear them for this purpose it is a 
common practice. 

Where there are orphans or supernumeraries in the flock, 
the deserted lambs must be brought up by hand. Such 
animals, called pet lambs, are supported on cow's milk, which 
they receive warm from the cows each time they are milked, 
and as much as they can drink. In the intervals of meals, in 
bad weather, they are kept under cover ; in good weather they 
are put into a grass enclosure during the day, and sheltered at 
night until the nights become warm. They are fed by hand 
out of a small vessel, which should contain as much milk as it 
is known each can drink. They are first taught to drink out 
of the vessel with the fingers, like a calf, and as soon as they 
can hold a finger steady in the mouth, a small tin tube, about 
three inches in length, and of the thickness of a goose-quill, 
should be covered with several folds of linen, sewed tightly 
on, to use as a substitute for a teat, by means of which they 
will drink their allowance of milk with great ease and quick- 



~1 



126 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

ness. A goose-quill would answer the saln'e purpose, were it 
uot easily squeezed together by the mouth. When the same 
person feeds the lambs — and this should be the dairy-maid — 
they soon become attached to her, and desire to follow her 
everywhere ; but to prevent their bleating, and to make them 
contented, an apron or a piece of cloth, hung on a state or 
bush in the inclosure, will keep them together. 

It is much better for the lambs and for their dams that they 
be weaned from three and a half to four months old. When 
taken away, they should be put for several days in a field 
distant from the ewes, that they may not hear each other's 
bleatings, as the lambs, when in hearing of their dams, continue 
restless much longer, and make constant and, frequently, suc- 
cessful efforts to crawl through the fences which separate them. 
One or two tame old ewes are turned into the field with them, 
to teach them to come at the call, find salt when thrown to 
them, and eat out of troughs when winter approaches. 

When weaned, the lambs should be put on the freshest and 
tenderest grass — rich, sweet food, but not too luxuriant. The 
grass and clover, sown the preceding spring, on grain-fields 
seeded down, is often reserved for them. The dams, on the 
contrary, should be put for a fortnight on short, dry feed, to 
stop the flow of milk. They should be looked to after a day 
or two, and if the bags of any are found much distended, the 
milk should be drawn away, and the bags washed for a little 
time in cold water. On short feed, they rarely give much 
trouble- in this respect. When thoroughly dried off, they 
should have the best fare, to enable them to recover condition 
for subsequent breeding and wintering. The fall is a critical 
period in which to lose flesh, either for sheep or lambs ; and 



CASTRATION AND DOCKING. 12t 

if any are found deficient, they should at once be provided with 
extra feed and attention. If cold weather overtake them, poor 
or in ill health, they will scarcely outlive it ; or if by chance 
they survive, their emaciated carcass, impaired constitution, 
and scant fleece will ill repay the food and attention they will 
have cost. 



CASTHATION AND DOCKING. 

Some breeders advocate castration in a day or two after 
birth, while others will not allow the operation to be performed 
until the lamb is a month old. The weight of authority, 
however, is in favor of any time between two and six weeks 
after birth, when the creature has attained some strength, and 
the parts have not become too rigid. In such circumstances, 
the best English breeders recommend from ten to fifteen days 
old as the proper time. A lamb of a day old cannot be con- 
firmed in all the functions of its body, and, indeed, in many 
instances, the testicles can then scarcely be found. At a month 
old, on the other hand, the lamb may be so fat, and the weather 
so warm, that the operation may be attended with febrile 
action. Dry, pleasant weather should be selected for this : a 
cool day, if possible ; if warm, it should be done early in the 
morning. 

Castration is a simple and safe process. Let a man hold a 
lamb with its back pressed firmly against his breast and 
stomach, and all four legs gathered in front in his hands. Cut 
off the bottom of the pouch, free the testicle from the inclosing 
membrane, and then draw it steadily out, or clip the cord with 
a knife if it does not snap off at a proper distance from the 
testicle. Some shepherds draw both testicles at once with 



128 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

their teeth. It is usual to drop a little salt into the pouch. 
Where the weather is very warm, some touch the end of the 
pouch with an ointment, consisting of tar, lard, and turpentine. 
As a general thing, however, the animal will do as well with- 
out any application. 

The object of docking is to keep the sheep behind clean 
from filth and vermin ; since the tail, if left on, is apt to col- 
lect filth, and, if the animal purges, becomes an intolerable 
nuisance. The tail, however, should not be docked too short, 
since it is a protection against' cold in winter. This operation 
is by many deferred till a late period, from apprehension of 
too much loss of blood ; but, if the weather be favorable and 
the lamb in good condition, it may be performed at the same 
time as castration with the least trouble and without injury. 

The tail should be laid upon a plank, the animal being held 
in the same position as before. With one hand the skin is 
drawn toward the body, while another person, with a two- 
inch chisel and mallet, strikes it ofi" at a blow, between the 
bone-joints, leaving it from one and a half to two inches long. 
The skin immediately slips back over the wound, which is 
soon healed. Should bleeding continue— as, however, rarely 
happens — so long as to sicken the lamb, a small cord should 
be tied firmly round the end of the tail ; but this must not be 
allowed to remain on above twenty-four hours, as the points 
of the tail would slough off. Ewe lambs should be docked 
closer than rams. To prevent flies and maggots, and assist in 
healing, it is well to apply an ointment composed of lard and 
tar, in the proportion of four pounds of the former to one quart 
of the latter. The lambs should be carefully protected from 
cold and wet till they are perfectly well 




FEEDING. 

As sooa as the warm 
weather approaches and the 
grass appears, sheep become restive and impatient 
for the pasture. This instinct should be repressed 
till the ground has become thoroughly dry, and the 
grass has acquired substance. They ought, more- 
over, to be provided for the change of food by the daily use 
of roots for a few days before turning out. The tendency to 

excessive purging which is induced by the first spring-feed, 
9 129 



130 



SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 



may be checked by housing them at night and feeding them for 
the first few days with a little sound, sweet hay. They 
must be provided with pure water and salt ; for, though they 
may do tolerably well without either, yet thrift and freedona 
from disease are cheaply secured by this slight attention. 

As to water, it may be said that it is not indispensable in 
the summer pastures, since the dews and the succulence of the 
feed answer as a substitute ; but a wide experience having 
demonstrated that free access to it is advantageous, particularly 
to those having lambs, it should be considered a matter of 
importance on a sheep-farm so to arrange the pastures, if 
possible, as to bring water into each of them. 

Salt is indispensable to the health, especially in the 
summer. It is common to give it once a week, while they 

are at grass 

fiii!!:Jli!!iEj 



It is still better 
to give them 
free access to 
it, at all times, 
by keeping it 
in a covered 

A COVEKED SALTING BOX. bOX, OpCU OU 

one side, as in the engraving annexed. A large hollow log, 
with hopes cut along the side for the insertion of the heads of 
the animals, answers very well. A sheep having free access 
to salt at all times will never eat too much of it ; and it will 
take its supply at such times and in such quantities as Nature 
demands, instead of eating of it voraciously at stated periods, 
as intermediate abstinence will stimulate it to do When salt 
is fed but once a week, it is better to have a stated day,' so 




FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 131 

that it will not be forgotten ; and it is well to lay the salt on 
flat stones — though if laid in little handfuls on the grass, very 
little of it will be lost. 

Tae. This is supposed by many to form a very healthful 
condiment for sheep, and they smear the nose with it, which 
is licked and swallowed as the natural heat of the flesh, or 
that of the weather, causes it to trickle down over the nostrils 
and lips. Others, suffering the flock to get unusually salt- 
hungry, place tar upon flat stones, or in troughs, and then 
scatter salt upon it so that both may be consumed together. 
Applied to the nose, in the nature of a cataplasm, it may be 
advantageous in catarrhs ; and in the same place, at the proper 
periods, its odor may, perhaps, repel the fly, the eggs of which 
produce the " gout in the head," as it is termed. However 
valuable it may be as a medicine, and even as a debergent in 
the case specified, there is but slight ground for confidence in 
it merely as a condiment. 

Dry, sweet pastures, and such as abound in aromatic and 
bitter plants, are best suited for sheep-walks. No animal, 
with the exception of the goat, crops so great a variety of 
plants. They eat many which are rejected by the horse and 
the ox, which are even essential to their own wants. In this 
respect they are valuable assistants to the husbandman, as they 
feed greedily on wild mustard, burdock, thistles, marsh- 
mallows, milk-weed, and various other offending plants ; and 
the Merino exceeds the more recent breeds in the range of his 
selections. 

In pastures, however, where the dry stalks of the burdock, 
or the hound's-tongue, or tory-weed have remained standing 
over the winter, the burs are caught in the now long wool, 



132 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

and, if they are numerous, the wool is rendered entirely un- 
marketable and almost valueless. Even the dry prickles of 
the common and Canada thistles, where they are very numer- 
ous, get into the neck-wool of sheep, as they thrust their 
heads under and among them to crop the first scarce feed of 
the northern spring ; and, independently of injuring the wool, 
they make it difficult to wash and otherwise handle the sheep. 
Indeed, it is a matter of the soundest policy to keep sheep on 
the cleanest pastures, those free from these and similar plants ; 
and in a region where they are pastured the year round, they 
should be kept from contact with them for some months prior 
to shearing. 

•Many prepare artificial pastures for their flocks, which may 
be done with a number of plants. Winter rye, or wheat sown 
early in the season, may be fed off in the fall, without injury 
to the crop ; and, in the following spring, the rye may be 
pastured till the stalks shoot up and begin to form a head. 
This affords an early and nutritious food. Corn may be sown 
broadcast, or thickly in drills, and either fed off in the fields or 
cut and carried to the sheep in their folds. White mustard is 
also a valuable crop for this purpose. 

To give sheep sufficient variety, it is better to divide their 
range into several smaller ones, and change them as often, at 
least, as once a week. They seek a favorite resting-place, on 
a dry, elevated part of the field, which soon becomes soiled. 
By removing them from this for a few days, rain will cleanse 
or the sun dry it, so as to make it again suitable for them. 
More sheep may be kept, and in better condition, where this 
practice is adopted, than where they are confined to the same 
pasture. 



FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 133 

Shade. No one who has observed with what eagerness 
sheep seek shade in hot weather, and how they pant and 
apparently suffer when a hot sun is pouring down upon their 
nearly naked bodies, will doubt that, both as a matter of 
humanity and utility, they should be provided, during the hot 
summer-months, with a better shelter than that afforded by 
a common rail-fence. Forest trees are the most natural and 
the best shades, and it is as contrary to utility as it is to good 
taste to strip them entirely from the sheep-walks. A strip of 
stone-wall or close lioard fence on the south and west sides of 
the pasture, forms a tolerable substitute for trees. But in the 
absence of all these and of buildings of any kind, a shade can 
be cheaply constructed of poles and brush, in the same manner 
as the sheds of the same materials for winter shelter, which 
will be hereafter described. 

Fences. Poor fences will teach ewes and wethers, as well 
as rams, to jump ; and for a jumping flock there is no remedy 
but immoderately high fences, or extirpation. One jumper 
will soon teach the trick to a whole flock ; and if one by chance 
is brought in, it should be immediately hoppled or killed. 
The last is by far the surest and safest remedy. 

Hoppling is done by sewing the ends of a leather strap, 
broad at the extremities, so that it will not cut into the flesh, 
to a fore and hind leg, just above the pastern joints, leaving 
the legs at about the natural distance apart. Clogging is 
fastening a billet of wood to the fore leg by a leather strap. 
Yoking is fastening two rams two or three feet apart, by bows 
around their necks, inserted in a light piece of timber, some 
two or three inches in size. Poking is done by inserting a 
bow in a short bit of light timber, into which bit— worn on the 



134 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

uoder side of the neck — a rod is inserted, which projects a 
couple of feet in front of the sheep. 

These and similar devices, to prevent rams from scaling 
fences, may be employed as a last resort by those improvident 
farmers who prefer, by such troublesome, injurious, and, at 
best, insecure means, to guard against that viciousness which 
they might so much more easily have prevented from being 
acquired. 

Dangerous rams. From being teased and annoyed by 
boys, or petted and played with when young, and sometimes 
without any other stimulant than a naturally vicious temper, 
rams occasionally become very troublesome by their propensity 
to attack men or cattle. Some will allow no man to enter the 
field where they are without making an immediate onset upon 
him ; while others will knock down the ox or horse which 
presumes to dispute a lock of hay with them. A ram which 
is known to have acquired this propensity should at once be 
hooded, and, if not valuable, at the proper season converted 
into a wether. But the courage thus manifested is usually 
the concomitant of great strength and vigor of constitution, 
and of a powerfully developed frame. If good in other par- 
ticulars, it is a pity to lose the services of so valuable an 
animal. In such cases, they may be hooded, by covering their 
faces with leather in such a manner that they can only see a 
little backward and forward. They must then, however, be 
kept apart from the flock of rams, or they will soon be killed 
or injured by blows, which they cannot see to escape. 

It sometimes happens that a usually quiet-tempered ram 
will suddenly exhibit some pugnacity when one is salting or 
feeding the flock. If such a person turns to run, he is imme- 



FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 135 

diately knocked down, and the ram learns, from that single 
lesson, the secret of his mastery, and the propensity to 
exercise it. As the ram gives his blow from the summit of 
the parietal and the posterior portion of the frontal bones on 
the top of his head, and not from the forehead, he is obliged to 
crouch his head so low when he makes his onset that he does 
not see forward well enough to swerve suddenly from his right 
line, and a few quick motions to the right and left enable one 
to escape him. Run in upon him, as he dashes by, with pitch- 
fork, club, or boot-heel, and punish him severely by blows 
about the head, if the club is used, giving him no time to rally 
until he is thoroughly cowed. This may be deemed harsh 
treatment, and likely to increase the viciousness of the animal. 
Repeated instances have, however, proved the contrary ; and 
if the animal once is forced to acknowledge that be is overcome, 
he never forgets the lesson. 

Prairie feeding. Sheep, when destined for the prairies, 
ought to commence their journey as early after the shearing 
as possible, since they are then disencumbered of their fleece, 
and do not catch and retain as much dust as when driven 
later; feed is also generally better, and the roads are dry and 
hard. Young and healthy sheep should be selected, with early 
lambs ; or, if the latter are too young, and the distance great, 
they should be left, and the ewes dried off. A large wagon 
ought to accompany the flock, to carry such as occasionally 
give out ; or they may be disposed of whenever they become 
enfeebled. With good care, a hardy flock may be driven at 
the rate of twelve or fourteen miles a day. Constant watch- 
fulness is requisite, in order to keep them healthy and in good 



136 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

plight. One-half the expense of driving may be saved by the 
use of well-trained shepherd-dogs. 

When arrived at their destination, they must be thoroughly 
washed, to free them from all dirt, and closely examined as to 
any diseases which they may have contracted, that these may 
be promptly removed. A variety of suitable food and good 
shelter must be provided for the autumn, winter, and spring 
ensuing, and every necessary attention given to them. This 
would be necessary if they were indigenous to the country ; 
but it is much more so when they have just undergone a 
campaign to which neither they nor their race have been 
accustomed. 

Sheep cannot be kept on the prairies without much care, 
artificial food, and proper attention ; and losses have often 
occurred, by reason of a false system of economy attempted by 
many, from disease and mortality in the flocks, amply sufficient 
to have made a generous provision for the comfort and security 
of twice the number lost. More especially do they require 
proper food and attention after the first severe frosts set in, 
which wither and kill the natural grasses. By nibbling at the 
bog — the frostbitten, dead grass — they are inevitably subject 
to constipation, which a bountiful supply of roots, sulphur, 
etc., is alone sufficient to remove. 

Roots, grain, good hay, straw, corn-stalks, and pea or bean- 
vines are essential to the preservation of their health and 
thrift during the winter, everywhere north of thirty-nine 
degrees. In summer, the natural herbage is sufficient to 
sustain them in fine condition, till they shall have acquired a 
denser population of animals, when it will be found necessary 



FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 131 

to stock their meadows with the best varieties of artificial 
grasses. 

The prairies seem adapted to the usual varieties of sheep 
introduced into the United States ; and of such are the flocks 
made up, according to the taste or judgment of the owners. 
Shepherd dogs are invaluable to the owners of flocks, in these 
unfenced, illimitable ranges, both as a defence against the 
small prairie wolves, which prowl around the sheep, but have 
been rapidly thinned off by the settlers, and also as assistants 
to the shepherds in driving and herding their flocks on the 
open ground. 

Fall feeding. In the North, the grass often gets very 
short by the tenth or fifteenth of November, and it has lost 
most of its nutritiousness from repeated freezing and thawing. 
At this time, although no snow may have fallen, it is best to 
give the sheep a light, daily foddering of bright hay, and a few 
oats in the bundle. Given thus for the ten or twelve days 
which precede the covering of the ground by snow, fodder 
pays for itself as well as at any other time during the year. It 
is well to feed oats in the bundle, or threshed oats, about a gill 
to the head, in the feeding-troughs, carried to the field for that 
purpose. 

Winter feeding. The time for taking sheep from the 
pastures must depend on the state of the weather and food. 
Severe frosts destroy much of the nutriment in the grasses, 
and they soon after cease to afford adequate nourishment. 
Long exposure to cold storms, with such food to sustain them, 
will rapidly reduce the condition of these animals. The only 
safe rule is to transfer them to their winter-quarters the first 
day they cease to thrive abroad. 



138 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

There is no better food for sheep than well-ripened, sound 
Timothy hay ; though the clovers and nearly all the cultivated 
grasses may be advantageously fed. Hundreds and thousands 
of northern flocks receive, during the entire winter, nothing 
but ordinary hay, consisting mainly of Timothy, some red and 
white clover, and frequently a sprinkling of gum, or spear 
grass. Bean and pea straw .are valuable, especially the 
former, which, if properly cured, they prefer to the best hay ; 
and it is well adapted to the production of wool. Where hay 
is the principal feed, it may be well, where it is convenient, 
to give corn-stalks every fifth or sixth feed, or even once a 
day ; or the daily feed, not of hay, might alternate between 
stalks, pea-straw, straws of the cereal grains, etc. It is mainly 
a question of convenience with the farmer, provided a proper 
supply of palatable nutriment within a proper compass is 
given. It would not, however, be entirely safe to confine any 
kind of sheep to the straw of the cereal grains, unless it were 
some of those little hardy varieties of animals which would be 
of no use in this country. 

The expediency of feeding grain to store-sheep in winter 
depends much on circumstances. If in a climate where they 
can obtain a proper supply of grass or other green esculents, 
it would, of course, be unnecessary ; nor is it a matter of 
necessity where the ground is frozen or covered with snow for 
weeks or months, provided the sheep be plentifully supplied 
with good dry fodder. Near markets where the coarser grains 
find a quick sale at fair prices, it is not usual, in the North, to 
feed grain. Remote from markets it is generally fed by the 
holders of large flocks. Oats are commonly preferred, and 
they are fed at the rate of a gill a head per day. Some feed 



FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 139 

half the same amount of yellow corn. Fewer sheep, particu- 
larly lambs and yearlings, get thin and perish where they 
receive a daily feed of grain ; they consume less hay, and their 
fleeces are increased in weight. On the whole, therefore, it 
is considered good economy. Where no grain is fed, three 
daily feeds of hay are given. The smaller sizes of the Saxon 
may be well sustained on two pounds of hay ; but larger sheep 
will consume from three and a half to four or even five pounds 
per day. Sheep, in common with all other animals, when ex- 
posed to cold, will consume much more than if well protected, 
or during a warmer season. 

It is a common and very good practice to feed greenish cut 
oats in the bundle, at noon, and give but two feeds of hay, one 
at morning and one at night. Some feed greenish cut peas in 
the same way. In warm, thawing weather, when sheep get 
to the ground and refuse dry hay, a little grain assists ma- 
terially in keeping up their strength and condition. When the 
feed is shortest in winter, in the South, there are many 
localities where sheep can get enough grass to take off their 
appetite for dry hay, but not quite enough to keep them in 
prime order. A moderate daily feed of oats or pease, placed 
in the depository racks, would keep them strong and in good 
plight for the lambing season, and increase their weight of 
wool. 

Few Northern farmers feed Indian corn to store-sheep, as 
it is considered too hot and stimulating, and sheep are thought 
to become more liable to become " cloyed" on it than on oats, 
pease, etc. Yellow corn is not generally judged a very safe 
feed for lamb?, and yearlings. Store-sheep should be kept in 
good, fair, plump condition. Lambs and yearlings may 



140 6HEEP AND TIIEIll DISEASES. 

be as fat as tliey will become on proper feeding. It is stated 
that sheep will eat cottonseed, and thrive on it. 

It must be remembered that sheep are not to be allowed to 
get thin during the winter, with the idea that their condition 
can at any time be readily raised by better feed, as with the 
horse or ox. It is always difficult, and, unless properly 
managed, expensive and hazardous, to attempt to raise the 
condition of a poor flock in the winter, especially if they have 
reached that point where they manifest weakness. If the 
feeding of a liberal allowance of grain be suddenly commenced, 
fatal diarrhoea will often supervene. All extra feeding, there- 
fore, must be begun very gradually ; and it does not appear, 
in any case, to produce proportionable results. 

Boots, such as ruta-bagas, Irish potatoes, and the like, 
make a good substitute for grain, or as extra feed for grown 
sheep. The ruta-baga is preferable to the potatoe in its equiva- 
lents of nutriment. No root, however, is as good for lambs 
and yearlings as an equivalent of grain. Sheep may be 
taught to eat nearly all the cultivated roots. This is done by 
withholding salt from them, and then feeding the chopped 
roots a few times, rubbed with just sufficient salt to induce 
them to eat the root to obtain it ; but not enough to satisfy 
their appetite for salt before they have acquired a taste for the 
roots. 

It is customary with some farmers to cut down, from time to 
time in the winter, and draw into the sheep-yards, young trees 
of the hemlock, whose foliage is greedily eai'en by the sheep, 
after being confined for some time to dry feeQ*. This browse 
is commonly used, like tar, for some supposed medicinal 
virtues. It is pronounced "healthy" for sheep. Much the 

\ 



FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 141 

same remarks might be made about this as have been already 
made concerning tar. No tonics and stimulants are needed for 
a healthy animal. If the foliage of the hemlock were con- 
stantly accessible to them, there would be no possible objection 
to their eating it, since their instincts, in that case, would 
teach them whether, and in what quantities, to devour it ; but 
when entirely confined to dry feed for a protracted period, 
sheep will consume injurious and even poisonous succulents, 
and of the most wholesome ones, hurtful quantities. As a 
mere laxative, an occasional feed of hemlock may be beneficial ; 
though, in this point of view, a day's run at grass, in a thaw^ 
or a feed of roots, would produce the same result. In a 
climate where grass is procurable most of the time, browse for 
medicinal purposes is entirely unnecessary. 

Sheep undoubtedly require salt in winter. Some salt their 
hay when it is stored in the barn or stack. This is objection- 
able, since the appetite of the sheep is much the safest guide 
in the premises. It may be left accessible to them in the salt- 
box, as in summer ; or an occasional feed of grined hay or 
straw may be given them in warm, thawing weather, when 
their appetite is poor. This last is an excellent plan, and 
serves a double purpose. With a wisp of straw, sprinkle a 
thin layer of straw with brine, then another layer of straw, 
and another sprinkling, and so on. Let this lie until the next 
day, for the brine to be absorbed by the straw, and then feed 
it to all the grazing animals on the farm which need salting. 

Water is indispensable, unless sheep have access to succu- 
lent food, or clean snow. Constant access to a brook or spring 
is best ; but, in default of this, they should be watered at least 
once a day in some other way. 



n 

142 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

Feeding with other stock. Sheep should not run, or l)c 
fed, in yards, with any other stock. Cattle hook them, often 
mortally ; and colts tease and frequently injure them. It is 
often said that " colts will pick up what sheep leave." But 
well-managed sheep rarely leave any thing; and, if they 
chance so to do, it is better to rake it up and throw it into the 
colts' yard, than to feed them together. If sheep are not re- 
quired to eat their food pretty clean, they will soon learn to 
waste large quantities. If, however, they are overfed with 
either hay or grain, it is not proper to compel them, by starva- 
tion, to come back and eat it. This they will not do, unless 
sorely pinched. Clean out the troughs, or rake up the hay, 
and the next time feed less. 

Division of flocks. If flocks are shut up in small in- 
closures during winter, according to the northern custom, it is 
necessary to divide them into flocks of about one hundred each, 
consisting of sheep of about the same size and strength ; 
otherwise, the stronger rob the weaker, and the latter rapidly 
decline. This is not so important where the sheep roam at 
large ; but, even in that case, some division and classification 
are best. It is best, indeed, even in summer. The poorer and 
feebler can by this means receive better pasture, or a little 
more grain and better shelter in winter. 

By those who grow wool to any extent, breeding ewes, 
lambs, and wethers, are invariably kept in separate flocks in 
winter ; and it is best to keep yearling sheep by themselves 
with a few of the smallest two-year-olds, and any old crones 
which are kept for their excellence as breeders, but which 
cannot maintain themselves in the flock of breeding ewes. 

Old and feeble or wounded sheep, late-born lambs, etc., 



FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 143 

should be placed by themselves, even if the number be small, 
as they require better feed, warmer shelter, and more attention. 
Unless the sheep are of a peculiarly valuable variety, however, 
it is better to seil them off in the fall at any price, or to give 
them to some poor neighbor who has time to nurse them, and 
who may thus commence a flock. 

Regularity in feeding If any one principle in sheep 
husbandry deserves careful attention more than others, it is, 
that the utmost regularity must be preserved in feeding. 

First, there should be regularity as to the times of feeding. 
However abundantly provided for, when a flock are foddered 
sometimes at one hour and sometimes at another — sometimes 
three times a day, and sometimes twice — some days grain, and 
some days none — they cannot be made to thrive. They will do 
far better on inferior keep, if fed with strict regularity. In a 
climate where they require hay three times a day, the best 
times for feeding are about sunrise in the morning, at noon, 
and an hour before dark at night. Unlike cattle and horses, 
sheep do not feed well in the dark ; and, therefore, they should 
have time to consume their food before night sets in. ISToon is 
the common time for feeding grain or roots, and is the best 
time, if but two fodderings of hay are given. If the sheep 
receive hay three times, it is not a matter of much conse- 
quence with which feeding grain is given, only that the 
practice be uniform. 

Secondly, it is highly essential that there should be regu- 
larity in the amount fed. The consumption of hay will, it is 
true, depend much upon the weather ; the keener the cold, the 
more the sheep will eat. In the South, much depends upon 
the amount of grass obtained. In many places, a light, daily 



144 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

foddering supplies ; in others, a light foddering placed in the 
depository racks once in two days, answers the purpose. In the 
steady cold weather of the North, the shepherd readily learns 
to determine about how much hay will be consumed before the 
next foddering time. And this amount should, as near as may 
be, be regularly fed. In feeding grain or roots, there is no 
difficulty in preserving entire regularity ; and it is vastly more 
important than in feeding hay. Of the latter, a sheep will not 
over-eat and surfeit itself; of the former, it will. Even if it be 
not fed grain to the point of surfeiting, it will expect a like 
amount, however over-plenteous, at the next feeding ; failing 
to receive which, it will pine for it, and manifest uneasiness. 
The effect of such irregularity on the stomach and system of 
any animal is bad ; and the sheep suffers more from it than 
any other animal. It is much better that the flock receive no 
grain at all, than that they receive it without regard to regu- 
larity in the amount. The shepherd should measure out the 
grain to the sheep in all instances, instead of guessing it out, 
and measure it to each separate flock. 

Effect of food. Well-fed sheep, as has been previously 
remarked, produce more wool than poorly fed ones. K'o 
doctrine is more clearly recognized in agricultural chemistry 
than that animal tissues derive their chemical components 
from the same components existing in their food. Yarious 
analyses show that the chemical composition of wool, hair, 
hoofs, nails, horns, feathers, lean meat, blood, cellular tissue, 
nerves, etc., are nearly identical. 

The organic part of wool, according to standard authorities, 
consists of carbon, 50.65; hydrogen, T.03; nitrogen, 11.11; 
oxygen and sulphur, 24.61. The inorganic constituents are 
small. When burned, it leaves but a trifling per cent! of ash. 



FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 145 

The large quantity of nitrogen contained in wool shows that 
its production is increased by highly azotized food ; and from 
various experiments made, a striking correspondence has been 
found to exist between the amount of wool and the amount of 
nitro""en in food. Pease rank first in increasing the wool, 
and very high in the average comparative increase which they 
produce in all the tissues. 

The increase of fat and muscle, as of wool, depends upon 
the nature of the food. It is not very common, in the North, 
for wool-growers to fatten their wethers for market by extra 
winter feeding. Some give them a little more generous keep 
the winter before they are to be turned off, and then salt 
them when they have obtained their maximum fatness the 
succeding fall. 

Stall-feeding is lost on an ill-shaped, unthrifty animal. The 
perfection of form and health, and the uniform good condition 
which characterizes the thrifty one, iudicate, too plainly to be 
misunderstood, those which will best repay the care of their 
owner. The selection of any indifferent animal for stall-fatten- 
ing will inevitably be attended with loss. Such ought to be 
got rid of, when first brought from the pasture, for the wool 
they will bring. 

When winter fattening is attempted, sheep require warm, 

dry shelters, and should receive, in addition to all the hay 

they will eat, meal twice a day in troughs — or meal once and 

chopped roots once. The equivalent of from half a pint to a 

pint of yellow corn meal per head each day is about as much 

as ordinary stocks of Merino wethers will profitably consume ; 

though in selected flocks, consisting of large animals, this 

amount is frequently exceeded. 
10 



146 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

YAEDS. 

Experience has amply demonstrated that — in the climate of 
the Northern and Eastern States, where no grass grows from 
four to four and a half months in the winter, and where, there- 
fore, all that can be obtained from the ground is the repeat- 
edly frozen, unnutritious herbage left in the fall — it is better 
to keep sheep confined in yards, excepting where the ground is 
covered with snow. If suffered to roam over the fields at 
other times, they get enough grass to take away their appetite 
for dry hay, but not enough to sustain them ; they fall away, 
and toward spring they become weak, and a large proportion 
of them frequently perish. Flocks of some size are here, of 
course, alluded to, and on properly stocked farms. A few 
sheep would do better with a boundless range. 

Some let out their sheep occasionally for a single day, dur- 
ing a thaw ; others keep them entirely from the ground until 
let out to grass in the spring. The former course is preferable 
where the sheep ordinarily get nothing but dry fodder. It 
affords a healthy laxative, and a single day's grazing will not 
take off their appetite from more than one succeeding dry 
feed. It is necessary, in the North, to keep sheep in the yards 
until the feed has got a good start in the spring, or they will 
get off from their feed — particularly the breeding ewes — and 
get weak at the most critical time for them in the year. 

Yards should be firm-bottomed, dry, and, in the northern 
climate, kept well littered with straw. The yarding system 
is not practised to any great extent in the South ; nor should 
it be, where sheep can get their living from the fields. 



FEEDING-RACKS. 



14T 



PEEDINQ-RACKS. 

When the ground is frozen, and especially when covered 
with snow, the sheep eats hay well on the ground ; but when 
the land is soft, muddy, or foul with manure, they will scarcely 
touch Lay placed on it — or, if they do, will tread much of it 




A CONVENIENT BOX-RACK. 



into the mud, in their restlessness while feeding. It should 
then be fed in racks, which are more economical, even in the 
first-named case ; since, when the hay is fed on the ground, 
the leaves and seeds, the most valuable part of the fodder, are 
almost wholly lost. 

To make an economical box-rack — ^the one in most general 
use in the North — take six light pieces of scantling, say three 
inches square, one for each corner, and one for the centre of 
each side. Boards of pine or hemlock, twelve or fifteen feet 
long, and twelve or fourteen inches wide, may then be nailed 
on to the bottom of the posts for the sides, which are separated 
by similar boards at the ends, two and a half feet long. Boards 
twelve inches wide, raised above the lower ones by a space of 
from nine to twelve inches, are nailed on the sides and ends, 
which completes the rack. The edges of the opening should 
be made perfectly smooth, to prevent chafing or tearing out 
the wool. The largest dimensions given are suitable for 
the large breeds, and the smallest for the Saxon ; and still 
smaller are proper for the lambs. These should be set on dry 



148 



SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 



ground, or under the sbeds ; and they can be easily removed 
wherever necessary. Unless over-fed, sheep waste very little 
hay in them. 

Some prefer the racks made with slats, or smooth, upright 
sticks, in the form of the common horse-rack This kind 
should always be accompanied by a broad trough aflSxed to 
the bottom, to catch the fine hay which falls in feeding These 
racks may be attached to the side of a building, or used 
double. A small lamb requires fifteen inches of space, and a 
large sheep two feet, for quiet, comfortable feeding ; and this 
amount of room, at least, should be provided around the racks 
for every sheep. 

With what is termed a hole-rack, sheep do not crowd and 
take advantage of each other so much as with log-racks ; but 




A HOLE-RACK. 



they are too heavy and" unnecessarily expensive for a common 
out-door rack. This rack is box-shaped, with the front formed 
of a board nailed on horizontally, or, more commonly, by 
nailing the boards perpendicularly, the bottoms on the sill of a 
barn, and the tops to horizontal pieces of timber. The holes 
should be at least eight inches wide, nine inches high, and 
eighteen inches from centre to centre. 

In the South, racks are not so necessary for that constant 
use to which they are put in colder sections, as they are for 
depositories of dry food, for the occasional visitation of the 



FEEDING-RACKS. 149 

slieep. In soft, warm weather, when the ground is unfrozen, 
and any kind of green herbage is to be obtained, sheep will 
scarcely touch dry fodder ; though the little they will then eat 
will be highly serviceable to them. But in a sudden freeze, 
or on the occurrence of cold storms, they will resort to the 
racks, and fill themselves with dry food. They anticipate the 
coming storm by instinct, and eat an extra quantity of food to 
sustain the animal heat during the succeeding depression of 
temperature. They should always have racks of dry fodder 
for resort in such emergencies. 

These racks should have covers or roofs to protect their 
contents from rain, as otherwise the feed would often be spoiled 
before but a small portion of it would be consumed. Hay or 
straw, saturated with water, or soaked and dried, is only eaten 
Oy the sheep as a matter of absolute necessity. The common 
box-rack would answer the purpose very well by placing on 
the top a triangular cover or roof, formed of a couple of boards, 
one hung at the upper edge with iron or leather hinges, so 
that it could be lifted up like a lid ; making the ends tight ; 
drawing in the lower edges of the sides, so that it should not 
be more than a foot wide on the bottom ; inserting a flow ; and 
then mounting it on, and making it fast to, two cross-sills, 
four or five inches square, to keep the floor oflf from the ground, 
and long enough to prevent it from being easily overturned. 
The lower side-board should be narrow, on account of the 
increased height given its upper edge by the sills. 

A rack of the same construction, with the sides like those 
described for the hole-rack, would be still better, though some- 
what more expensive ; or the sides might consist of rundles, 



150 



SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 



the top being nailed down in either case, and the fodder in- 
serted bj little doors in the ends. 

"What is termed the hopper-rack, serving both for a rack 
and a feeding-trough, is a favorite with many sheep-owners. 

The accompanying cut 
represents a section of 
such a rack. A piece 
of durable wood, about 
four and a half feet 
long, six or eight 
inches deep, and four 
inches thick, having 
two notches, a a, cut 
into it, and two 
troughs, made of inch boards, b b.b b, placed in these notches, 
and nailed fast, constitute the formation. If the rack is to 
be fourteen feet long, three sills are required. The ends of 
the rack are made by nailing against the side of the sill-boards 
that reach up as high as it is desired to have the rack ; and 
nails driven through these end-boards into the ends of the side- 
boards, //, secure them. The sides may be further strength- 
ened by pieces of board on the outside of them, fitted into the 
trough. A roof may be put over all, if desired, by means of 
which the fodder is kept entirely from the weather, and no 
seeds or chaff can get into the wool. 




THE HOPPEK-RACS. 



TROUGHS, 

Threshed grain, chopped roots, etc., when fed to sheep, 
should be placed in troughs. With either of the racks which 
have been described, except the last, a separate trough would 



BARNS AND SHEDS. 



151 



be required. The most economical are made of two boards of 
any convenient length, ten to twelve inches wide. Nail the 
lower side of one upon the edge of the other, fastening both 
into a two or three-inch plank, fifteen inches long, and a foot 




AN ECONOMICAL BHEEP-TROUGH. 



wide, notched in its upper edge in the form required. In 
snowy sections they are turned over after feeding, and when 
falls of snow are anticipated one end is laid on the yard-fence. 
Various contrivances have been brought to notice for keeping 
grain where sheep can feed on it at will, a description of which 
is omitted, since it is not thought best, by the most successful 
stock-raisers, in feeding or fattening any quadrupeds, to allow 
them grain at will, stated feeds being preferred by them ; and 
the same is true of fodder. If this system is departed from in 
using depository racks, as recommended, it is because it is 
rendered necessary by the circumstances of the case. A 
Merino store-sheep, allowed as much grain as it chose to con- 
sume, would be likely to inflict injury on itself; and grain 
so fed would, generally speaking, be productive of more 
damage than benefit. 



BAHNS AND SHEDS. 

Shelters, in northern climates, are indispensable to profitable 
sheep-raising ; and in every latitude north of the Gulf of 
Mexico, they would probably be found advantageous. An 
animal eats much less when thus protected ; he is more thrifty, 



152 



SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 



less liable to disease, and bis manure is ricber and more 
abundant. Tbe feeding may be done in tbe open yard in clear 
weatber, and under cover in severe storms : for, even in tbe 
vigorous climate of tbe Nortb, none but tbe breeders of Saxons 
make a regular practice of feeding under cover. 

Humanity and economy alike dictate tbat, in tbe Nortb, 
sbeep sbould be provided witb sbelters under wbicb to lie 




SHEEP-BARN WITH SHEDS. 



nigbts, and to wbicb tbey can resort at will. It is not an un- 
common circumstance in New York and New England for 
snow to fall to tbe deptb of from twenty to tbirty incbes witbin 
twenty-four or forty-eigbt bours, and tben to be succeeded by 
a strong and intensely cold west or northwest wind of several 
days continuance, wbicb lifts the snow, blocking up tbe roads, 
and piling buge drifts to tbe leeward of fences, barns, etc. 

A flock without shelter will huddle closely together, turning 
their backs to the storm, constantly stepping, and thus treading 
down the snow as it rises about them. Strong, close-coated 
sheep do not seem to suffer as much from the cold, for a period, 
as would be expected. It is, however, almost impossible to 



BABNS AND SHEDS. 153 

feed them enough, or half enough, under such circumstances, 
without an immense waste of hay — entirely impossible, indeed, 
without racks. The hay is whirled away in an instant by the 
wind ; and, even if racks are used, the sheep, leaving their 
huddle, where they were kept warm and even moist by the 
melting snow in their wool, soon get chilled, and are disposed 
to return to their huddle. Imperfectly filled with food, the 
supply of animal heat is lowered, and, at the end of the second 
or third day, the feeble ones sink down hopelessly, the year- 
lings, and those somewhat old, receive a shock from which 
nothing but the most careful nursing will enable them to 
rally, and even the 'strongest suffer an injurious loss in con- 
dition. 

Few persons, therefore, who own as many as forty or fifty 
sheep, attempt to get along without some kind of shelters, 
which are variously constructed, to suit their tastes or circum- 
stances. A sheep-barn, built upon a side-hill, will afford two 
floors : one underneath, surrounded by three sides of w^all, 
should open to the south, with sliding or swinging doors to 
guard against storms ; and another may be provided above, if 
the floors are perfectly tight, with proper gutters to carry off 
the urine ; and sufficient storage for the fodder can be furnished 
by scaffolds overhead. They may also be constructed with 
twelve or fifteen-feet posts on level ground, allowing the sheep 
to occupy the lower part, with the fodder stored above. 

In all cases, however, thorough ventilation should be pro- 
vided ; for of the two evils, of exposure to cold or of too great 
privation of air, the former is to be preferred. Sheep cannot 
long endure close confinement without injury. In all ordinary 
weather, a shed, closely boarded on three sides, with a light 



154 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

roof, is sufficient protection; especially if the open side is 
shielded from bleak winds, or leads into a well-inclosed yard. 
If the floors above are used for storage, they should be made 
tight, that no hay, chaff, or dust can fall upon the fleece. The 
sheds attached to the barn are not usually framed or silled, but 
are supported by some posts of durable timber set in the 
ground. The roofs are formed of boards battened with slats. 
The barn has generally no partitions within, and is entirely 
filled with hay. 

There are many situations in which open sheds are very 
liable to have snow drifted under them by certain winds, and 
they are subject in all severe gales to hafve the snow carried 
over them to fall down in large drifts in front, which gradually 
encroach on the sheltered space, and are very inconvenient, 
particularly when they thaw. For these reasons, many prefer 
sheep-houses covered on all sides, with the exception of a wide 
doorway for ingress and egress, and one or two windows for 
the necessary ventilation. They are convenient for yarding 
sheep, and the various processes for which this is required ; as 
for shearing, marking, sorting, etc., and especially so for lamb- 
ing-places, or the confinement of newly-shorn sheep in cold 
storms. They should have so much space that, in addition to 
the outside racks, others can be placed temporarily through 
the middle when required. 

The facts must not be overlooked — as bearing upon the 
question of shelter, even in the warmer regions of the country 
— that cold rains, or rains of any temperature, when immedi- 
ately succeeded by cold or freezing weather, or cold, piercing 
winds, are more hurtful to sheep than even snow-storms ; and 



BAENS AND SHEDS. 



155 



that, consequently, sheep must be adequately guarded against 
them. 

Sheds. The simplest and cheapest kind of shed is formed 
by poles or rails, the upper end resting on a strong horizontal 




A SHED OF RAILS. 



pole supported by crotched posts set in the ground. It may 
be rendered rain-proof by pea-vines, straw, or pine boughs. 
In a region where timber is very cheap, planks or boards, of 
a sufficient thickness not to spring downward, and thus open 
the roof, battened with slats, may take the place of the poles 
and boughs ; and they would make a tighter and more durable 
roof. If the lower ends of the boards or poles, are raised a 
couple of feet from the ground, by placing a log under them, 
the shed will shelter more sheep. 

These movable sheds may be connected with hay-bams — 
" hay-barracks" — or they may surround an inclosed space with 
a stack in the middle. In the latter case, the yard should be 
square, on account of the divergence in the lower ends of the 
boards or poles, which a round form would render necessary. 

Sheds of this description are frequently made between two 
stacks. The end of the horizontal supporting-pole is placed 
on the stack-pens when the stacks are built, and the middle is 



156 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

propped by crotched posts. The supporting-pole may rest, in 
the same way, on the upper girts of two hay -barracks ; or two 
5uch sheds, at angles with each other, might form wings to 
this structure. 

On all large sheep-farms, convenience requires that there be 
one barn of considerable size, to contain the shearing-floor, and 
the necessary conveniences about it for yarding the sheep, etc. 
This should also, for the sake of economy, be a hay-barn, 
where hay is used. It may be constructed in the corner of 
four fields, so that four hundred sheep can be fed from it, 
without racking flocks of improper size. At this barn it would 
be expedient to make the best shelters, and to bring together 
all the breeding-ewes on the farm, if their number does not 
exceed four hundred. The shepherd would thus be saved 
much travel at all times, and particularly at the lambing-time, 
and each flock would be under his almost constant super- 
vision. 

The size of this bam is a question to be determined entirely 
by the climate. For large flocks of sheep, the storage of some 
hay or other fodder for winter is an indispensable precau- 
tionary measure, at least in any part of the United States ; 
and, other things being equal, the farther north, or the more 
elevated the land, the greater would be the amount necessary 
to be stored. 

Hay-holder. Where hay or other fodder is thrown out of 
the upper door of a barn into the sheep-yard — as it always 
must necessarily be in any mere hay-barn — or where it is 
thrown from a barrack or stack, the sheep immediately rush 
on it, trampling it and soiling it, and the succeeding forkfuls 
fall on their backs, filling their wool with dust seed, and chaff. 



TAGGING. 157 

This is obviated by hay-holders — yards ten feet square — 
either portable, by being made of posts and boards, or simply 
a pen of rails, placed under the doors of the barns, and by the 
sides of each stack or barrack. The hay is pitched into this 
holcler in fair weather, enough for a day's foddering at a time, 
and is taken from it by the fork and placed in the racks. 

The ^oles or rails foe stack-pens or hay-holders should be 
so small as to entirely prevent the sheep from inserting their 
heads in them after hay. A sheep will often insert his head 
where the opening is wide enough for that purpose, shove it 
along, or get crowded, to where the opening is not wide 
enough to withdraw the head, and it will hang there until 
observed and extricated by the shepherd. If, as often happens, 
it is thus caught when its foreparts are elevated by climbing 
up the side of the pen, it will continue to lose its footing in its 
struggles, and will soon choke to death. 



TAGGUSTG. 

Tagging, or clatting, is the removal from the sheep of such 
wool as is liable to get fouled when the animal is turned on to 
the fresh pastures. If sheep are kept on dry feed through the 
winter, they will usually purge, more or less, when let out to 
green feed in the spring. The wool around and below the 
anus becomes saturated with dung, which forms into hard 
pellets, if the purging ceases. Whether this take place or not, 
the adhering dung cannot be removed from the wool in the 
ordinary process of washing ; and it forms a great impediment 
in shearing, dulling and straining the shears to cut through it, 
when in a dry state, and it is often impracticable so to do. 
Besides, it is difficult to force the shears between it and the 



158" SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

skin, without frequently and severely wounding the latter. 
Occasionally, too, flies deposit their eggs under this mass of 
filth prior to shearing ; and the ensuing swarm of maggots, 
Unless speedily discovered and removed, will lead the sjieep to 
a miserable death. * 

Before the animals are let out to grass, each one should 
have the wool sheared from the roots of the tail down the 
inside of the thighs ; it should likewise be sheared from off 
the entire bag of the ewe, that the newly-dropped lamb may 
more readily find the teat, and from the scrotum, and so much 
space round the point of the sheath of the ram as is usually 
kept wet. If the latter place is neglected, soreness and ul- 
ceration sometimes ensue from the constant maceration of the 
urine. 

An assistant should catch the sheep and hold them while 
they are tagged. The latter process requires a good shearer, 
as the wool must be cut off closely and smoothly, or the object 
is but half accomplished, and the sheep will have un unsightly 
and ridiculous appearance when the remainder of their fleeces 
is taken off ; while, on the other band, it is not only improper 
to cut the skin of a sheep at any time, but it is peculiarly so 
to cut that or the bag of a ewe when near lambing. The wool 
saved by tagging will far more than pay the expenses of the 
operation. It answers well for stockings and other domestic 
purposes, or it will sell for nearly half the price of fleece-wool. 

Care should be exercised at all times in handling sheep, 
especially ewes heavy with Iamb. It is highly injurious and 
unsafe to chase them about and handle them roughly; for, 
even if abortion, the worst consequence of such treatment, is 
avoided, they become timid and shy of being touched, render- 



TAGGING. 159 

ing it difficult to catch them or reader them assistance at the 
lambing period, and even a matter of difficulty to enter the 
cotes, in which it is sometimes necessary to confine them at 
that time, without having them driving about pell-mell, Tun- 
ing over their lambs, etc. If a sheep is suddenly caught by 
the wool on her running, or is lifted by the wool, the skin is to 
a certain extent loosened from the body at the points where it 
is thus seized ; and, if killed a day or two afterward, blood 
will be found settled about those parts. 

When sheep are to be handled, they should be inclosed in a 
yard just large enough to hold them without their being 
crowded, so that they shall have no chance to run and dash 
about. The catcher should stop them by seizing them by the 
hind-leg just above the hock, or by clapping one hand before 
the neck and the other behind the buttocks. Then, not wait- 
ing for the sheep to make a violent struggle, he should throw 
its right arm over and about immediately back of the shoul- 
ders, place his hand on the brisket, and lift the animal on his 
hip. If the sheep is very heavy, he can throw both arms 
around it, clasp his fingers under the brisket, and lift it up 
against the front part of his body. He should then set it 
carefully on its rump upon the tagging-table, which should be 
eighteen or twenty inches high, support its back with his legs, 
and hold it gently and conveniently until the tagger has per- 
formed his duty. Two men should not be allowed to lift the 
same sheep together, as it will be pretty sure to receive some 
strain between them. A good shearer and assistant will tag 
two hundred sheep per day. 

When sheep receive green feed all the year round — as they 
do in many parts of the South — and no purging ensues from 



160 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

eating the newly-starting grasses in the spring, tagging is 
unnecessary. 



WASHIISrG. 

Many judicious farmers object to washing sheep, on account 
of its tendency to produce colds and catarrhal aifections, to 
which this animal is particularly subject ; but it cannot well be 
dispensed with, as the wool is always rendered more salable; 
and if the operation is carefully done, it need not be attended 
with injury. 

Mr. Randall, the extensive sheep-breeder of Texas, states 
that he does not wash his sheep at all, for what he deems 
good reasons. About the middle of April, or at the time 
when one-half of the ewes have young lambs at their sides, and 
the balance about to drop, would be the only time in that 
region when he could wash them. At this period he would 
not race or worry his ewes at all, on any account ; as they 
should be troubled as little as possible, and no advantage to 
the fleece from washing could compensate for the injury to the 
animal. In his high mountain-region, lambing-time could 
not prudently come before the latter part of March or April — 
the very period when washing and shearing must be com- 
menced — since in February, and even up to the fifteenth or 
twentieth of March, there is much bad weather, and a single 
cold, rainy or sleety norther would carry off one-half of the 
lambs dropped during its continuance. 

In most of that portion of the United States lying north of 
forty degrees, the washing is performed from the middle of 
May till the first of June, according to the season and climate. 
When the streams are hard, which is frequently the case in 



WASHING. 161 

limestone regions, it is better to attend to it immediately after 
an abundant rain, which proportionately lessens the lime 
derived from the springs. The climate of the Southern States 
would admit of an earlier time. The rule should be to wait 
until the water has acquired sufficient warmth for bathing, and 
until cold rains and storms and cold nights are no longer to be 
expected. 

The practice of a large majority of farmers is to drive their 
sheep to the waterine-ground early in the morning, on a warm 
day, leaving the lambs behind. The sheep are confined on the 
bank of the stream by a temporary enclosure, from which they 
are taken, and, if not too heavy, carried into water sufficiently 
deep to prevent their touching bottom. They are then Avashed, 
by gently squeezing the fleece with the hands, after which 
they are led ashore, and as much of the water pressed out as 
possible before letting them go, as the great weight retained 
in the wool frequently staggers and throws them down. 

By the best flock-masters, sheep are usiially washed in vats. 

A small stream is dammed up, and the ^ater taken from it in 

an aqueduct, formed by nailing boards together, and carried till 

a sufficient fall is obtained to have it pour down a couple of 

feet or more into the vat. The body of water, to do the work 

fast and well, should be some twenty-four inches wide, and 

five or six deep ; and the swifter the current the better. The 

vat should be some three and a half feet deep, and large 

enough for four sheep to swim in it. A yard is built near the 

vat, from the gate of which a platform extends to and incloses 

the vat on three sides. This keeps the washer from standing 

in the water, and makes it much easier to lift the sheep in and 

out. The vard is built opposite the corners of two fields — 
li 



1C2 



SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 



to take advantage of tne angle of one of them to drive the 
sheep more readily into the yard, which should be large 
enough to contain the entire flock, if it does not exceed two 
hundred ; and the bottom of it, as well as the smaller yard, 




WASHINO APPARATtrS. 



unless well sodded over, should be covered with coarse 
gravel, to avoid becoming muddy. If the same establishment 
is used by a number of flock-masters, gravelling will always be 
necessary. 

As soon as the flocks are confined in the middle yard, the 
lambs are all immediately caught out from among them, and 
set over the fence into the yard to the left, to prevent their 
being trampled down, as often happens, by the old sheep, or 
straying off, if let loose. As many sheep are then driven out 
of the middle yard into the smaller yard to the right, as it will 
conveniently hold. A boy stands by the gate next to the vat, 
to open and shut it, or the gate is drawn together with a chain 
and weight, and two men, catching the sheep as directed under 
the head of " tagging," commence placing them in the water 



WASHING. 163 

for the preparatory process of " wetting." As soon as the water 
strikes through the wool, which occupies but an instant, the 
sheep is lifted out and let loose. Where there are conveniences 
for so doing, this process may be more readily performed by 
driving them through a stream deep enough to compel the 
sheep • to swim ; but swimming the compact-fleeced, fine- 
woolled sheep for any length of time — as is practised with the 
long-wools in England — will not properly cleanse the wool 
for steaming. The vat should, of course, be in an inclosed 
field, to prevent their escape. The whole flock should thus be 
passed over, and again driven round through the field into the 
middle yard, where they should stand for about an hour before 
washing commences. 

There is a large per centage of potash in the wool oil, which 
acts upon the dirt independent of the favorable effect which 
would result from tl^is soaking it with water alone for some 
time. If washed soon after a good shower, previous wetting 
might be dispensed with ; and it is not, perhaps, absolutely 
necessary in any case. If the water is warm enough to allow 
the sheep to remain in it for the requisite period, they may be 
got clean by washing without any previous wetting ; though 
the snowy whiteness of fleece, which has such an influence on 
the purchaser, is not so often nor so perfectly attained in the 
latter way. But little time is saved by dispensing with 
" wetting," as it takes proportionably longer to wash, and it is 
not so well for the sheep to be kept so long in the water at once. 

When the washing commences, two and sometimes four 
sheep are plunged in the vat. When four are put in, two 
soak while two are washed. This should not, however, be 
done, unless the water is very warm, and the washers are un- 



164 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

commonly quick and expert ; and it is, upon the whole, rather 
an objectionable practice, since few animals suffer so much 
from the effects of a chill as the sheep ; and, if they have been 
previously wetted, it is wholly unnecessary. When the sheep 
are in the water, the two washers commence kneading the 
wool with their hands about the dirtier parts — the breech, 
belly, etc. — and they continue to turn the sheep so that the 
descending current of water can strike into all parts of the 
fleece. 

As soon as the sheep are clean, which may be known by the 
Mater running entirely clear, each washer seizes his own 
animal by the foreparts, plunges it deep in the vats, and, 
taking advantage of the rebound, lifts it out, setting it gently 
down on its breech upon the platform. He then — if the sheep 
is old and weak, and it is well in all cases — presses out some 
of the water from the wool, and after submitting the sheep to 
a process presently to be mentioned, lets it go. 

There should be no mud about the vat, the earth not covered 
with sod, being gravelled. Sheep should be kept on clean 
pastures, from washing to shearing — not where they can come 
in contact with the ground, burnt logs, and the like — and they 
should not be driven over dusty roads. The washers should 
be strong and capable men, and, protected as they are from 
any thing but the water running over the sides of the vat, 
they can labor several hours without inconvenience. Two 
hundred sheep will employ two experienced men not over 
half a day, and this rate is at times much exceeded. 

It is a great object, not only as a matter of propriety and 
honesty, but even as an item of profit, to get the wool clean, 
and of a snowy whiteness, in which condition it will always 



. CUTTING THE HOOFS. ' 165 

sell for more than enough extra to offset the increased labor 
and the diminution in weight. The average loss in American 
Saxon wool in scouring, after being washed on the back, is 
estimated at thirty-six per cent. ; and in American Merino 
forty-two and a half per cent. 



CUTTING THE HOOFS. 

As the hoofs of fine-woolled sheep grow rapidly, turning up 
in front and under at the sides, they must be clipped as often 
as once a year, or they become unsightly, give an awkward, 
hobbling gait to the animal, and the part of the horn which 
turns under at the sides holds dirt or dung in constant contact 
with the soles, and even prevents it from being readily shaken 
or washed out of the cleft of the foot in the natural movement 
of the sheep about the pastures, as would take place were the 
hoof in its proper place. This greatly aggravates the hoof- 
ail, and renders the curing of it more difficult ; and it is thought 
by many to be the exciting cause of the disease. 

It is customary to clip the hoofs at tagging, or at or soon 
after the time of shearing. Some employ a chisel and mallet 
to shorten the hoofs ; but the animal must afterward be turned 
upon its back, to pare ofif the crust which projects and turns 
under. If the weather be dry, or the sheep have stood fbf 
some time on dry straw, as at shearing, the hoofs are as tough 
as horn, and are cut with great difficulty ; and this is increased 
by the grit and dirt adhering to the sole, which immediately 
takes the edge off from the knife. These periods are ill-chosen, 
and the method slow and bungling. It is particularly im- 
proper to submit heavily-pregnant ewes to all this unnecessary 
handling at the time of tagging. 




1G6 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASE?. 

When the sheep is washed and lifted out of the vat, and 
placed on its rump upon the platform, the gate-keeper should 
advance with a pair of toe-nippers, and the washer present 
each foot separately, pressing the toes together so that they can 

be severed at a single clip. 

The nippers — which can be 
TOE-NippEBs. made by any blacksmith 

who can tempeV an axe or a chisel — must be made strong, 
with handles a little more than a foot long, the rivet being of 
half-inch iron, and confined with a nut, so that they may be 
taken apart for sharpening. The cutting-edge should descend 
upon a strip of copper inserted in the iron, to prevent it from 
being dulled. With this powerful instrument, the largest 
hoofs are severed by a moderate compression of the hand. 
Two well-sharpened knives, which should be kept in a stand 
or box within reach, are then grasped by the washer and 
assistant, and with two dexterous strokes to each foot, the 
side-crust, being free from dirt, and soaked almost as soft as a 
cucumber, is reduced to the level of the sole. Two expert 
men will go through these processes in a very short space of 
time. The closer the paring and clipping the better, if blood 
be not drawn. An occasional sheep may require clipping 
again in the fall. 



SHEARING. 

The time which should elapse between washing and shear- 
ing depends altogether on circumstances. From four to six 
days of bright, warm weather is sufficient ; if cold, or rainy, or 
Cloudy, more time must intervene. Sometimes the wool 
remains in a condition unfit for shearing for a fortnight after 



SHEARING, 16t 

washing. The rule to be observed is, that the water should 
be thoroughly dried out, and the natural oil of the wool should 

so far exude as to give the wool an unctious 

feeling, and a lively, glittering look. If it is \J^^Z^lZf^ 
sheared when dry, like cotton, and before the C^^^^^ 
oil has exuded, it is very difficult to thrust the (^^^^^^^^^^'^^^^ 
shears through, the umer is checked, and the fleece. 
wool will not keep so well for long periods. If it is left until 
it gets too oily, either the manufacturer is cheated, or, what 
more frequently happens, the owner loses on the price. 

Shearing, in this country, is always done on the threshing- 
floors of the barns — sometimes upon low platforms, some 
eighteen or twenty inches high, but more commonly on the floor 
itself The place where the sheep remain should be well 
littered down with straw, and fresh straw thrown on occa- 
sionally, to keep the sheep clean while shearing. No chaff 
or other substance which will stick in the wool should be 
used for this purpose. The shearing should not commence 
until the dew, if any, has dried off from the sheep. All loose 
straws sticking to the wool should be picked off, and whatever 
dung may adhere to any of the feet brushed off. The floor or 
tables used should be planed or worn perfectly smooth, so that 
they will not hold dirt, or catch the wool. They should all 
be thoroughly cleaned, and, if necessary, washed, preparatory 
to the process. If there are any sheep in the pen dirty from 
purging, or other causes, they should first be caught out, to 
prevent them from contaminating others. 

The manner of shearing varies with almost every district ; 
^and it is difficult, if not impossible, to give intelligible practical 
instructions, which would guide an entire novice in skilfully 



168 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

shearing a sheep. Practice is requisite. The following di- 
rections are as plain, perhaps, as can be made : 

The shearer may place the sheep on that part of the floor 
assigned to him, resting on its rump, and himself in a posture 
with his right knee on a cushion, and the back of the animal 
resting against his left thigh. He grasps the shears about 
half-way from the point to the bow, resting his thumb along 
the blades, which gives him better command of the points. 
He may then commence cutting the wool at the brisket, and, 
proceeding downward, all upon the sides of the belly to the 
extremity of the ribs, the external sides of both sides to the 
edges of the flanks ; then back to the brisket, and thence 
upward, shearing the wool from the breast, front, and both 
sides of the neck, but not yet the back of it, and also the poll, 
or forepart, and top of the head. Then " the jacket is opened" 
of the sheep, and its position, as well as that of the shearer, is 
changed by the animal's being turned flat upon its side, one 
knee of the shearer resting on the cushion, and the other 
gentl}^ pressing the fore-quarter of the animal, to prevent any 
struggling. He then resumes cutting upon the flank and 
rump, and thence onward to the head. Thus one side is com- 
plete. The sheep is then turned on the other side — in doing 
which great care is requisite to prevent the fleeces being torn — 
and the shearer proceeds as upon the other, which finishes. 
He must then take the sheep near to the door through which 
it is to pass out, and neatly trim the legs, leaving not a solitary 
lock anywhere as a lodging-place for ticks. It is absolutely 
necessary for him to remove from his stand to trim, otherwise 
the useless stuff from the legs becomes intermingled with the. 
fleece-wool. In the use of the shears, the blades should be 



SHEARING. 169 

laid as flat to the skin as possible, the points not lowered too 
much, nor should more than from one to two inches be cut at 
a clip, and frequently not so much, depending on the part, and 
the compactness of the wool. 

The wool should be cut off as close as conveniently practi- 
cable, and even. It may, indeed, be cut too close, so that the 
sheep can scarcely avoid sun-scald ; but this is very unusual. 
If the wool is left in ridges, and uneven, it betrays a want of 
workmanship very distasteful to the really good farmer. 
Great care should be taken not to cut the wool twice in two, 
as iaexperienced shearers are apt to do, since it is a great 
damage to the wool. This results from cutting too far from 
the points of the shears, and suffering them to get too 
elevated. In such cases, every time the shears are pushed 
forward, the wool before, cut off by the points, say a quarter 
or three-eighths of an inch from the hide, is again severed. 
To keep the fleece entire, which is of great importance to its 
good appearance when done up, and, therefore, to its salable- 
ness, it is very essential that the sheep be held easily for itself, 
so that it will not struggle violently. No man can hold it still 
by main strength, and shear it well. The posture of the 
shearer should be such that the sheep is actually confined to 
its position, so that it is unable to start up suddenly and tear 
its fleece ; but it should not be confined there by severe 
pressure or force, or it will be continually kicking and strug- 
gling. Clumsy, careless men, therefore, always complain of 
getting the most troublesome sheep. The neck, for example, 
may be confined to the floor by placing it between the toe and 
knee of the leg on which the shearer kneels ; but the lazy or 
brutal shearer who suffers his leg to rest directly on the neck, 



170 SHEEP AND THEIll DISEASES. 

soon provokes that struggle which the animal is obliged to 
make to free itself from severe pain, and even, perhaps, to draw 
its breath. 

Good shearers will shear, on the average, twenty-five 
Merinos per day; but a new beginner should not attempt to 
exceed from one- third to one-half of that number. It is the 
last process in the world which should be hurried, as the 
shearer will, in that case, soon leave more than enough wool 
on his sheep to pay for his day's wages. Wool ought not to 
be sheared, and must not be done up with any water in it. 
If wounds, are made, as sometimes happens with unskilful 
operators, a mixture of tar and grease ought to be applied. 

Shearing lambs is, in the Northern climate, at least, an un- 
profitable practice ; since the lamb, at a year old, will give the 
same amount of wool, and it is thus stripped of its natural 
protection from cold when it is young and tender, for the mere 
pittance of the interest on a pound, or a pound and a half of 
wool for six months, not more than two or three cents, and 
this all consumed by the expense of shearing. Much the same 
may be said of the custom, which obtains in some places, of 
shearing from sheep twice a year. There may be a reason for 
it, where they receive so little care that a portion are expected 
to disappear every half year, and the wool to be torn from the 
backs of the remainder by bushes, thorns, etc., if left for a long 
period ; but when sheep are inclosed, and treated as domestic 
animals, although there may be less barbarity in shearing 
them in the fall also, than in the case of the tender lambs, 
there is no ground for it on the score of utility ; since any 
gain accruing from it cannot pay the additional expense which 
it occasions. 



SHEARINa. Itl 

Cold storms occurring soon after shearing sometimes 
destroy sheep, in the northern portions of the country, espec- 
ially the delicate Saxons ; forty or fifty of which have, at 
times, perished out of a single flock, from one night's exposure. 
Sheep, in such cases, should be housed ; or, where this is im- 
practicable, driven into dense forests. 

Sun-scald. When they are sheared close in very hot 
weather, have no shade in their pastures, and especially where 
they are driven immediately considerable distances, or rapidly, 
over burning and dusty roads, their backs are sometimes so 
scorched by the sun that their wool comes off. If let alone, 
the matter is not a serious one ; but the application of refuse 
lard to the back will hasten the cure, and the starting of the 
wool. 

Ticks. These vermin, when very numerous, greatly annoy 
and enfeeble the sheep in winter, and should be kept entirely 
out of the flock. After shearing, the heat and cold, the 
rubbing and biting of the sheep, soon drive off the tick, and it 
takes refuge in the wool of the lamb. Let a fortnight elapse 
after shearing, to allow all to make this change of residence. 
Then boil refuse tobacco leaves until the decoction is strong 
enough to kill ticks beyond a peradventure, which may be 
ascertained by experiment. Five or six pounds of cheap plug 
tobacco, or an equivalent in stems, and the like, may be made 
to answer for a hundred lambs. 

This decoction is poured into a deep, narrow box, kept for 
the purpose, which has an inclined shelf on one side, covered 
with a wooden grate. One man holds the lamb by its hind 
legs, while another clasps the fore legs in one hand, and shuts 
the other about the nostrils, to prevent the liquid from enter- 



172 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

ing them, and then the animal is entirely immersed. It is 
then immediately lifted out, laid on one side upon the grate, 
and the water squeezed out of its wool, when it is turned over 
and squeezed on the other side. The grate conducts the fluid 
back into the box. If the lambs are regularly dipped every 
year, ticks will never trouble a flock. 



MAHKING OR BRAITDIlSrG. 

The sheep should be marked soon after shearing, or mistakes 
may occur. Every sheep-owner should be provided with a 
marking, instrument, which will stamp his initials, or some 
other distinctive mark, such as a small circle, an oval, a 
triangle, or a square, at a single stroke, and with uniformity, 
on the sheep. It is customary to have the mark cut out of a 
plate of thin iron, with an iron handle terminating in wood ; 
but one made by cutting a type, or raised letter, or character, 
on the end of a stick of light wood, such as pine or basswood, 
is found to be better. If the pigment used be thin, and the 
marker be thrust into it a little too deeply, as often happens, 
the surplus will not run off from the wood, as it does from 
a thin sheet of iron, to daub the sides of the sheep, and spoil 
the appearance of the mark ; and, if the pigment be applied 
hot, the former will not get heated, like the latter, and increase 
the danger of burning the hide. 

Various pigments are used for marking. Many boil tar 
until it assumes a glazed, hard consistency when cold, and 
give it a brilliant, black color by stirring in a little lamp-black 
during the boiling. This is applied when just cold enough not 
to burn the sheep's hide, and it forms a bright, conspicuous 
mark all the year round. The manufacturer, however, prefers 



MARKING OR BRANDING. 173 

the substitution of oil and turpentine for tar, as the latter is 
cleansed out of the wool with some difficulty. It should be 
boiled in an iron vessel, with high sides, to prevent it from 
taking fire, on a small furnace or chafing-dish near which it is 
to be used. When cool enough, forty or fifty sheep can be 
marked before it gets too stiff. It is then warmed from time 
to time, as necessary, on the chafing-dish. Paint, made of 
lampblack, to which a little spirits of turpentine is first added, 
and then diluted with linseed or lard oil, is also used. The 
rump is a better place to mark than the side, since it is there 
about as conspicuous under any circumstances, and more so 
when the sheep are huddled in a pen, or running away from 
one. Besides, should any wool be injured by the mark, that 
on the rump is less valuable than that on the side. Ewes are 
commonly distinguished from wethers by marking them on 
different sides of the rump. 

Many mark each sheep as it is discharged from the barn by 
the shearer ; but it consumes much less time to do it at a 
single job, after the shearing is completed ; and it is necessary 
to take the latter course if a hot pigment is used. 

Maggots. Rams with horns growing closely to their heads 
are very liable to have maggots generated under them, par- 
ticularly if the skin on the surrounding parts becomes broken 
by fighting ; and these, unless removed, soon destroy the 
animal. Boiled tar, or the marking substance first described, 
is both remedy and preventive. If it is put under the horns 
at the time of marking, no trouble will ever arise from this 
cause. 

Sometimes when a sheep scours in warm weather, and 
clotted dung adheres about the anus, maggots are generated 



IH SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

under it, and the sheep perishes miserably. As a preventive, 
the dung should be removed ; as a remedy, the dung and 
maggots should be removed — the latter by touching them with 
a little turpentine — and sulphur and grease afterward applied 
to the excoriated surface. 

Maggot-flies sometimes deposit their eggs on the backs of 
the long, open-woolled English sheep, and the maggots, during 
the few days before they assume the pupa state, so tease and 
irritate the animal, that fever and death ensue. Tar and tur- 
pentine, or butter and sulphur, smeared over the parts, are 
admirable preventives. The Merino and Saxon are exempt 
from these attacks. 

Shortening the horns. A convolution of the horn of a 
ram sometimes so presses in upon the side of the head or neck 
that it is necessary to shave or rasp it away on the under side, 
to prevent ultimately fatal effects. The point of the horn of 
both ram and ewe both frequently turn in so that they will 
grow into the flesh, and sometimes into the eye, unless 
shortened. The toe-nippers will often suffice on the thin ex- 
tremity of a horn ; if not, a fine saw must be used. The 
marking-time affords the best opportunity for attending to this 
operation. 



SELECTION AND DIVISION. 

The necessity of annually weeding the flock, by excluding 
all its members falling below a certain standard of quality, and 
the points which should be regarded in fixing that standard, 
have already been brought to notice in connection with the 
principles of breeding. 

The time of shearing is by far the most favorable period for 



^ SELECTION AND DIVISION. 115 

the flock-master to make his selection. He should be present 
on the shearing-floor, and inspect the fleece of everj sheep as 
it is gradually taken off; since, if there are faults about it, he 
will then discover it better than at any other time. A glance 
will likewise reveal to him every defect in form, previously 
concealed, wholly, or in part, by the wool, as soon as the 
newly-shorn sheep is permitted to stand up on its feet. A 
remarkably choice ewe is frequently retained until she dies of 
old age ; a rather poor nurse or breeder is excluded for the 
slightest fault, and so on. Whatever animals are to be ex- 
cluded, may be marked on the shoulder with Venetian red and 
hog's lard, con>veniently applied with a brush or cob. Such of 
the wethers as have attained their prime, and those ewes that 
have passed it, should be provided with the best feed, and 
fitted for the butcher. If they have been properly pushed on 
grass, they will be in good flesh by the time they are taken 
from it ; and, if not intended for stall-feeding, the sooner they 
are then disposed of the better. 

Those divisions, also, in large flocks, which utility demands, 
are generally made at or soon after shearing. Not more than 
two hundred sheep should be allowed to run together in the 
pastures ; although the number might, perhaps, be safely in- 
creased to three hundred, if the range is extensive. 

Wethers and dry ewes to be turned ofi" should be kept 
separate from the nursing-ewes ; and if the flock is large 
enough to require a third division, it is customary to put the 
yearling and two-year-old ewes and wethers, and the old, 
feeble sheep together. It is better, in all cases, to separate 
the rams from all the other sheep at the time of shearing, and 
to inclose them in a field which is particularly well-fenced. If 



176 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. . 

they are put even with wethers, they are more quarrelsome ; 
and when cool nights arrive, will worry themselves and waste 
their flesh in constant efforts to ride the wethers. 

The Merino ram, although a quiet animal compared with 
the common-woolled one, will be tempted to jump, by poor 
fences, or fences half the time dowm ; and if he is once taught 
this trick, he becomes very troublesome as the rutting period 
approaches, unless hoppling, yoking, clogging, or poking is 
resorted to, either of which causes him to waste his strength, 
besides being the occasion of frequent accidents. 



THE CHOOK. 
This convenient implement for catching sheep is of the form 
represented in the cut accompanying, of three-eighths inch 
round iron, drawn smaller toward the point, 
which is made s'afe by a knot. The nthor end 
is furnished with a socket, which receives a 
handle six or eight feet long. 

In using it, the hind leg is hooked in from 
behind the sheep, and it fills up the narrow 
part beyond that point, while passing along it 
until it reaches the loop, when the animal is 
caught by the hook, and when secured, its 
foot easily slips through the loop. Some 
caution is required in its use ; for, should the 
animal give a sudden start forward to get 
sHEPHEED's CROOK. ^^^^^^^ ^^^ niomcnt it feels the crook, the leg 

will be drawn forcibly through the narrow .part, and strike 
the bone with such violence against the bend of the loop as 
to cause the animal considerable pain, and even occasion 




DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERINa. 177 

lameness for some days. On first embracing the leg, the 
crook should be drawn quickly toward the shepherd, so 
as to bring the bend of the loop against the leg as high up 
as the hock, before the sheep has time even to break off; 
and being secure, its struggles will cease the moment the hand 
seizes the leg. 

No shepherd should be without this implement, as it saves 
much yarding and running, and leads to a prompt examination 
of every improper or suspicious appearance, and a seasonable 
application of remedy or preventive, which would often be 
deferred if the whole flock had to be driven to a distant yard 
to effect the catching of a single sheep. 

Dexterity in its use is speedily acquired by any one ; and if 
a flock are properly tame, any one of its number ca-n be readily 
caught by it at salting-time, or, generally, at other times, by a 
person with whom the flock are familiar. It is, however, 
at the lambing-time, when sheep and lambs require to be so 
repeatedly caught, that the crook is more particularly service- 
abl». For this purpose, at that time alone, it will pay for 
itself ten times oyer in a single season, in saving time, to say 
nothing of the advantage of the sheep. 



DRIVING AND SLAUGHTEKING. 

Driving. Mutton can be grown cheaper than any other 

kind of meat. It is fast becoming better appreciated ; and, 

strange as it may seem, good mutton brings a higher price in 

our best markets than the same quality does in England. Its 

substitution in a large measure for pork would contribute 

materially to the health of the community. 

Winter fattening of sheep may often be made very profitable 
12 



178 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

• 

and deserves greater attention, especially where manure is an 
object ; and the instances are few, indeed, where it is not. In 
England, it is considered good policy to fatten sheep, if the 
increase of weight will pay for the oil-cake or grain consumed ; 
the manure being deemed a fair equivalent for the other food — 
that is, as much straw and turnips as they will eat. Lean sheep 
there usually command as high a price per pound in the fall 
as fatted ones in the spring; while, in this country, the latter 
usually bear a much higher price, which gives the feeder a 
great advantage. 

The difference may be best illustrated by a simple calcula- 
tion. Suppose a wether of a good mutton breed, weighing 
eighty pounds in the fall, to cost six cents per pound, amount- 
ing to four dollars and eighty cents, and to require twenty 
pounds of hay per week, or its equivalent in other food, and 
to gain a pound and a half each week ; the gain in weight in 
four months would be about twenty-five pounds, which, at six 
cents per pound, would be one dollar and fifty cents, or less 
than ten dollars per ton for the hay consumed ; but if the ^me 
sheep could be bought in the fall for three cents per pound, 
and sold in the spring for six cents, the gain would amount to 
three dollars and ninety cents, or upwards of twenty dollars 
per ton for the hay — the manure being the same in either 
case. 

For fattening, it is well to purchase animals as large and 
thrifty, and in as good condition as can be had at fair prices ; 
and to feed liberally, so as to secure the most rapid increase 
that can be had without waste of food. The fattening of sheep 
by the aid of oil-cake, or grain purchased for the purpose, may 
often be made a cheaper mode of obtaining manure than by 



DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING. 



179 



the purchase of artificial fertilizers, as guano, super- phosphate 
of lime, and the like ; and it is altogether preferable. It is 
practised extensively and advantageously abroad, and deserves 
at least a fair trial among us. 

Sheep which are to be driven to market should not begin 
their journey either when too full or too hungry ; in the former 
state, they are 
apt to purge 
W'hile on the road, 
and in the latter, 
they will lose 
strength at once. 
The sheep select- 
ed for market 
should be those 
in best condition 
at the time ; and 
to ascertain this, 
it is necessary to 
examine the 
whole lot, and 
separate the fat- 
test from the rest, 
which is best 
done at about mid-day, before the sheep feed again in the 
afternoon. The selected ones are placed in a field by them- 
selves, where they remain until the time for starting. If there 
be rough pasture to give them, they should be allowed to use 
it, in order to rid themselves of some of the food which might 
be productive of inconvenience on the journey. If there is no 




THE SHEPHERD AND HIS FLOCK. 



130 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

such pasture, a few cut turnips will answer. All their hoofs 
should be carefully examined, and every unnecessary append- 
age removed, though the firm portion of the horn should not 
be touched. Every clotted piece of wool should also be re- 
moved with the shears, and the animals properly marked. 

Being thus prepared, thoy should have feed early in the 
morning, and be started, in the cold season, about mid-day. 
Let them walk quietly away ; and as the road is new to them, 
they will go too fast at first, to prevent which, the drover 
should go before them, and let his dog bring up the rear. In 
a short time they will assume the proper speed — about one 
mile an hour. Should the road they travel be a green one, 
they will proceed nibbling their way onward at the grass 
along both sides ; but if it is a narrow turnpike, the drover 
will require all his attention in meeting and being passed by 
various vehicles, to avoid injury to his charge. In this part 
of their business, drovers generally make too much ado ; and 
the consequence is, that the sheep are driven more from side 
to side of the road than is requisite. Upon meeting a carriage, 
it would be much better for the sheep, were the drover to go 
forward, instead of sending his dog, and point off with his 
stick the leading sheep to the nearest side of the road ; and the 
rest will follow, as a matter of course, while the dog walks 
behind the flock and brings up the stragglers. Open gates to 
fields are sources of great annoyance to drovers, the stock 
invariably making an endeavor to go through them. On 
observing an open gate ahead, the drover should send his dog 
behind him over the fence, to be ready to meet the sheep at 
the gate. When the sheep incline to rest, they should be 
allowed to lie down. 



DEIYING AND SLAUGHTERING. 181 

When the animals are lodged for the night, a few turnips or 
a little hay should be furnished to them, if the road-sides are 
bare. If these are placed near the gate of the field which they 
occupy, they will be ready to take the road again in the 
morning. As a precaution against worrying dogs, the drover 
should go frequently through the flock with a light, retire to 
rest late, and rise up early in the morning. These precautions 
are necessary ; since, when sheep have once been disturbed by 
dogs, they will not settle again upon the road. The first day's 
journey should be a short one, not exceeding four or five miles. 
The whole journey should be so marked out as that, allowance 
being made for unforeseen delays, the animals may have one 
day's rest near the market. 

Points of fat sheep. The formation of fat, in a sheep 
destined to be fattened,, commences in the inside, the web of 
fat which envelopes the intestines being first formed, and a 
little deposited around the kidneys. After that, fat is seen on 
the outside ; and first upon the end of the rump at the tail- 
bead, continuing to move on along the back, on both sides of 
the spine, or back-bone, to the bend of the ribs to the neck. 
Then it is deposited between the muscles, parallel with the 
cellular tissue. Meanwhile, it is covering the lower round of 
the ribs descending to the flanks, until the two sides meet 
under the belly, whence it proceeds to the brisket, or breast, 
in front, and the sham or cod behind, filling up the inside of 
the arm-pits and thighs. While all these depositions are pro- 
ceeding on the outside, the progress in the inside is not 
checked, but rather increased, by the fattening disposition 
encouraged by the acquired condition ; and, hence, simulta- 
neously, the kidneys become entirely covered, and the space 



18'2! SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES, 

between the intestines and the lumbar region, or loin, gradu- 
ally filled up by the web and kidney fat. 

By this time the cellular spaces around each fibre of muscle 
are receiving their share ; and when fat is deposited there in 
quantity, it gives to the meat the term marbled. These inter- 
fibrous are the last to receive a deposition of fat ; but after 
this has begun, every other part at the same time receives its 
due share, the back and kidneys securing the most, so much 
so that the former literally becomes nicked, as it is termed — 
that is, the fat is felt through the skin to be divided into two 
portions, from the tail-head along the back to the top of the 
shoulder ; and the tail becoming thick and stiff, the top of the 
neck broad, the lower part of each side of the neck toward the 
breasts full, and the hollows between the breast-bone and the 
inside of the fore legs, and between the cod and the inside of 
the hind thighs, filled up. When all this has been accom- 
plished, the sheep is said to he fat, or ripe. 

When the body of a fat sheep is entirely overlaid with fat, 
it is in the most valuable state as mutton. Few sheep, how- 
ever, lay on fat entirely over their body ; one laying the largest 
proportion on the rump, another on the back ; one on the parts 
adjoining the fore-quarter, another on those of the hind- 
quarter ; and one more on the inside, and another more on the 
outside. Taking so many parts, and combining any two or 
more of them together, a considerable variety of condition will 
be found in any lot of fat sheep, while any one is as ripe in its 
way as any other. 

With these data for guides, the state of a sheep in its 
progress toward ripeness may be readily detected by handling. 
A fat sheep, however, is easily known by the eye, from the 



DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING. 183 

fullness exhibited by all the external parts of the particular 
animal. It may exhibit want in soihe parts when compared 
with others ; but those parts, it may easily be seen, would 
never become so ripe as the others ; and this arises from some 
constitutional defect in the animal itself; since, if this were 
so, there is no reason why all the parts should not be alike 
ripe. The state of a sheep that is obviously not ripe cannot 
altogether be ascertained by the eye. It must be handled, or 
subjected to the scrutiny of the hand. Even in so palpable 
an act as handling, discretion is requisite. A full-looking 
sheep needs hardly to be handled on the rump ; for he would 
not seem so full, unless fat had first been deposited there. A 
thin-looking sheep, on the other hand, should be handled on 
the rump ; and if there be no fat there, it is useless to handle 
the rest of the body, for certainly there will not be so much as 
to deserve the name of fat. Between these two extremes of 
condition, every variety exists ; and on that account examina- 
tion by the hand is the rule, and by the eye alone the ex- 
ception. The hand is, however, much assisted by the eye, 
whose acuteness detects deficiencies and redundancies at once. 

In handling sheep, the points of the fingers are chiefly em- 
ployed ; and the accurate knowledge conveyed by them, 
through practice, of the exact state of the condition, is truly 
surprising, and establishes a conviotion in the mind that some 
intimate relation exists between the external and internal state 
of an animal. Hence originates this practical maxim in 
judging stock of all kinds — that no animal will appear ripe to 
the eye, unless as much fat had previously been acquired in 
the inside as constittftional habit will allow. 

The application of this rule is easy. When the rump is 



1-84 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

found nicked, on handling, fat is to be found on the back ; 
when the back is found' nicked, fat is to be expected on the 
top of the shoulder and over the ribs ; and when the top of 
the shoulder proves to be nicked, fat may be anticipated on 
the under side of the belly. To ascertain its existence below, 
the animal must be tu?'ned up, as it is termed; that is, the 
sheep is set upon bis rump, with his back down, and his hind 
feet pointing upward and outward. In this position, it can be 
seen whether the breast and thighs arc filled up. Still, all 
these alone would not disclose the state of the inside of the 
sheep, which should, moreover, be looked for in the thickness 
of the flank ; in the fullness of the breast, that is, the space in 
front from shoulder to shoulder toward the neck ; in the stiff- 
ness and thickness of the root of the tail ; and in the breadth 
of the back of the neck. All these latter parts, especially with 
the fullness of the inside of the thighs, indicate a fullness of 
fat in the inside ; that is, largeness of the mass of fat on the 
kidneys, thickness of net, and thickness of layers between the 
abdominal muscles. Hence, the whole object of feeding sheep 
on turnips and the like seems to be to lay fat upon all the 
bundles of fleshy fibres, called muscles, that are capable of 
acquiring that substance ; for, as to bone and muscle, these 
increase in weight and extent independently of fat, and fat 
only increases in their magnitude. 

Slaughtering. Sheep are easily slaughtered, and the 
operation is unattended with cruelty. They require some 
preparation before being deprived of life, which consists in 
food being withheld from them for not less than twenty-four 
hours, according to the season. The reason for fasting sheep 
before slaughtering is to give time for the paunch and intestines 



DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING. 



185 



to empty themselves entirely of food, as it is found that, when 
an animal is killed with a full stomach, the meat is more 
liable to putrefy, and is not so well flavored ; and, as ruminat- 
ing animals always retain a large quantity of food in their 
intestines, it is reasonable that they should fast ___^ 
somewhat longer to get rid of it, 
than animals with single 
stomachs. 

Sheep are placed on 
side — sometimes upon 
a stool, called a killing- 
stool — to be slaughter- 
ed, and, requiring no 
fastening with cords, 
are deprived of life by 
the use of a straight 
knife through the neck, droveb's ob bctcheb-s do«. 

between its bone and the windpipe, severing the carotid 
artery and the jugular vein of both sides, from which the blood 
flows freely out, and the animal soon dies. 

The skin, as far as it is covered with wool, is taken off, 
leaving that on the legs and head, which are covered with 
hair, the legs being disjointed by the knee. The entrails are 
removed by an incision along the belly, after the carcass has 
been hung up by the tendons of the houghs. The net is 
carefully separated from the viscera, and rolled up by itself; 
but the kidney fat is not then extracted. The intestines are 
placed on the inner side of the skin until divided into the 
pluck, containing the heart, lungs, and liver; the bag, con- 
taining the stomach ; and the puddings, consisting of the 




186 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

viscera, or guts. The latter are usually thrown away ; though 
the Scotch, however, clean them and work them up into their 
favorite haggis. The skin is hung over a rope or pole under 
cover, with the skin-side uppermost, to dry in an airy place. 

The carcass should hang twenty-four hours in a clean, cool, 
airy, dry apartment before it is cut down. It should be cool 
and dry; for, if warm, the meat will not become firm ; and, if 
damp, a clamminess will cover it, and it will never feel dry, 
and present a fresh, clean appearance. The carcass is divided 
in two, by being sawed right down the back-bone. The 
kidney-fat is then taken out, being only attached to the peri- 
toneum by the cellular membrane, and the kidney is extracted 
from the suet, the name given to sheep-tallow in an indepen- 
dent state. 

Cutting up. Of the two modes of cutting up a carcass of 
mutton, the English and the Scotch — of the former, the practice 
in London being taken as the standard, and of the latter, that 
of Edinburgh, since more care is exercised in this respect in 
these two cities — the English is, perhaps, preferable ; although 
the Scotch accomplish the task in a cleanly and workmanlike 
manner. 

The jigot is the most handsome and valuable part of the 
carcass, bringing the highe.st price, and is either a roasting or 
a boiling piece. A jigot of Leicester, Cheviot, or South-Down 
mutton makes a beautiful boiled leg of mutton, which is prized 
the more the fatter it is — this part of the carcass being never 
overloaded with fat. The loin is almost always roasted, the 
flap of the flank being skewered up, and it is a juicy piece. 
Many consider this piece of Leicester mutton, roasted, as too 
rich ; and when warm this is, probably, the case ; but a cold 



DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING. 187 

roast loin is an excellent summer dish. The back-rib is 
divided into two, and used for very different purposes. The 
forepart — the neck — is boiled, and makes sweet barely-broth ; 
and the meat, when boiled, or rather the whole simmered for 
a considerable time beside the fire, eats tenderly. The back- 
ribs make an excellent roast ; indeed, there is not a sweeter or 
more varied one in the whole carcass, having both ribs and 
shoulder. The shoulder-blade eats best cold, and the ribs, 
warm. The ribs make excellent chops, the Leicester and 
South-Down affording the best. The breast is mostly a roast- 
ing-piece, consisting of rib and shoulder, and is particularly 
good when cold. When the piece is large, as of the South- 
Down or Cheviot, the gristly parts of the ribs may be divided 
from the true ribs, and helped separately. This piece also 
boils well ; or, when corned for eight days, and served with 
onion sauce, with mashed turnips in it, there are few more 
savory dishes at a farmer's table. The shoulder is separated 
before being dressed, and makes an excellent roast for lamily 
use, being eaten warm or cold, or carved and dressed as the 
breast mentioned above. The shoulder is best from a large 
carcass of South-Down, Cheviot, or Leicester. The neck-piece 
is partly laid bare by the removal of the shoulder, the fore- 
part being fitted for boiling and making into broth, and the 
best part for roasting or broiling into chops. On this account, 
it is a good family piece, and generally preferred to any part 
of the hind-quarter. Heavy sheep, such as the Leicester, 
South-Down, and Cheviot, supply the most thrifty neck-piece. 
Relative qualities. The different sorts of mutton in 
common use differ as well in quality as in quantity. The 
flesh of the Leicester is large, though not coarse-grained, of a 



188 ' SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

lively red color, and the cellular tissue between the fibres con- 
tains a considerable quantity of fat. When cooked, it is tender 
and juicy, yielding a red gravy, and having a sweet, rich 
taste ; but the fat is rather too much and too rich for some 
people's tastes, and can be put aside. It must be allowed that 
the lean of fat meat is far better than lean meat that has never 
been fat. Cheviot mutton is smaller in the grain, not so 
bright of color, with less fat, less juice, not so tender and 
sweet ; but the flavor is higher, and the fat not so luscious. 
The mutton of South-Downs is of medium fineness in grain, 
color pleasant red, fat well intermixed with the meat, juicy, 
and tenderer than Cheviot. The mutton of rams ot any breed 
is always hard, ot disagreeable flavor, and, in autumn, not 
eatable ; that ot old ewes is dry, hard, and tasteless ; of young 
ones, well enough flavored, but still rather dry ; while wether- 
mutton is the meat in perfection, according to its kind. 

The want of relish, perhaps the distaste, for mutton has 
served as an obstacle to the extension of sheep husbandry in 
the United States. The common mistake in the management 
of mutton among us is, that it is eaten, as a general thing, at 
exactly the wrong time after it is killed. It should be eaten 
immediately after being killed, and, if possible, before the meat 
has time to get cold ; or, if not, then it should be kept a week 
or more— in the ice-house, if the weather require— until the 
time is just at hand when the fibre passes the state of tough- 
ness which it takes on at first, and reaches that incipient or 
preliminary point in its process toward putrefaction when 
the fibres begin to give way, and the meat becomes tender. 

An opinion likewise generally prevails that mutton does not 
attain perfection in juiciness and flavor much under five y^ars. 



DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING. 189 

If this be so, that breed of sheep must be very unprofitable 
which takes five years to attain its full state ; and there is no 
breed of sheep in this country which requires five years to 
bring it to perfection. This being the case, it must be folly to 
restrain sheep from coming to perfection until they have 
reached that age. Lovers of five-year-old mutton do not 
pretend that this course bestows profit on the farmer, but only 
insist on its being best at that age. Were this the fact, one 
of two absurd conditions must exist in this department of 
agriculture : namely, the keeping a breed of sheep that cannot, 
or that should not be allowed to, attain to perfection before 
it is five years old ; either of which conditions makes it obvious 
that mutton cannot be in its best state at five years. 

The truth is, the idea of mutton of this age being especially 
excellent, is founded on a prejudice, arising, probably, from 
this circumstance : before winter food was discovered, which 
could maintain the condition of stock which had been acquired 
in summer, sheep lost much of their summer condition in 
winter, and, of course, an oscillation of condition occurred, 
year after year, until they attained the age of five years ; when 
their teeth beginning to fail, would cause them to lose their 
condition the more rapidly. Hence, it was expedient to 
slaughter them at not exceeding five years of age ; and, no 
doubt, mutton would be high-flavored at that age, that had 
been exclusively fed on natural pasture and natural hay. 
Such treatment of sheep cannot, however, be justified on the 
principles of modern practice ; because both reason and taste 
concur in mutton being at its best whenever sheep attain their 
perfect state of growth and condition, not their largest and 
heaviest ; and as one breed attains its perfect state at an earlier 



190 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

age than another, its mutton attains its best before another 
breed attains what is its best state, although its sheep may be 
older ; but taste alone prefers one kind of mutton to another, 
even when both are in their best state, from some peculiar 
property. The cry for five-year-old mutton is thus based on 
very untenable grounds ; the truth being that well-fed and 
fatted mutton is never better than when it gets its full growth 
in its second year ; and the farmer cannot afford to keep it 
longer, unless the wool would pay for the keep, since we 
have not the epicures and men of wealth who would pay the 
butcher the extra price, which he must have, to enable him to 
pay a remunerating price to the grazier for keeping his sheep 
two or three years over. 

All writers on diet agree in describing mutton as the most 
valuable of the articles of human food. Pork may be more 
stimulating, beef perhaps more nutritious, when the digestive 
powers are strong ; but, while there is in mutton sufficient 
nutriment, there is also that degree of consistency and readi- 
ness of assimilation which renders it most congenial to the 
human stomach, most easy of digestion, and most promotive 
of human health. Of it, almost alone, can it be said that it is 
our food in sickness, as well as in health ; its broth is the first 
thing, generally, that an invalid is permitted to taste, the first 
thing that he relishes, and is a natural preparation for his 
return to his natural aliment. In the same circumstances, it 
appears that fresh mutton, broiled or boiled, requires three 
hours for digestion; fresh mutton, roasted^ three and one- 
fourth hours ; and mutton-suet, boiled, four and one-half hours. 

Good ham may be made of any part of a carcass of mutton, 
though the leg is preferable ; and for this purpose it is cut in 



DRI\T[NO AND SLAUGHTERINO. 191 

the English fashion. It should be rubbed all over with good 
salt, and a little saltpetre, for ten minutes, and then laid in a 
dish and covered with a cloth for eight or ten days. After 
that, it should be slightly rubbed again, for about five minutes, 
and then hung up in a dry place, say the roof of the kitchen, 
until used. Wether mutton is used for hams, because it is 
fat, and it may be cured any time from November to May ; but 
ram-mutton makes the largest and highest-flavored ham, pro- 
vided it be cured in spring, because it is out of season in 
autumn. 

There is an infallible rule for ascertaining the age of mutton 
by certain marks on the carcass. Observe the color of the 
breast-bone, when a sheep is dressed — that is, where the 
breast-bone is separated — which, in a lamb, or before it is one 
year old, will be quite red ; from one to two years old, the 
upper and lower bone will be changing to white, and a small 
circle of white will appear round the edges of the other bones, 
and the middle part of the breast-bone will yet continue red ; 
at three years old, a very small streak of red will be seen in 
the middle of the four middle bones, and the others will be 
white ; and at four years, all the breast-bone will be of a white 
or gristly color. 

CoNTRiBrTTONS TO MANUFACTURES. The products of sheep 
are not merely useful to man ; they provide his luxuries as 
well. The skin of sheep is made into leather, and, when so 
manufactured with the fleece on, makes comfortable mats for 
the doors of rooms, and rugs for carriages. For this purpose, 
the best skins are selected, and such as are covered with the 
longest and most beautiful fleece. Tanned sheep-skin is used 
in coarse book-binding. White sheep-skin, which is not 



192 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES, 

tanned, but so manufactured by a peculiar process, is used as 
aprons by many classes of workmen, and, in agriculture, as 
gloves in the harvest ; and, when cut into strips, as twine for 
sewing together the leather coverings and stuffings of horse- 
collars. Morocco leather is made of sheep-skins, as well as of 
goat-skins, and the bright red color is given to it by cochineal. 
Russia leather is also made of sheep-skins, the peculiar odor 
of which repels insects from its vicinity, and resists the mould 
arising from damp, the odor being imparted to it in currying, 
by the empyreumatic oil of the bark of the birch-tree. Besides 
soft leather, sheep-skins are made into a fine, flexible, thin 
substance, known by the name oi parchment ; and, though the 
skins of all animals might be converted into writing materials, 
only those of the sheep and the she-goat are used for parch- 
ment. The finer quality of the substance, called vellum, is 
made of the skins of kids and dead-born lambs ; and for its 
manufacture the town of Strasburgh has long been celebrated. 

Mutton-suet is used in the manufacture of common candles, 
with a proportion of ox-tallow. Minced suet, subjected to the 
action of high-pressure steam in a digester, at two hundred 
and fifty or two hundred and sixty degrees of Fahrenheit, 
becomes so hard as to be sonorous when struck, whiter, and 
capable, when made into candles, of giving very superior light. 
Stearic candles, the invention of the celebrated Guy Lussac, 
are manufactured solely from mutton-suet. 

Besides the fat, the intestines of sheep are manufactured 
into various articles of luxury and utility, which pass under 
the absurd name of catgut. All the intestines of sheep are 
composed of four layers, as in the horse and cattle. The 
outer, or peritoneal one, is formed of that membrane, by which 



DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING. 193 

<every portion of the belly and its contents is invested, and 
couGned in its natural and proper situation. It is highly 
smooth and polished, and secretes a watery fluid which con- 
tributes to preserve that smoothness, and to prevent all fric- 
tion and concussion during the different motions of the animal. 
The second is the muscular coat, by mean^ of which the con- 
tents of the intestines are gradually propelled from the 
stomach to the rectum, thence to be expelled when all the 
useful nutriment is extracted. The muscles, as in all the 
other intestines, are disposed in two layers, the fibres of the 
outer coat taking a longitudinal direction, and the inner layer 
being circular — an arrangement different from that of the 
liuiscles of the oesophagus, and in both beautifully adapted to 
the respective functions of the tube. The submucous coat 
comes next. It is composed of numerous glands, surrounded 
by cellular tissue, and by which the inner coat is lubricated, so 
that there may be no obstruction to the passage of the food. 
The mucous coat is the soft villous one lining the intestinal 
cavity. In its healthy state, it is always covered with mucus ; 
and when the glands beneath are stimulated, as under the 
action of physic, the quantity of mucus is increased ; it 
becomes of a more watery character ; the contents of the 
intestines are softened and dissolved by it ; and by means of 
the increased action of the muscular coat, which, as well as 
the mucous one, feels the stimulus of the physic, the fceces are 
hurried on more rapidly and discharged. 

In the manufacture of some sorts of cords from the intestines 
of sheep, the outer peritoneal coat is taken off and manufactured 
into a thread to sew intestines, and make the cords of rackets 

and battledores. Future washings cleanse the guts, which 
13 



194 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

are then twisted into cafferent-sized cords for various purposes ; 
some of the best known of which arc whip-cords, hatter's cords 
for bow-strings, clock-maker's cords, baudd for spinning-wheels, 
now almost obsolete, and fiddle and harp-strings. Of the 
last class, the cords manufactured in Italy are superior in 
goodness and strength ; and the reason assigned is, that the 
sheep of that country are both smaller and leaner than the 
breeds most in vogue in England and in this country. The 
difficulty in manufacturing from other breeds of sheep lies, it 
seems, in making the treble strings from the fine peritoneal 
coat, their chief fault being weakness ; by reason of which the 
smaller ones are hardly able to bear the stretch required for 
the higher notes in concert-pitch, maintaining, at the same 
time, in their form and construction, that tenuity or small- 
ness of diameter which is required in order to produce a 
brilliant and clear tone. 




The dry and healthful 

climate, the rolling surface, and the sweet and 

varied herbage, which generally prevail in the United States, 

insure perfect health to an originally sound and well-selected 

flock, unless they are peculiarly exposed to disease. No 

country is better suited to sheep than most of the Northern 

and some of the Southern portions of our own. In Europe, 

and especially in England, where the sj^stem of management 

is, necessarily, in the highest degree artificial, consisting, 

frequently, in an early and continued forcing of the system, 

folding on wet, ploughed ground, and the excessive use of that 

watery food, the Swedish turnip, there are numerous and 

195 • 



196 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

fatal diseases, a long list of which invariably cumbers the 
pages of foreign writers on this animal. 

The diseases incident to our flocks, on the contrary, may 
generally be considered as casualties, rather than as inbred, or 
necessarily arising from the quality of food, or from local 
causes. It may be safely asserted that, with a dry pasture, 
well stocked with varied and nutritious grasses ; a clear, run- 
ning stream ; sufficient shade and protection against severe 
storms ; a constant supply of salt, tat, and sulphur in summer; 
good hay, and sometimes roots, with ample shelters in winter 
— young sheep, originally sound and healthy, will seldom or 
never become diseased on American soil. 

The comparatively few diseases, which it may be necessary 
here to mention, are arranged in alphabetical order — as in the 
author's " Cattle and their Diseases" — for convenience of 
reference, and treated in the simplest manner. Remedies of 
general application, to be administered often by the unskilful 
and ignorant, must neither be elaborate nor complicated ; and, 
if expensive, the lives of most sheep would be dearly purchased 
by their application. 

A sheep, which has been reared or purchased at the ordinary 
price, is the only domestic animal which can die without 
material loss to its owner. The wool and felt will, in most 
instances, repay its cost, while the carcass of other animals 
will be worthless, except for manure. The loss of sheep, from 
occasional disease, will leave the farmer's pocket in a very 
different condition from the loss of an equal value in horses or 
cattle. Humanity, however, alike with interest, dictates the 
use of such simple remedies, for the removal of suffering and 
disease, as may be within reach. 



ADMINISTERING MEDICINE — BLEEDING. 19T 

ADMINISTEEING MEDICINE. 

The stomach into which medicines are to be administered 
is the fourth, or digesting stomach. The comparatively in- 
sensible walls of the rumen, or paunch, are but slightly acted 
upon, except by doses of very improper magnitude. Medicine, 
to reach the fourth stomach, should be given in a state as 
nearly approaching fluidity as may be. Even then it may be 
given in such a manner as to defeat the object in view. 

If the animal forcibly gulps fluids down, or if thejj are given 
hastily and bodily, they will follow the caul at the base of the 
gullet with considerable momentum, force asunder the pillars, 
and enter the rumen ; if they are drunk more slowly, or ad- 
ministered gently, they will trickle down the throat, glide 
over these pillars, and pass on through the maniplus to the 
true stomach. 



BLEEDIWG. 

Bleeding from the ears or tail, as is commonly practised, 
rarely extracts a quantity of blood sufficient to do any good 
where bleeding is indicated. To bleed from the eye-vein, the 
point of a knife is usually inserted near the lower extremity 
of the pouch below the eye, pressed down, and then a cut 
made inward toward the middle of the face. 

Bleeding from the angular or cheek-vein is recommended, in 
the lower part of the cheek, at the spot where the root of the 
fourth tooth is placed, which is the thickest part of the cheek, 
and is marked on the external surface of the bone of the upper 
jaw by a tubercle, sufficiently prominent to be very sensible 
to the finger when the skin of the cheek is touched. This 



198 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

tubercle is a certain index to the angular vein, which is placed 
below. The shepherd takes the sheep between his legs; his 
left hand more advanced than his right, which he places under 
the head, and grasps the under jaw near to the hinder ex- 
tremity, in order to press the angular vein, which passes in 
that place, for the purpose of making it swell ; he touches the 
right cheek at the spot nearly equidistant from the eye and 
mouth, and there finds the tubercle which is to guide him, and 
also feels the angular vein swelled below this tubercle ; he 
then makes the incision from below upward, half a finger's 
breadth below the middle of the tubercle. When the vein is 
no longer pressed upon, the bleeding will commonly cease ; if 
not, a pin may be passed through the lip^ of the orifice, and a 
lock of wool tied round them. 

For thorough bleeding, the jugular vein is generally to be 
preferred. The sheep should be firmly held by the head by 
an assistant, and the body confined between his knees, with its 
rump against a wall. Some of the wool is then cut away 
from the middle of the neck over the jugular vein, and a liga- 
ture, brought in contact with the neck by opening the wool, is 
tied around it below the shorn spot near the shoulder. The 
vein will soon rise. The orifice may be secured, after bleeding, 
as before described. 

The good effects of bleeding depend almost as much on the 
rapidity with which the blood is abstracted, as the amount 
taken. This is especially true in acute diseases. Either bleed 
rapidly or do not bleed at all. The orifice in the vein, there- 
fore, should be of some length, and made lengthwise with the 
vein. A lancet is by far the best implement ; and even a 
short-pointed penknife is preferable to the bungling gleam. 



FEELING THE PULSE. 199 

Bleeding, moreover, should always be resorted to, when it is 
indicated at all, as nearly as possible to the commencement of 
the malady. 

The amount of blood drawn should never be determined by 
admeasurement, but by constitutioiial effect — the lowering of 
the pulse, and indications of weakness In urgent cases — 
apoplexy, or cerebral inflammation, for example — it would be 
proper to bleed until the sheep staggers or falls. The quantity 
of blood in the sheep is less, in comparison, than that in the 
horse or ox. The blood of the horse constitutes about one- 
eighteenth part of his weight ; and that of the ox at least one- 
twentieth ; while that of the sheep, in ordinary condition, is 
one-twenty-second. For this reason, more caution should be 
exercised in bleeding the latter, especially in frequently resort- 
ing to it ; otherwise, the vital powers will be rapidly and 
fatally prostrated. Many a sheep has been destroyed by 
bleeding freely in disorders not requiring it, and in disorders 
which did require it at the commencement, but of which the 
inflammatory stage had passed. 



FEELING THE PULSE. 

The number of pulsations can be determined by feeling the 
heart beat on the left side. The femoral artery passes in an 
oblique direction across the inside of the thigh, and about the 
middle of the thigh its pulsations and the character of the 
pulse can be most readily noted. The pulsations per minute, 
in a healthy adult sheep, are sixty-five in number ; though 
they have been stated at seventy, and even seventy-five. 



200 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

APOPLEXY. 

Soon after the sheep are turned to grass in the spring, one 
of the best-conditioned sheep in the flock is sometimes suddenly 
found dead. The symptoms which precede the catastrophe 
are occasionally noted. The sheep leaps frantically into the 
air two or three times, dashes itself on the ground, and 
suddenly rises, and dies in a few minutes. 

Where animals in somewhat poor condition are rather 
forced forward for the purpose of raising their condition, it 
sometimes happens that they become suddenly blind and 
motionless ; they will not follow their companions ; when 
approached, they run about, knocking their heads against 
fences, etc. ; the head is drawn round toward one side ; they 
fall, grind their teeth, and their mouths are covered with a 
frothy mucus. Such cases are, unquestionably, referable to a 
determination of blood to the brain. 

Treatment. If the eyes are prominent and fixed, the mem- 
branes of the mouth and nose highly florid, the nostrils highly 
dilated, and the respiration labored and stertorous, the veins 
of the head turgid, the pulse strong and rather slow, and these 
symptoms attended by a partial or entire loss of sight and 
hearing, it is one of those decided cases of apoplexy which 
require immediate and energetic treatment. Recourse should 
at once be had to the jugular vein, and the animal bled until 
an obvious constitutional efi'ect is produced — the pulse lowered, 
and the rigidity of the muscles relaxed. An aperient should 
at once follow bleeding ; and if the animal is strong and 
plathoric, a sheep of the size of the Merino would require at 
least two ounces of Epsom salts, and one of the large mutton 



BRAXy — BRONCHITIS 201 

sheep, more. If this should fail to open the bowels, half an 
ounce of the salts should be given, say twice a day. 



BRAXr. 

This is manifested by uneasiness ; loathing of food ; frequent 
drinking ; carrying the head down ; drawing the back up ; 
swollen belly ; feverish symptoms ; and avoidance of the flock. 
It appears mostly in late autumn and spring, and may be in- 
duced by exposure to severe storms, plunging in water when 
hot, and especially by constipation, brought on by feeding on 
frost-bitten, putrid, or indigestible herbage. Many sheep die 
on the prairies from this disease, induced by exposure and 
miserable forage. Entire prevention is secured by warm, dry 
shelters, and nutritious, dry food. 

Treatment. Remedies, to be successful, must be promptly 
applied. Bleed freely ; and to effect this, immersion in a tub 
of hot water may be necessary, in consequence of the stagnant 
state of the blood. Then give two ounces of Epsom salts, 
dissolved in warm water, with a handful of common salt. If 
this is unsuccessful, give a clyster, made with a pipeful of 
tobacco, boiled for a few minutes in a pint of water. Ad- 
minister half; and if this is not effectual, follow with the 
remainder. Then bed the animal in dry straw, and cover 
with blankets ; assisting the purgatives with warm gruels, 
followed by laxative provender till well. 



BRONCHITIS. 

Where sheep are subject to pneumonia, they are liable to 
bronchitis as well, which is an inflammation of the mucous 
membrane, which lines the bronchial tubes, or the air-pas- 



202 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

sages of the lungs. The symptoms are those of an ordinary 
cold, but attended with more fever, and a tenderness of the 
throat and belly when pressed upon. 

Treatment. Administer salt in doses of from one and a half 
to two ounces, with six or eight ounces of lime-water, given 
in some other part of the day. 



CATARRH. 

This is an inflammation of the mucous membrane, which 
lines the nasal passages, and it sometimes extends to the 
larynx and pharynx. In the first instance — where the lining 
of the nasal passages is alone and not very violently affected — 
it is merely accompanied by an increased discharge of mucus, 
and is rarely attended with much danger. In this form, it is 
usually termed snuffles ; and high-bred English mutton-sheep, 
in this country, are apt to manifest more or less of it, after 
every sudden change of weather. When the inflammation 
extends to the mucous lining of the larynx and the pharynx, 
some degree of fever usually supervenes, accompanied by 
cough, and some loss of appetite. At this point, blee'ding and 
purging are serviceable. 

Catarrh rarely attacks the American fine-woolled sheep 
with sufficient violence in summer to require the application 
of remedies. Depletion, in catarrh, in our severe winter 
months, however, rapidly produces that fatal prostration, from 
which it is almost impossible to bring the sheep back, without 
bestowing an amount of time and care upon it, costing far 
more than the worth of an ordinary animal. 

The best course is to prevent the disease by judicious pre- 
caution. With that amount of attention which every prudent 



MALIGNANT EPIZOOTIC CATARRH. 203 

farmer should bestow on his sheep, the American Merino is 
but little subject to it. Good, comfortable, and well-ventilated 
shelters, constantly accessible to the sheep in winter, with a 
sufficiency of food regularly administered, are usually a suffi- 
cient safeguard. 



MALIGNANT EPIZOOTIC CATARRH. 

Essentially differing, in type and virulence, from the preced- 
ing, is an epidemic, or, more properly speaking, an epizootic 




AN ENGLISH RACK FOB FEEDING SHEEP. 



malady, which, as often as once in every eight or ten years, 
sweeps over extended sections of the Northern States, destroy- 
ing more sheep than all other diseases combined. It com- 
monly makes its appearance in winters characterized by rapid 
and violent changes of temperature, which are spoken of by 
the farmers as " bad winters" for sheep. The disease is some- 
times termed the "distemper," and also, but erroneously, 
" grub in the head." The winter of 1846-Y proved peculiarly 
destructive to sheep in IS'ew York, and some of the adjoining 
States ; seme owners losing one-half, others three-quarters, and 
a few seven-eighths, of their flocks. One person lost five 



204 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

hundred out of eight hundred ; another, nine hundred out of a 
thousand. These severe losses, however, mainly fell on the 
holders of the delicate Saxons, and perhaps, generally, on 
those possessing not the best accommodations, or the greatest 
degree of energy and skill. 

Symptoms. The primary and main disease, in such instances, 
is a species of catarrh ; differing, however, from ordinary 
catarrh in its diagnosis, and in the extent of the lesions ac- 
companying both the primary and the symptomatic diseases. 
The animals affected do not, necessarily, at first show any 
signs of violent eolds, as coughing, sneezing, or labored respi- 
ration ; the only indications of catarrh noticed, oftentimes, 
being a nasal discharge. Animals having this discharge 
appear dull and drooping ; their eyes run a little, and are 
partially closed ; the caruncle and lids look pale ; their move- 
ments are languid, and there is an indisposition to eat ; the 
pulse is nearly natural, though at times somewhat too languid. 
In a few days these symptoms are evidently aggravated ; 
there is rapid emaciation, accompanied with debility ; the 
countenance is exceedingly dull and drooping ; the eye is 
kept more than half closed; the caruncle, lids, etc., are almost 
bloodless ; a gummy, 3^ellow secretion about the eye ; thick, 
glutinous mucus adhering in and about the nostrils ; appetite 
feeble ; pulse languid; and muscular energy greatly prostrated. 
They rapidly grow weaker, stumble, and fall as they walk, 
and soon become unable to rise ; the appetite grows feebler ; 
the mucus at the nose is, in some instances, tinged with dark, 
grumous blood ; the respiration becomes oppressed ; and the 
animals die within a day or two after they become unable to 
rise. Upon a, post-mortem examination, the mucous membrane 



COLIC. 205 

lining the whole nasal cavity is found highly congested and 
thickened throughout its entire extent, accompanied with the 
most intense inflammation ; slight ulcers are found on the 
membranous lining, at the junction of the cellular ethmoid 
bones with the cribriform plate, in the ethmoidal cells ; and 
the inflammation extends to the mucous membrane of the 
pharynx, and some inches, from two to four, of the upper 
portion of the oesophagus. 

No sheep, affected with this disease, recovers after emacia- 
tion and debility have proceeded to any great extent. In the 
generality of instances, the time, from the first observed 
symptoms until death, varies from ten to fifteen days ; although 
death, in some cases, results more speedily. 

Treatment. Nothing has been found so serviceable as 
mercury, which, from its action on the entire secretory system, 
powerfully tends to relieve the congested membranes of the 
head. Dissolve one grain of bi-chloride of mercury — corrosive 
sublimate — in two ounces of water ; and give one-half ounce 
of the water, or one-eighth of a grain of corrosive sublimate, 
daily, in two doses. To stimulate and open the bowels, give, 
also, rhubarb in a decoction, the equivalent of ten or fifteen 
grains at a dose, accompanied with the ordinary carminative 
and stomachic adjuvants, ginger and gentian in infusion. 



COLIC. 

Sheep are occasionally seen, particularly in the winter, 
lying down and rising every moment or two, and constantly 
stretching their fore and hind legs so far apart that their bellies 
almost touch the ground. They appear to be in much pain, 
refuse all food, and not unfrequently die, unless relieved. 



206 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

This disease, popularly known as the " stretches," is errone- 
ously attributed to an involution of one part of the intestine 
within another ; it being, in reality, a species of flatulent 
colic, induced by costiveness. 

Treatment. Half an ounce of Epsom salts, a drachm of 
Jamaica ginger, and sixty drops of essence of peppermint. 
The salts alone, however, will efiect the cure ; as will, also, an 
equivalent dose of linseed oil, or even hog's lard. 



COSTIVENESS, 
This difficulty is removed by giving two table-spoonfuls of 
castor oil every twelve hours, till the trouble ceases ; or give 
one ounce of Epsom salts. This may be assisted by an injec- 
tion of warm weak suds and molasses. 



DIABBHCEA. 

Common diarrhoea — purging, or scours — manifests itself 
simply by the copiousness and fluidity of the alvine evacua- 
tions. It is generally owing to improper food, as bad hay, or 
noxious weeds ; to a sudden change, as from dry food to fresh 
grass ; to an excess, as from overloading the stomach ; and 
sometimes to cold and wet. It is important to clearly dis- 
tinguish this disease from dysentery. In diarrhoea, there is no 
apparent general fever ; the appetite remains good ; the stools 
are thin and watery, but unaccompanied with slime, or mucus, 
and blood ; odor of the faeces is far less offensive than in 
dysentery ; and the general condition of the animal is but little 
changed. When it is light, and not of long continuance, no 
remedy is called for, since it is a healthful provision of Nature 



DISEASE OF THE BIFLEX CANAL. 207 

for the more rapid expulsion of some offending matter in the 
system, which, if retained, might lead to disease. 

Treatment. Confinement to dry food for a day or two, and 
a gradual return to it, often suffices, in the case of grown 
sheep. With Iambs, especially if attacked in the fall, the 
disease is more serious. If the purging is severe, and 
especially if any mucus is observed with the fseces, the 
feculent matter should be removed from the bowels by a gentle 
cathartic ; half a drachm of rhubarb, or an ounce of linseed 
oil, or half an ounce of Epsom salts to a lamb. This should 
be followed by an astringent ; and, in nine cases out of ten, the 
latter will serve in the first instance. Give one quarter of an 
ounce of prepared chalk in half a pint of tepid milk, once a 
day for two or three days ; at the end of which, and frequently 
after the first dose, the purging will have ordinarily abated, 
or entirely ceased. 

" Sheep's cordial" is also a safe and excellent remedy — in 
severe cases, better than simple chalk and milk. Take of 
prepared chalk, one ounce ; powdered catechu, half an ouuce ; 
powdered Jamaica ginger, two drachms ; and powdered opium, 
half a drachm ; mix with half a pint of peppermint water ; 
give two or three table-spoonfuls morning and night to a grown 
sheep, and half that quantity to a lamb. 



DISEASE OP THE BIFLEX CAWAL. 

From the introduction of foreign bodies into the biflex canal, 
or from other causes, it occasionally becomes the seat of 
inflammation. This canal is a small orifice, opening externally 
on the point of each pastern, immediately above the cleft 
between the toes. It bifurcates within, a tube passing down 



208 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

on each side of the iuner face of the pastern, winding round 
and ending in a cul de sac. Inflammation of this canal causes 
an enlargement and redness of the pastern, particularly about 
the external orifice of the canal. The toes are thrown wide 
apart by the tumor. It rarely attacks more than one foot, and 
should not be allowed to proceed to the point of ulceration, 
which it will do, if neglected. There is none of that soreness 
and disorganization between the back part of the toes, and 
none of that peculiar fetor which distinguishes the hoof-ail, 
with which disease it is sometimes confounded. 

Treatment. Scarify the coronet, making one or two deeper 
incisions in the principal swelling around the month of the 
canal : and cover the foot with tar. 



DYSENTERY. 

This is occasioned by an inflammation of the mucous or 
inner coat of the larger intestines, causing a preternatural 
increase in their secretions, and a morbid alteration in their 
character. It is frequently consequent on that form of diarrhoea, 
which is caused by an inflammation of the mucous coat of the 
smaller intestines. The inflammation extends throughout the 
whole alimentary canal, increases in virulence, and becomes 
dysentery, a disease frequently dangerous and obstinate in its 
character, but, fortunately, not common among sheep, generally, 
in the United States. Its diagnosis differs from that of 
diarrhoea, in several readily observed particulars. There is 
evident fever ; the appetite is capricious, commonly very 
feeble ; the stools are as thin as in diarrhcea, or even thinner, 
but much more adhesive, in consequence of the presence of 
large quantities of mucus. As the er.osion of the intestines 



FLIES — FOULS. 209 

advances, the feces are tinged with blood ; their odor is in- 
tolerably oflfensive ; and the animal rapidly wastes away, the 
course of the disease extending from a few days to several 
weeks. 

Treatment. Moderate bleeding should be resorted to, in 
the first or inflammatory shape, or whenever decided febrile 
symptoms are found to be present. Two doses of physic 
having been administered, astringents are serviceable. The 
"sheep's cordial," already described, is as good as any; and 
to this, tonics may soon begin to be added; an additional 
quantity of ginger may enter into the composition of the 
cordial, and gentian powder will be an useful auxiliary. 
With this, as an excellent stimulus to cause the sphincter of 
the anus to contract, and also the mouths of the innumerable 
secretory and exhalent vessels opening on the inner surface of 
the intestines, a half grain of strychnine may be combined. 
Smaller doses should be given for three or four days. 



FLIES. 

The proper treatment, upon the appearance of flies or 
maggots, has already been detailed under the head of " Feed- 
ing AND Management," to which the reader is referred. 



FOULS. 

Sneep are much less subject to this disease than cattle are ; 
but encounter it, if kept in wet, filthy yards, or on moist, 
poachy ground. It is an irritation of the integument in the 
cleft of the foot, slightly resembling incipient hoof-ail, and 
producing lameness. It occasions, however, no serious struc- 
tural disorganization, disappears without treatment, is not 
14 



210 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

contagious, and appears in the wet weather of spring and fall, 
instead of in the dry, hot period of summer, when the hoof-ail 
rages most. A little solution of blue vitriol, or a little spirits 

of turpentine — either followed by a coating of warm tar 

promptly cures it. 

For foul noses, dip a small swab in tar, then roll it in salt ; 
put some on the nose, and compel the sheep to swallow a 
small quantity. 



FBACTUEES. 

If there be no wound of the soft parts, the bone simply 
being broken, the treatment is extremely easy. Apply a 
piece of wet leather, taking care to ease' the limb when swell- 
ing supervenes. When the swelling is considerable, and fever 
present, the best course is to open a vein of the head or neck, 
allowing a quantity of blood to escape, proportioned to the 
size and condition of the animal, and the urgency of the 
symptoms. Purgatives in such cases should never be ne- 
glected. Epsom salts, in ounce doses, given either as a gruel 
or a drench, will be found to answer the purpose well. If the 
broken bones are kept steady, the cure will be complete in 
from three to four weeks, the process of reunion always pro- 
ceeding faster in a young than in an old sheep. Should the 
soft parts be injured to any extent, or the ends of the bone 
protrude, recovery is very uncertain ; and it will become a 
question whether it would not be better to convert the animal 
at once into mutton. 



GARGET — GOITEE. 211 

GARGET. 

This is an inflammation of the udder, sometimes known as 
" caked bag," with or without general inflammation. Where 
it is simply an inflammation of the udder, it is usually caused 
by too great an accumulation of milk in the latter prior to 
lambing, or in consequence of the death of the lamb. 

Treatment. Drawing the milk partly from the bag, so that 
the hungry lamb will butt and work at it an unusual time in 
pursuit of its food, and bathing it a few times in cold water, 
usually suflBces. If the lamb is dead, the milk should be 
drawn a few times, at increasing intervals, washing the udder 
for some time in cold water at each milking. In cases of 
obdurate induration, the udder should be aaiointed with iodine 
ointment. If there is general fever in the system, an ounce 
of Epsom salts may be given. If suppuration forms, the part 
affected should be opened with the lancet. 



GOITRE. 

The "swelled neck" in lambs is, like the goitre, or bron- 
chocele, an enlargement of the thyroid glands, and is strikingly 
analogous to that disease, if not identical with it. It is 
congenital. The glands at birth are from the size of a pigeon's 
egg to that of a hen's egg, though more elongated and 
flattened than an egg in their form. The lamb is exceedingly 
feeble, and often perishes almost without an effort to suck. 
Many even make no effort to rise, and die as soon as they are 
dropped. It is rare, indeed, that one lives. 

A considerable number of lambs annually perish from this 
disease, which does not appear to be an epizootic, though 



212 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

it is more prevalent in some seasons than in others. It does 
not seem to depend upon the water, or any other natural 
circumstances of a region, as goitre is generally supposed to, 
since it may not prevail in the same flock, or on the same 
farm, once in ten years ; nor can it be readily traced to any 
particular kind of food. When it does appear, however, its 
attacks are rarely isolated ; from which circumstance some 
have inferred that it is induced by some local or elimentary 
cause. Losses from this disease have ranged from ten per 
cent, to twenty, thirty, and even fifty per cent, of the whole 
number of lambs. Possibly, high condition in the ewes may 
be one of the inducing causes. 

Treatment. None is known which will reach the case. 
Should one having "the disease chance to live, it would scarcely 
be worth while to attempt reducing the entanglement of the 
glands Perhaps keeping the breeding-ewes uniformly in 
fair, plump, but not high condition, would be as effectual a 
preventive as any. » 

GRUB IN THE HEAD. 

What is popularly known as the "grub" is the larva of the 
oestrus oris, or gad-fly of the sheep. It is composed of five 
rings ; is tiger-colored on the back and belly, sprinkled with 
spots and patches of brown ; its wings are striped. 

The sheep gad-fly is led by instinct to deposit its eggs 
within the nostrils of the sheep. Its attempts to do this — 
most common in July, August, and September — are always 
indicated by the sheep, which collect in close clumps, with 
their heads inward, and their noses thrust close to the ground, 
and into it, if any loose dirt or sand is within reach. If the 



GRUB IN THE HEAD. 213 

flj succeeds in depositing its egg, the latter is immediately 
hatched by the warmth and moisture of the part, and the 
young grubs, or larvae, crawl up the nose, finding their devious 
way to the sinuses, where, by means of their tentaculse, or 
feelers, they attach themselves to the mucous membrane lining 
those cavities. During the ascent of the larvae, the sheep 
stamps, tosses its head violently, and often dashes away, from 
its companions wildly over the field. The larvse remain on 
the sinuses, feeding on the mucus secreted by the membrane, 
and apparently creating no further annoyance, until ready to 
assume 4heAv pupa form in the succeeding spring. 

Having remained in the sinuses during the fall and winter, 
they abandon them as the warm weather approaches in the 
latter part of spring. They crawl down the nose, creating 
even greater irritation and excitement than when they origi- 
nally ascended, drop on the ground, and rapidly burrow into 
it. In a few hours, the skin of the larvos has contracted, 
become of a dark-brown color, and it has assumed the form of 
chrysalis. This fly never eats ; the male, after impregnating 
two or three females, dies; and the latter, having deposited 
their ova in the nostrils of the sheep, also soon perish. 

The larvae in the heads of sheep may, and probably do, add 
to the irritation of those inflammatory diseases, such as catai'rh, 
which attack the membranous lining of the nasal cavities ; and 
they are a powerful source of momentary irritation in the first 
instance, when ascending to, and descending from, their lodg- 
ing-place in the head. But in the interval between these 
events, extending over a period of several months, not a move- 
ment of the sheep indicates the least annoyance a^ their 
presence. They are, moreover, found in the heads of nearly 



214 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

all sheep, the healthy as well as the diseased, at the proper 
season. 

Treatment. Though the presence of the grub constitutes 
no disease, some think it well to diminish their number by all 
convenient means. One simple way of effecting this is, by 
turning up with a plough a furrow of earth in the sheep- 
pasture, into which the sheep will thrust their noses on the 
approach of the cestrus, and thus many of them escape its 
attacks. Some farmers smear the noses of their sheep occa- 
sionally with tar, the odor of which is believed to repel the 
fly. Another plan, deemed efficacious in dislodging the larvae 
from the sinuses, is as follows : Take half a pound of good 
Scotch snuff, and two quarts of boiling water ; stir, and let it 
stand till cold. Inject about a table-spoonful of this liquid 
and sediment up each nostril, with a syringe ; repeat this three 
or four times, at intervals, from the middle of October till 
January. The efficacy ot the snuff will be increased by adding 
half an ounce of asafcetida, pounded in a little water. The 
effects on the sheep are immediate prostration and apparent 
death ; but they will soon recover. A decoction of tobacco 
affords a substitute for snuff ; and some recommend blowing 
tobacco smoke through the tail of a pipe into each nostril. 



HOOF-AIL. 

The first symptom of this troublesome malady, known, like- 
wise, as foot-ail, which is ordinarily noticed, is a lameness of 
one or both of the forefeet. On daily examining, however, 
the feet of a flock which have the disease among them, it will 
readiljfbe seen that the lesions manifest themselves for several 
days before they are followed with lameness. 



HOOP-AIL. 215 

The horny covering of the sheep's foot extends up, gradually- 
thinning out, some way between the toes and divisions of the 
hoof, and above these horny walls the cleft is lined with skin. 
"When the points of the toes are spread apart, this skin is 
shown in front, covered with short, soft hair. The back part 
of the toes, or the heels, can be separated only to a little 
distance, and the skin in the cleft above them is naked. In a 
healthy foot, the skin throughout the whole cleft is as firm, dry, 
and uneroded as on any other part of the animal. 

The first symptom of hoof-ail is a slight erosion, accom- 
panied with inflammation and heat of the naked skin in the 
hack parts of the clefts, immediately above the heels. The 
skin assumes a macerated appearance, and is kept moist by 
the presence of a sanious discharge from the ulcerated surface. 
As the inflammation extends, the friction of the parts causes 
pain, and the sheep limps. At this stage, the foot, externally, 
in a great majority of cases, exhibits not the least trace of 
disease, with the exception of a slight redness, and sometimes 
the appearance of a small sore at the upper edge of the cleft, 
when viewed from behind. 

The ulceration of the surface rapidly extends. The thin 
upper edges of the inner walls of the hoof are disorganized, 
and an ulceration is established between the hoof and the 
fleshy sole. A purulent fetid matter is discharged from the 
cavity. The extent of the separation increases daily, and the 
ulcers also form sinuses deep into the fleshy sole. The bottom 
of the hoof disappears, eaten away by the acrid matter, and 
the outer walls, entirely separated from the flesh, hang only 
by their attachments at the coronet. The whole fleshy sole is 
now entirely disorganized, and the entire foot is a mass of 



216 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

black, putrid ulceration ; or, as more commonlj happens, the 
flj has struck it, and a dense mass of writhing maggots cover 
the surface, and burrow in every cavity. 

The forefeet are generally first attacked ; and, most usually 
but one of them. The animal at first manifests but little 
constitutional disturbance, and eats as usual. By' the time 
that any considerable disorganization of the structures has 
taken place in the first foot, and sometimes sooner, the other 
forefoot is attacked. That becoming as lame as the first, the 
miserable animal seeks its food on its knees ; and, if forced to 
rise, its strange, hobbling gait betrays the intense agony 
occasioned by bringing its feet in contact •with the ground. 
There is a bare spot under the brisket, of the size of a man's 
hand, which looks red and inflamed. There is a degree of 
general fever, and the appetite is dull. The animal rapidly 
loses condition. The appearance of the maggot soon closes 
the scene. Where the rotten foot is brought in contact with 
the side, in lying down, the filthy, ulcerous matter adheres to, 
and saturates the short wool — it being but a month and a half, 
or two months, after shearing — and maggots are either carried 
there by the foot, or they are soon generated there. A black 
crust is speedily formed round the spot, which is the decom- 
position of the surrounding structures; and innumerable 
maggots are at work below, burrowing into the integuments 
and muscles, and eating up the wretched animal alive. The 
black, festering mass rapidly spreads, and the poor sufferer 
perishes, apparently in tortures the most excruciating. 

Sometimes but one forefoot is attacked, and subsequently 
one or both hind ones. There is no uniformity in this par- 
ticular ; and it is a singular fact that, when two or even three 



HOOF- AIL. 2 IT 

of the feet are dreadfully diseased, the fourth may be entirely 
sound. So, also, one foot may be cured, while every other 
one is laboring under the malady. The highly offensive odor 
of the ulcerated feet is so peculiar that it is strictly charac- 
teristic of the disease, and would reveal its character, to one 
familiar with it, in the darkest night. 

Hoof-ail is probably propagated in this country exclusively 
by inoculation — the contact of the matter of a diseased foot 
with the integuments lining the bifurcation of a healthy foot. 
That it is propagated in some of the ways classed under the 
ordinary designation of contagion, is certain. That it may be 
propagated by inoculation, has been established by experiment. 
The matter of diseased feet has been placed on the skin lining 
the cleft of a healthy foot under a variety of circumstances — 
sometimes when that skin is in its ordinary and natural state, 
sometimes after a very slight scorification, sometimes when 
macerated by moistui'e ; and under each of these circumstances 
the disease has been communicated. The same inference may 
be drawn, also, from the manner in which the disease attacks 
flocks. The whole, or any considerable number, though 
sometimes rapidly, are never simultaneously attacked, as 
would be expected, among animals so gregarious, if the disease 
could be transmitted by simple contact, inhaling the breath, or 
other effluvium. 

The matter of diseased feet is left on grass, straw, and 
other substances, and thus is brought in contact with the inner 
surfaces of healthy feet. ' Sheep, therefore, contract the disease 
from being driven over the pastures, yarded on the straw, etc., 
where diseased sheep have been, perhaps even days, before. 
The matter would probably continue to inoculate, until dried 



218 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

up by the air and heat, or washed away by the rains. The 
stiff, upright stems of closely mown grass, as on meadows, are 
almost as well calculated to receive the matter of diseased feet, 
and deposit it in the clefts of healthy ones, as any means which 
could be artificially devised. It is not entirely safe to drive 
healthy sheep over roads, and especially into washing-yards, 
or sheep houses, where diseased sheep have been, until rain 
has fallen, or sufficient time has elapsed for the matter to dry 
up. On the moist bottom of a washing-yard, and particularly 
in houses or sheds, kept from sun and wind and rain, this 
matter might be preserved for some time in a condition to in- 
oculate. 

When the disease has been well kept under during the first 
season of its attack, but not entirely eradicated, it will almost 
or entirely disappear as cold weather approaches, and it does 
not manifest itself until the warm weather of the succeeding 
summer. It then assumes a mitigated form ; the sheep are 
not rapidly and simultaneously attacked ; there seems to be 
less inflammatory action constitutionally, and in the diseased 
parts ; the course of the disease is less malignant and more 
tardy, and it more readily yields to treatment. If well kept 
under the second summer, it is still milder the third. A 
sheep will occasionally be seen to limp ; but its condition will 
scarcely be affected, and dangerous symptoms will rarely 
supervene. One or two applications made during the summer, 
in a manner presently to be described, will suffice to keep the 
disease under. At this point, a little vigor in the treatment 
will rapidly extinguish the disease. 

Treatment. The preparation of the foot, where any separate 
individual treatment is resolved upon, is always necessary, at 



HOOF- AIL. 219 

least in bad cases. Sheep sbould be yarded for the operation 
immediately after a rain, if practicable, as the hoofs can then 
be readily cut. In a dry time, and after a night which left no 
dew upon the grass, their hoofs are almost as tough as horn. 
They must bfr driven through no mud, or soft dung, on their 
way to the yard, which would double the labor of cleaning 
their feet. The yard should be small, so that they can be 
easily caught, and it must be kept well littered down, to prevent 
their filling their feet with their own excrement. If the straw 
is wetted, their hoofs will not, of course, dry and harden as 
rapidly as in dry straw. If the yard could be built over a 
shallow, gravelly-bottomed brook, it would be an admirable 
arrangement ; for this purpose, a portion of any little brook 
might be prepared, by planking the bottom, and widening it, 
if desirable. By such means the hoofs would To kept so soft 
that the greatest and most unpleasant part of the labor, as 
ordinarily performed, would be in a great measure saved, and 
they would be kept free from that dung which, by any other 
arrangement, will, more or less, get into their clefts. 

The principal operator seats himself on a chair, having 
within his reach a couple of good knives, a whetstone, the 
powerful toe-nippers already described, a bucket of water with 
a couple of linen rags in it, together with such medicines as 
may be deemed necessary. The assistant catches a sheep and 
lays it partly on its back and rump, between the legs of the 
foreman, the head coming up about to his middle. The 
assistant then kneels on some straw, or seats himself on a low 
stool at the hinder extremity of the sheep. If the hoofs are 
long, and especially if they are dry and tough, the assistant 
presents each foot to the operator who shortens the hoof with 



220 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

the toe-nippers. If there is any filth between the toes, each 
man takes his, rag from the bucket of water, and draws it 
between the toes, and rinses it, until the filth is removed 
Each then takes a knife, and the process of paring away the 
horn commences, upon the effectual performance of which all 
else depends. A glance at the foot will show whether it is 
the seat of the diseased action. The least experience cannot 
fail in properly settling this question. An experienced finger, 
even, placed upon the back of the pastern close above the heel, 
will at once detect the local inflammation, in the dark, by its 
heat. 

If the disease is in the first stage — that is, if there are 
merely erosion and ulceration of the cuticle and flesh in the 
cleft above tbe walls of the hoof — no paring is necessary. But 
if ulceration has established itself between the hoof and the 
fleshy sole, the ulcerated parts, however extensive, must be 
entirely stripped of their horny covering, no matter what 
amount of time and care it may require. It is better not to 
wound the sole so as to cause it to bleed freely, as the running 
blood will wash off the subsequent application ; but no fear of 
wounding the sole must prevent a full compliance with the 
rule laid down above. At the worst, the blood will stop flow- 
ing after a little while, during which time no application needs 
to be made to the foot. 

If the foot is in the third stage — a mass of rottenness, and 
filled with maggots — pour, in the first place, a little spirits of 
turpentine — a bottle of which, with a quill through the cork, 
should be always ready — on the maggots, and most of them 
will immediately decamp, and the others can be removed with 
a probe or small stick. Then remove every particle of loose 



HOOF- AIL. 221 

horn, though it should take the entire hoof, as it generally 
will in such cases. The foot should next be cleansed with a 
solution of chloride of lime, in the proportion of one pound of 
chloride to one gallon of water. If this is not at hand, plung- 
ing the foot repeatedly in hot water, just short of scalding hot, 
will answer every purpose. The great object is to clean the 
foot thoroughly. If there is any considerable "proud flesh," 
it should be removed with a pair of scissors, or by the actual 
cautery — hot iron. 

The following are some of the most popular remedies : 
Take two ounces of blue vitriol and two ounces of verdigris, 
tb a juuk-bottle of wine ; or spirits of turpentine, tar, and 
verdigris in equal parts ; or three quarts of alcohol, one pint 
of spirits of turpentine, one pint of strong vinegar, one pound 
of blue vitriol, one pound of copperas, one and a half pounds 
of verdigris, one pound of alum, and one pound of saltpetre, 
pounded fine ; mix in a close bottle, shake every day, and let 
it stand six or eight days before using ; also mix two pounds of 
honey and two quarts of tar, which must be applied after the 
preceding compound. Or apply diluted aquafortis — nitric 
acid — with a feather to the ulcerated surface ; or diluted oil of 
vitriol — sulphuric acid — in the same way ; or the same of 
muriatic acid ; or dip the foot in tar nearly at the boiling 
point. 

In the first and second stages of the disease, before the 
ulcers have formed sinuses into the sole, and wholly or 
partly destroyed its structure, the best application is a saturated 
solution of blue vitriol — sulphate of copper. In the third 
stage, when the foot is a. festering mass of corruption, after it 
has been cleansed as already directed, it requires some strong 



222 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

caustic to remove the unhealthy granulations — the dead 
muscular structures — and to restore healthy action. Lunar 
caustic, which is preferable to any other application, is too 
expensive ; chloride of antimony is excellent, but frequently 
unattainable in the country drug-stores ; and muriatic acid, or 
even nitric or sulphuric acids, may be u^ed instead. The 
diseased surface is touched with the caustic, applied with a 
swab, formed by fastening a little tow on the end of a stick, 
until the objects above pointed out are attained. The foot is 
then treated with the solution of blue vitriol, and subsequently 
coated over with tar which has been boiled, and is properly 
cooled, for the purpose of protecting the raw wound from dirf, 
flies, etc. Sheep in this stage of the disease should certainly 
be separated from the main flock, and looked to as often as 
once in three days. With this degree of attention, their cure 
will be rapid, and the obliterated structures of the foot will be 
restored with astonishing rapidity. 

The comrqon method of using the solution of blue vitriol is 
to pour it from a bottle with a quill in the cork, into the foot, 
when the animal lies on its back between the operators, as 
already described. In this way a few cents' worth of vitriol 
will answer for a large number of sheep. The method is, 
however, imperfect ; since, without extraordinary care, there 
will almost always be some slight ulcerations not uncovered by 
the knife, which the solution will not reach, the passages to 
them being devious, and perhaps nearly or quite closed. The 
disease will thus be only temporarily suppressed, not cured. 

A flock of sheep which were in the second season of the 
disease, had been but little looked to during the summer, and 
as cold M-eather set in, many of them became considerably 



HOOP-AIL. 223 

lame, and some of them quite so. Their feet were thoroughly 
pared ; and into a large washing-tub, in which two sheep 
could conveniently stand, a saturated solution of blue vitriol 
and water, as hot as could be endured by the hand even for a 
moment, was poured. The liquid was about four inches deep 
on the bottom of the tub, and was kept at that depth by 
frequent additions of hot solution. As soon as a sheep's feet 
were pared, it was placed in the tub, and held there by the 
neck. A second one was then prepared, and placed beside it; 
when the third was ready, the first was taken out ; and so on. 
Two sheep were thus constantly in the tub, each remaining 
some five minutes. The cure was perfect ; there was not a 
lame sheep in the flock during the winter or the next summer. 
The hot liquid penetrated to every cavity of the foot ; and 
doubtless had a far more decisive efiTect, even on the uncovered 
ulcers, than would have been produced by merely wetting 
them. The expense attending the operation was about four 
cents per sheep. Three such applications, at intervals of a 
week, would effectually cure the disease, since every new case 
would thus be arrested and cured before it would have time to 
inoculate others. It would, undoubtedly, accomplish this at 
any time of year, and even during the first and most malignant 
prevalence of the contagion, provided the paring was sufficiently 
thorough. The second and third parings would be a mere 
trifle ; and the liquid left at the first and second applications 
could again be used. Thus sheep could be cured at about 
twelve cents per head, which is much cheaper, in the long run, 
than any ordinary temporizing method, where the cost of a 
few pounds of blue vitriol is counted, but not the time con- 
sumed ; and the disease is thus kept lingering in the flock for 
years. 



224 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

Some Northern farmers drive their sheep over dusty roads 
as a remedy for this disease ; and in cases of ordinary viru- 
lence, especially where the disease is chronic, it seems to dry 
up the ulcers, and keep the malady under. Sheep are also 
sometimes cured by keeping them on a dry surface; and 
driving them over a barn-floor daily, which is well covered 
with quicklime. It may sometitmes, and under peculiar 
circumstances, be cured by dryness, and repeated washing 
with soap-suds. 

Many farmers select rainy weather as the time for doctoring 
their sheep. Their feet are then soft, and it is therefore on all 
accounts good economy, when the feet are to be pared, and 
each separately treated, provided they can be kept in sheep- 
houses, or under shelters of any kind, until the rain is over, 
and the grass again dry. If immediately let out in wet grass 
of any length, the vitriol or other application is measurably 
washed away. This is avoided by many, by dipping the feet 
in more tar — an admirable plan under such circumstances. 

A flock of sheep which have been cured of the hoof-ail, is 
considered more valuable than one which has never had it. 
They are far less liable to contract the disease from any 
casual exposure ; and its ravages are far less violent and 
general among them. 

This ailment should not be confounded with a temporary 
soreness, or inflammation of the hoof, occasioned by the 
irritation from the long, rough grasses which abound in low 
situations, which is removed with the cause ; or, if it con- 
tinues, white paint or tar may be applied, after a thorough 
washing. ^' 



HOOVE, 225 

HOOVE. 

This is not common, to any dangerous degree, among 
sheep ; but, if turned upon clover when their stomachs are 
empty, it will sometimes ensue. 

Hoove is a distension of the paunch by gas extricated from 
the fermentation of its vegetable contents, and evolved more 
rapidly, or in larger quantities, than can be neutralized by the 
natural alkaline secretions of the stomach. When the dis- 
tention is great, the blood is prevented from circulating in the 
vessels of the rumen, and is determined to the head. The 
diaphragm is mechanically obstructed from making its ordi- 
nary contractions, and respiration, therefore, becomes difficult 
and imperfect. Death, in such cases, soon supervenes. 

Treatment. In ordinary cases, gentle but prolonged driv- 
ing will effect a cure. When the animal appears swelled 
almost to bursting, and is disinclined to move, it is better to 
open the paunch at once. At the most protruberant point of 
the swelling, on the left side, a little below the hip bone, 
plunge a trocher or knife, sharp ^at the point and dull on the 
edge, into the stomach. The gas will rapidly escape, carrying 
with it some of the liquid and solid contents of the stomach. 
If no measures are taken to prevent it, the peristaltic motion, 
as well as the collapse of the stomach, will soon cause the 
orifices through the abdomen and paunch not to coincide, and 
thus portions of the contents of the former will escape into the 
cavity of the latter. 

However perfect the cure of hoove, these substances in the 
belly will ultimately produce fatal irritation. To prevent this, 
a canula, or little tube, should be inserted through both 
15 



226 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

orifices as soon as the puncture is made. Where the case is 
not imminent, alkalies have sometimes been successfully- 
administered, which combine with the carbonic acid gas, and 
thus at once reduce its volume. A flexible probang, or in 
default of it, a rattan, or grape-vine, with a knot on the end, 
may be gently forced down the gullet, and the gas thus per- 
mitted to escape. 

HYDATID OM" THE BRAIN. 

The symptoms of this disease, known as turnsick, sturdy, 
staggers, water in. the head, etc., are a dull, moping appearance, 
the sheep separating from the flock, a wandering and blue 
appearance of the eye, and sometimes partial or total blind- 
ness ; the sheep appears unsteady in its walk, will sometimes 
stop suddenly and fall down, at others gallop across the field, 
and, after the disease has existed for some time, will almost 
constantly move round in a circle — there seems, indeed, to be 
an aberration of the intellect of the animal. These symptoms, 
though rarely all present in the same subject, are yet suffi- 
ciently marked to prevent any mistake as to the nature of the 
disease. 

On examining the brain of sheep thus affected, what appears 
to be a watery bladder, called a hydatid, is found, which may 
be either small or of the size of a hen's egg. This hydatid, 
one of the class of entozoons, has been termed by naturalists 
the hydatis polycephalus cerebralis, or many-headed hydatid 
of the brain ; these heads being irregularly distributed on the 
surface of the bladder, and on the front part of each head there 
is a mouth surrounded by minute sharp hooks within a ring of 
sucking disks. These disks serve as the means of attachment, 



HYDATID ON THE BRAIN. 22t 

by forming a vacuum, and bring the mouth in contact with the 
surface, and thus, by the aid of the hooks, the parasite is 
nourished. Tlie coats of the hydatid are disposed in several 
layers, one of which appears to possess a muscular power. 
These facts are developed by the microscope, which also dis- 
closes numerous little bodies adhering to the internal mem- 
brane. T^he fluid in the bladdes is usually clear but occa- 
sionally turbid, and then it has been found to contain a number 
of minute worms. 

Treatment. This is deemed an almost incurable disorder. 
Where the hydatid is not imbedded in the brain, its constant 
pressure, singularly enough, causes a portion of the cranium to 
be absorbed, and finally the part immediately over the hydatid 
becomes thin and soft enough to yield under the pressure of 
the finger. 

When such a spot is discovered, the English veterinarians 
usually dissect back the muscular integuments, remove a 
portion of the bone, carefully divide the investing membranes 
of the brain, and then, if possible, remove the hydatid whole ; 
or, failing to do this, remove its fluid contents. The mem- 
branes and integuments are then restored to their position, 
and an adhesive plaster placed over the whole. The French 
veterinarians usually simply puncture the cranium and the 
cyst with a trochar, and laying the sheep on its back, allow 
the fluid to run out through the orifice thus made. A common 
awl would answer every purpose for such a puncture ; and 
the puncture is the preferable method for the unskilled practi- 
tioner. An instance is, indeed, recorded of a cure having 
been effected, where the animal had been given up, by boring 
with a gimlet into the soft place on the head,, when the water 



228 



SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 



rushed out, and the sheep immediately followed the others to 
the pasture. 

When, however, the hazard and cruelty attending the opera- 
tion, under the most favorable circumstances, are considered, 
as well as the conceded liability of a return of the malady — 
the growth of new hydatids — it is evident that in this country, 
it would not be worth while, except in the case of uncommonly 
valuable sheep, to adopt any other remedy than depriving the 
miserable animal of life. 



OBSTKUCTION" OF THE GULLET. 
After pouring a little oil in the throat, the obstructing 
substance which occasions the " choking," can frequently be 

removed up or down 
by external manipula- 
tion. If not, it may 
usually be forced down 
with the flexible pro- 
bang, described in 
" Cattle and their Dis- 
eases," or a flexible rod, 
the head of which is 
guarded by a knot, or a 
little bag of flax-seed. The latter having been dipped in hot 
water for a minute or two, is partly converted into mucilage, 
which constantly exudes through the cloth, and protects the 
oesophagus, or gullet, from laceration. But little force must 
be used, and the whole operation conducted with the utmost 
care and gentleness ; or the oesophagus will be so far lacerated 
as to produce death, although the obstruction is removed. 




>'^"^'^" ._iMss\<S 



A BARRACK FOR STORING SHEEP-FODDER. 



OPTHALMIA — PALSY. 229 

OPHTHALMIA. 

Ophthalmia, or inflammation of the eyes, is not uncommon 
in this country ; but it is little noticed, as, in most cases, it 
disappears in a few days, or, at worst, is only followed by 
cataract, which, being usually confined to one eye, does not 
appreciably effect the value of the animal, and therefore has no 
influence on its market price. 

Treatment. Som« recommend blowing pulverized red chalk 
in the inflamed eye ; others squirt into it tobacco juice. As a 
matter of humanity, blood may be drawn from under the eye, 
and the eye bathed in tepid water, and occasionally with a 
weak solution of the sulphate of zinc combined with tincture 
of opium. These latter applications diminish the pain, and 
hasten the cure. 



PALSY. 

Paralysis, or palsy, is a diminution or entire loss of the 
powers of motion in some parts of the body. In the winter, 
poor lambs, or poor pregnant ewes, or poor feeble ewes im- 
mediately after yeaning in the spring, occasionally lose the 
power of walking or standing rather too suddenly to have it 
referable to increasing debility. The animal seems to have 
lost all strength in its loins, and the hind-quarters are power- 
less ; it makes ineff'ectual attempts to rise, and cannot stand 
if placed upon its feet. 

Treatment. Warmth, gentle stimulants, and good nursing 
may raise the patient ; but, in the vast majority of cases, it is 
more economical and equally humane, to deprive it of life at 
once. 



230 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

PELT-EOT. 

This is often mistaken for the scab, but it is, in -fact, a dif- 
ferent and less dangerous disease. The wool falls off, and 
leaves the sheep nearly naked ; but it is attended with no 
soreness, though a redish crust will cover the skin, from the 
wool which has dropped. It generally arises from hard keep- 
ing and much exposure to cold and wet ; and, in fact, the 
animal often dies in severe weather from the cold it suffers on 
account of the loss of its coat. 

The remedy is full feeding, a warm stall, and anointing 
the hard part of the skin with tar, oil, and butter. Some, 
however, do nothing for it, scarcely considering it a disease. 
Such say that if the condition of a poor sheep is raised as 
suddenly as practicable, by generous keep in the winter, the 
wool is very apt to drop off; and, if yet cold, the sheep will 
require warm shelter. 



PJSTEUMOWIA. 

Pneumonia — or inflammation of the lungs — is not a common 
disease in the Northern States; but undoubted cases of it 
sometimes occur, after sheep have been exposed to sudden 
cold, particularly when recently shorn. The adhesions occa- 
sionally witnessed between the lungs and pleura of slaughtered 
sheep, betray the former existence of this disease in tlie 
animal — though, in many instances, it was so slight as to be 
mistaken, at the time, for a hard cold. 

Si/mpfoms. The animal is dull, ceases to ruminate, neglects 
its food, drinks frequently and largely, and its breathing is 
rapid and laborious ; the eye is clouded ; the nose discharges 



PNEUMONIA. 231 

a tenacious, fetid matter ; the teetli are ground frequently, so 
that the sound is audible at some distance ; the pulse is at 
first hard and rapid, sometimes intermits, but before death it 
becomes weak. During the height of the fever, the flanks 
heave violently ; there is a hard, painful cough during the first 
stages, which becomes weaker, and seems to be accompanied 
with more pain as death approaches. 

After death, the lungs are found more or less hepatized — 
that is, permanently condensed and engorged with blood, so 
that their structure resembles that of the hepar, or liver — and 
they have so far lost their integrity that they are torn asunder 
by the slightest force. It may here be remarked that when 
sheep die from any cause, with their blood in them, the lungs 
have a dark, hepatized appearance. Whether they are actually 
hepatized or not, can readily be decided by compressing the 
wind-pipe, so that air cannot escape through it, and then be- 
tween such compression and the body of the lungs, in a closely 
fitting orifice, inserting a goose-quill, or other tube, and con- 
tinuing to blow until the lungs are inflated as far as they can 
be. As they inflate, they will become of a lighter color, and 
plainly manifest their cellular structure. If any portions of 
them cannot be inflated, and retain their dark, liver-like consis- 
tence, and color, they exhibit hepatization — the result of high 
inflammatory action — and a state utterly incompatible, in the 
living animal, with the discharge of the natural functions of 
the viscus. 

Treatment. In the first, or inflammatory stages, bleeding 
and aperients are clearly called for. Some recommend early 
and copious bleeding, repeated, if necessary, in a few hours ; 
this followed by aperient medicines, such as two ounces of 



232 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

Epsom salts, which may be repeated in smaller doses, if the 
bowels are not sufficiently relaxed. The following sedative 
may also be given with gruel, twice a day: nitrate of potash, 
one drachm ; powdered digitalis, one scruple ; and tartarized 
antimony, one scruple. 

While depletion may be of inestimable value during the 
continuance — the short continuance — of the febrile state, yet 
excitation like this will soon be followed by corresponding 
exhaustion, when the bleeding and purging would be murder- 
ous expedients ; and gentian, ginger, and the spirits of nitrous 
ether will afford the only hope of cure. 



POISON. 

Sheep will often, in the winter or spring, eat greedily of the 
low laurel. The animal appears afterwai'd to be dull and 
stupid, swells a little, and is constantly gulping up a feverish 
fluid, which it swallows again ; a part of it will trickle out 
of its mouth, and discolor its lips. The plant probably, brings 
on a fermentation in the stomach, and nature endeavors to 
throw off the poisonous herb by retching or vomiting. 

Treatment. In the early stages, if the greenish fluid be 
allowed to escape from the stomach, the animal generally re- 
covers. To effect this, gag the sheep, which may be done in 
this manner: Take a stick of the size of the wrist, six inches 
]ong — place it in the animal's mouth — tie a string to one end 
of it, pass it over the head and down to the other end, and 
there make it fast. The fluid will then run from the mouth as 
fast as thrown up from the stomach. In addition to this, give 
roasted onions and sweetened milk freely. A better plan, how- 
ever, is to force a gill of melted lard down the throat ; or, boil 



ROT. 233 

for an hour the twigs of the white ash, and give one-half to 
one gill of the strong liquor immediately ; to be repeated, if 
not successful. Drenchers of milk and castor-oil are also 
recommended. 



HOT. 

This disease, which sometimes causes the death of a million 
of sheep, in England, in a single year, is comparatively un- 
known in this country. It prevails somewhat in the Western 
States, from allowing sheep to pasture on land that is over- 
flowed with water. Even a crop of green oats, early in the 
fall, before a frost comes, has been known to rot young sheep. 

Symptoms. The first are by no means strongly marked; 
there is no loss of condition, but rather the contrary, to all 
appearance. A paleness and want of liveliness of the mem- 
branes, generally, may be considered as the first symptoms, to 
which may be added a yellowness of the caruncle at the corner 
of the eye. When in warm, sultry, or rainy weather, sheep 
that are grazing on low and moist lands, feed rapidly, and 
some of them die suddenly, there is ground for fearing that 
they have contracted tl>e rot. This suspicion will be farther 
increased if, a few days afterward, the sheep begin to shrink 
and grow flaccid about the loins. By pressure about the hips 
at this time, a crackling is perceptible now or soon afterward, 
the countenance looks pale, and upon parting the fleece, the 
skin is found to have changed its vermilion tint for a pale red, 
and the wool is easily separated from the felt ; and as the 
disorder advances, the skin becomes dappled with yellow or 
black spots. To these symptoms succeed increased dullness, 
loss of condition, and greater paleness of the mucous mem- 



234 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES, 

branes, the eyelids becoming almost white, and afterward 
yellow. This yellowness extends to other parts of the body, 
and a watery fluid appears under the skin, the latter becom- 
ing loose and flabby, and the wool coming ofl" readily. The 
symptoms of dropsy often extend over the body, and some- 
times the sheep becomes chockered, as it is termed ; a large 
swelling forms under the jaw, which, from the appearance of 
the fluid which it contains, is sometimes called the watery 
poke. The duration ot the disease is uncertain ; the animal 
occasionally dies shortly after becoming affected, but more 
frequently it extends- to from three to six months, the sheep 
gradually losing flesh and pining away, particularly if, as is 
frequently the case, an obstinate purging supervenes. 

Post-mortem. The whole cellular tissue is found to be 
infiltrated, and a yellow serous fluid everywhere follows the 
knife. The muscles are soft and flabby, having the appearance 
of being macerated. The kidneys are pale, flaccid, and in- 
filtrated. The mesenteric glands are enlarged, and engorged 
with yellow serous fluid. The belly is frequently filled with 
water, or purulent matter; the peritoneum is everywhere 
thickened, and the bowels adhere together by means of an 
unnatural growth The heart is enlarged and softened, and 
the lungs are filled with tubercles. The principal alterations 
of structure are in the liver, which is pale, livid, and broken 
down with the slightest pressure ; and on being boiled, it will 
almost dissolve away. "When the liver is not pale, it is often 
curiously spotted ; in some cases it is speckled, like the back 
of a toad ; some parts of it, however, are hard and schirrous ; 
others are ulcerated, and the biliary ducts are filled with flukes. 
The malady is, unquestionably, inflammation of the liver. 



ROT. 235 

This fluke is from three-quarters of an inch to an inch and a 
quarter in length, and from one-third to one-half an inch in its 
greatest breadth. These fluke-worms undoubtedly aggravate 
the disease, and perpetuate a state of irritability and dis- 
organization, which must necessarily undermine the strength 
of any animal. 

Treatment. This must, to a considerable extent, be very 
uujiatisfactory. After the use of dry food and dry bedding, 
one of the best preventives is the abundant use of pure salt. 
In violent attacks, take eight, ten, or twelve ounces of blood, 
according to the circumstances of the case ; to this, let a dose 
of physic succeed — two or three ounces of Epsom salts ; and 
to these means add a change of diet, good hay in the field, and 
hay, straw, or chaff in the yard. After the operation of the 
physic — an additional dose having been administered, often- 
times, in order to quicken the action of the first — two or three 
grains of calomel may be given daily, mixed with half the 
quantity of opium, in order to secure its beneficial, and ward 
ofi" its injurious effects on the ruminant. To this should be 
added common salt, which acts as a purgative and a tonic 
A mild tonic, as well as an aperient, is plainly indicated soon, 
after the commencement of rot. The doses should be from 
two to three drachms, repeated morning and night. When 
the inflammatory stage is clearly passed, stronger tonics may 
be added to the salt, and there are none superior to the 
gentian and ginger roots ; from one to two drachms of each, 
finely pounded, may be added to each dose of the salt. The 
sheep having a little recovered from the disease, should still 
continue on the best and driest pasture on the farm, and 



236 



SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 



should always have salt within their reach. The rot is not 
infectious. 



SCAB. 



This is a cutaneous disease, analogous to the mange in 
horses and the itch in man, and is caused and propagated by a 
minute insect, the acarus. 

If one or more female acari are placed on the wool of a 
sound sheep, they quickly travel to the root of it, and bury 

themselves in the 
skin, the place at 
which they pene- 
trate being scarcely 
visible, or only dis- 
tinguishable by a 
minute red point. 
On the tenth or 
twelfth day, a little 
swelling may be detected with the finger, and the skin changes 
its color, and has a greenish blue tint. The pustule is now 
rapidly formed, and about the sixteenth day breaks, when the 
mothers again appear, with their little ones attached to their 
feet, and covered by a portion of the shell of the egg from 
which they have just escaped. These little ones immediately 
set to work, penetrate the neighboring skin, bury themselves 
beneath it, find their proper nourishment, and grow and propa- 
gate, until the poor creature has myriads of them preying 
upon him. It is not wonderful that, under such circumstances, 
he should speedily sink. The male acari, when placed on the 
sound skin of a sheep, will likewise burrow their way and 




THE BRO.\I)-TAILED SHEEP. 



SCAB. 23T 

disappear for a while, tlie pustule rising in due time ; but the 
itching and the scab soon disappear without the employment 
of any remedy. The female brings forth from eight to fifteen 
young at a time. 

In the United States, this disease is comparatively little 
known, and never originates spontaneously. The fact, that 
short-woolled sheep — like the. Merino — are much less subject 
to its attacks, is probably one reason for this slight comparative 
prevalence. The disease spreads from individual to individual, 
and from flock to flock, not only by means of direct contact, 
but by the acari left on posts, stones, and other substances 
against which diseased sheep have rubbed themselves. 
Healthy sheep are, therefore, liable to contract the malady, 
if turned on pastures previously occupied by scabby sheep, 
although some considerable time may have elapsed since the 
departure of the latter. 

The sheep laboring under the scab is exceedingly restless. 
It rubs itself with violence against trees, stones, fences, etc. ; 
scratches itself with its feet, bites its sores, and tears off its 
wool with its teeth ; as the pustules are broken, their matter 
escapes, and forms scabs, causing red, inflamed sores, which 
constantly extend, increasing the misery of the tortured 
animal ; if unrelieved, he pines away, and soon perishes. 

The post-mortem appearances are very uncertain and incon- 
clusive. There is generally chronic inflammation of the 
intestines, with the presence of a great number of worms. 
The liver is occasionally schirrous, and the spleen enlarged ; 
and there are frequently serous effusions in the belly, and 
sometimes in the chest. There has been evident sympathy 
between the digestive and the cutaneous systems. 



— 1 



238 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. I 

Treatment. First, separate the sbeep ; then cut off the 
wool as far as the skin feels hard to the finger; the scab is then 
washed with soap-suds, and rubbed hard with a shoe-brush, so 
that it maybe cleansed and broken. For this use take a decoc- 
tion of tobacco, to which add one-third, by measure, of the 
lye of wood-ashes, as much hog's lard as will be dissolved by 
the lye, a small quantity of tar from a tar-bucket, which con- 
tains grease, and about one-eighth of the whole, by measure, 
of spirits of turpentine. This liquor is rubbed upon the part 
infected, and spread to a little distance around it, in three 
washings, with an interval of three days each. This will 
invariably effect a cure, when the disorder is only partial. 

Or, the following: Dip the sheep in an infusion of arsenic, 
in the proportion of half a pound of arsenic to twelve gallons 
of water. The sheep should be pi'eviously washed in soap 
and water. The infusion must not be permitted to enter the 
mouth or nostrils. 

Or, take common mercurial ointment ; for bad cases, rub it 
down with three times its weight of lard — for ordinary cases, 
five times its weight. Rub a little of this ointment into the 
head of the sheep. Part tlie wool so as to expose the skin in 
a line from the head to the tail, and then apply a little of the 
ointment with the finger the whole way. Make a similar 
furrow and application on each side, four inches from the first; 
and so on, over the whole body. The quantity of ointment 
after composition with the lard, should not exceed two ounces; 
and, generally, less will suffice. A lamb requires but one-third 
as much as a grown sheep. This will generally cure ; but, if 
the animal should continue to rub itself, a lighter application 
of the same should be made in ten days. 



8MALL-P0X. 239 

Or, take two pounds of lard or palm oil ; half a pound of 
oil of tar ; and one pound of sulphur ; gradually mix the last 
two, then rub down the compound with the first. Apply as 
before. Or, take of corrosive sublimate, one half a pound ; 
white hellabore, powdered, three-fourths of a pound ; whale 
or other oil, six gallons ; rosin, two pounds ; and tallow, two 
pounds. The first two to be mixed with a little of the oil, and 
the rest being melted together, the whole to be gradually 
mixed. This is a powerful preparation, and must not be 
applied too freely. 

An erysipelatous scab, or erysipelas, attended with consider- 
able itching, sometimes troubles sheep. This is a febrile 
disease, and is treated with a cooling purgative, bleeding, and 
oil or lard applied to the sores. 



SMALL-POX, 

The author.acknowledges himself indebted for what follows 
under this head to R. McClure, Y.S., of Philadelphia, author 
of a Prize Essay on Diseases of Sheep, read before the U. S. 
Agricultural Society, in 1860, for which a medal and diploma 
were awarded. 

Although the small-pox in domestic animals has, fortunately, 
been as yet confined to the European Continent — where it has 
been chiefly limited to England — no good reason can ever 
be assigned why it should not at some future time make its 
appearance among us, especially when we remember how long 
a period elapsed, during which we escaped the cattle plague, 
although the Continent had long been suffering from it. 

The small-pox in sheep — variola overia — is, at times, 
epizootic in the flocks of France and Italy, but was unknown 



240 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 

in England until 1847, when it was communicated to a flock at 
Datcliett and another at Pinnier by some Merinos from Spain, 
It soon found its way into Hampshire and Norfolk, but was 
shortly afterward supposed to be eradicated. In 1862, how- 
ever, it suddenly reappeared in a severe form among the 
flocks of Wiltshire ; for which reappearance neither any 
traceable infection nor contagion could be assigned. With 
the present light upon the subject, it would seem to be an 
instance of the origination miew of a malignant type of 
varioloid disease. Such an origin is, in fact, assigned to this 
disease in Africa, it being well established that certain devi- 
talizing atmospheric influences produce skin diseases, and 
facilitate fhe appearance of pustular eruptions. 

The disease once rooted soon becomes epizootic, and causes 
a greater mortality than any other malady affecting this animal. 
Out of a flock numbering 1720, 920 were attacked in a natural 
way, of which 50 per cent. died. Of 800 inoculated cases, 
but 36 per cent. died. 

Numerous experiments have proved beyond all doubt that 
this disease in sheep is both infectious and contagious ; its 
period of incubation varies from seven to fourteen days. The 
mortality is never less than 25 per cent., and not unfrequently 
whole flocks have been swept away, death taking place in the 
early stages of the eruption, or in the stages of suppuration 
and ulceration. 

The symptoms may be mapped out as follows : The animal 
is seized with a shivering fit, succeeded by a dull stupidity, 
which remains until death or recovery results ; on the second 
or third day, pimples are seen on the thighs and arm-pits, 
accompanied with extreme redness of the eyes, complete 



SMALL-POX. 241 

loss of appetite, etc., etc. It is needless to enumerate other 
symptoms which exist in common with those of other dis- 
orders. 

Prevention. At present, but two modes are resorted to, 
for the purpose of preventing the spread of the disease, which 
promise any degree of certainty of success. The first is by 
inoculation, which was recommended by Professor Simonds, 
of London. This distinguished pathologist appears to have 
overlooked the fact that he was thereby only enlarging the 
sphere of mischief, by imparting the disease to animals that, 
in all probability, would otherwise have escaped it. By inocu- 
lation, moreover, a form of the disease is given, not of a modi- 
fied character, but with all the virulence of the original affec- 
tion which is to be arrested, and equally as potent for further 
destruction of others. By such teachmg, inoculation and 
vaccination would be made one and the same thing, notwith- 
standing their dissimilarity. Even vaccination will not pro- 
tect the animal, as has been already shown by the experiments 
of Hurbrel D'Arboval. 

The second and best plan of prevention is isolation and 
destruction, as recommended by Professor Gamgee, of the 
Edinburgh Veterinary College. This proved a great protec- 
tion to the sheep-farmers of Wiltshire, in 1862. In all 
epizootic diseases, individual cases occur, which, when pointed 
out and recognized as soon as the fever sets in and the early 
eruptions appear, should be slaughtered at once and buried, 
and the rest of the flock isolated. By this means the disease 
has been confined to but two or three in a large flock. 

Treatment. In treating this disease, resort has of late been 
had to a plant, known as Sarracenia purpura — Indian cup, 
16 



242 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES, 

or pitcher plant — used for this purpose by the Micmacs, 
a tribe of Indians in British North America. This plant is 
indigenous, perennial, and is found from the coast of Labrador 
to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, growing in great abun- 
dance on wet, marshy ground. The use of this plant is 
becoming quite general, and good results have almost uniformly 
attended it. 

Take from one to two ounces of the dried root, and slice in 
thin pieces ; place in an earthen pot ; add a quart of cold water, 
and allow the liquid to simmer gently over a steady fire for 
two or three hours, so as to lose one-fourth of the quantity. 
Give of this decoction three wine-glassfuls at once, and the 
same quantity from four to six hours afterwards, when a cure 
will generally be affected. Weaker and smaller doses are 
certain preventives of the disease. The public are indebted 
to Dr. Morris, physician to the Halifax (Nova Scotia) Dis- 
pensary, for the manner of preparing this eminently useful 
article. 



SOKE FACE. 

Sheep feeding on pastures infested with John's wort, fre- 
quently exhibit an irritation of skin about the nose and face, 
wdiich causes the hair to drop off from the parts. The irrita- 
tion sometimes extends over the entire body. If this plant is 
eaten in too large quantities, it produces violent inflammation 
of the bowels, and is frequently fatal to lambs, and sometimes 
to adults. 

Treatment. Rub a little sulphur and lard on the irritated 
surface. If there are symptoms of inflammation of the bowels. 



SORE MOUTH — TICKS. 243 

this should be put into the mouth of the sheep with a flattened 
stick. Abundance of salt is deemed a preventive. 



SOEE MOUTH. 

The lips of sheep sometimes become suddenly sore in the 
winter, and swell to the thickness of a man's hand. The 
malady occasionally attacks whole flocks, and becomes quite 
fatal. It is usually attributed to noxious weeds cut with the 
hay. 

Treatment Daub the lips and mouth plentifully with tar. 



TICKS. 

The treatment necessary as a preventive against these 
insects, and a remedy for them, has already been indicated 
under the head of " Feeding and Management," to which the 
reader is referred. 




The hog is a cosmopolite, adapting itself to almost every 
climate; though its natural Jiaunts — like those of the hippo- 
potamus, the elephant, the rhinoceros, and most of the thick- 
skinned animals — are in warm countries. They are most 
abundant in China, the East Indies, and the immense range 
of islands extending throughout the whole Southern and 

Pacific oceans ; but they are also numerous throughout 
(t) 245 



8 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

Europe, from its Southern coast to the Russian dominions 
within the Arctic. 

As far back as the records of history extend, this animal 
appears to have been known, and his flesh made use of as 
food. Nearly fifteen hundred years before Christ, Moses 
gave those laws to the Israelites which have given rise to 
so much discussion ; and it is evident that, had not pork been 
the prevailing food of that nation at the time, such stringent 
commandments and prohibitions would not have been neces- 
sary. The various allusions to this kind of meat, which 
repeatedly occur in the writings of the old Greek authors, 
show the esteem in which it was held among that nation ; and 
it appears that the E,omans made the art of breeding, rearing, 
and fattening pigs a study. In fact, the hog was very highly 
prized among the early nations of Europe ; and some of the 
ancients even paid it divine honors. 

The Jews, the Egyptians, and the Mohammedans alone 
appear to have abstained from the flesh of swine. The former 
were expressly denied its use by the laws of Moses. "And 
the swine, though he divide the hoof, and be cloven-footed, 
yet he cheweth not the cud ; he is unclean unto you." Lev. 
xi. T. Upon this prohibition, Mohammed, probably, founded 
his own. For the Mosaic prohibition, various reasons have 
been assigned : the alleged extreme filthiness of the animal ; it 
being afflicted with a leprosy ; the great indigestibility of its 
flesh in hot climates ; the intent to make the Jews " a peculiar 
people;" a preventive of gluttony; and an admonition of 
abstinence from sensual and disgusting habits. 

At what period the animal was reclaimed from his wild 
state, and by what nation, cannot be stated. From the 
246 



HISTORY AND BREEDS. 9 

earliest times, in England, the hog has been regarded as a very 
important animal, and vast herds were tended by swineherds, 
who watched over their safety in the woods, and collected 
them under shelter at night. Its flesh was the staple article 
of consumption in every household, and much of the wealth 
of the rich and free portion of the community consisted in 
these animals. Hence bequests of swine, with land for their 
support, were often made ; rights and privileges connected 
with their feeding, and the extent of woodland to be occupied 
by a given number, were granted according to established 
rules. Long after the end of the Saxon dynasty, the practice 
of feeding swine upon the mast and acorns of the forest was 
continued till the forests were cut down, and the land laid 
open for the plough. 

Nature designed the hog to fulfil many important functions 
in a forest country. By his burrowing after roots and the 
like, he turns up and destroys the larvae of innumerable insects, 
which would otherwise injure the trees as well as their fruit. 
He destroys the slug-snail and adder, and thus not only rids 
the forests of these injurious and unpleasant inhabitants, but 
also makes them subservient to his own nourishment, and 
therefore to the benefit of mankind. The fruits which he eats 
are such as would otherwise rot on the ground and be wasted, 
or yield nutriment to vermin ; and his diggings for earth-nuts 
and the like, loosens the soil, and benefits the roots of the 
trees. Hogs in forest land may, therefore, be regarded as 
eminently beneficial ; and it is only the abuse which is to be 
feared. 

The hog is popularly regarded as a stupid, brutal, rapacious, 

and filthy animal, grovelling and disgusting in all his habits, 

247 



13 SWINE AND THEirt DISEASES. 

intractable and obstinate in temper. The most offensive 
cpitliets among men are borrowed from him, or his peculiarities. 
In their native state, however, swiue seem by no means desti- 
tute of natural affections ; they are gregarious, assemble 
together in defence of each othei", herd together for warmth, 
and appear to have feelings in common ; no mother is more 
tender to her young than the sow, or more resolute in their 
defence. Neglected as this animal has ever been by authors, 
recorded instances are not wanting of their sagacity, tracta- 
bility, and susceptibility of affection. Among the European 
peasantry, where the bog is, so to speak, one of the family, 
he may often be seen following his master from place to place, 
and grunting his recognition of his protectors. 

The hog, in point of actual fact, is also a much more cleanly 
animal than he has the credit of being. lie is fond of a good, 
cleanly bed ; and when this is not provided for him, it is 
oftentimes interesting to note the degree of sngacity with 
which he will forage for himself. It is, however, so much the 
vogue to believe that he may be kept in any state of neglect, 
that the terms "pig," and "pig-sty" are usually regarded as 
synonymous with all that is dirty and disgusting. His rolling 
in the mud is cited as a proof of his filthy habits. This 
practice, which he shares in common with all the pachyder- 
matous animals, is undoubtedly the teaching of instinct, and 
for the purpose of cooling himself and keeping off flies. 

Pigs are exceedingly fond of comfort and warmth, and will 

nestle together in order to obtain the latter, and often struggle 

vehemently to secure the warmest berth. They are likewise 

peculiarly sensitive of approaching changes in tlie weather, 

and may often be observed suddenly leaving the places in 
248 



HISTORY AND BREEDS. 11 

which tbey had been quietly feeding, and running off to their 
styes at full speed, making loud outcries. When storms are 
overhanging, they collect straw in their mouths, and run 
about as if inviting their companions to do the same ; and if 
there is a shed or shelter near at hand, they will carry it there 
and deposit it, as if for the purpose of preparing a bed. 

In their domesticated state, they are, undeniably, very 
greedy animals ; eating is the business of their lives ; nor do 
they appear to be very delicate as to the kind or quality of 
food which is placed before them. Although naturally herb- 
ivorous animals, they have been known to devour carrion with 
all the voracity of beasts of prey, to eat and mangle infants, 
and even gorge their appetites with their own young. It is 
not, however, unreasonable to believe that the last revolting 
act — rarely if ever happening in a state of nature — arises more 
from the pain and irritation produced by the state of confine^ 
ment, and often filth, in which the animal is kept, and the dis- 
turbances to which it is subjected, than from any actual 
ferocity ; for it is well known that a sow is always unusually 
irritable at this period, snapping at all animals that approach 
her. If she is gently treated, properly supplied with susten- 
ance, and sequestered from all annoyance, there is little danger 
of this practice ever happening. 

All the offences which swine commit are attributed to a 
disposition innately bad ; whereas they too often arise from 
bad management, or total neglect. They are legitimate 
objects for the sport of idle boys, hunted with curs, pelted with 
stones, often neglected and obliged to find a meal for them- 
selves, or wander about half-starved. Made thus the Ishmael- 

ites of our domestic animals, is it a matter of wonder that 

249 



12 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

they should, under such circumstances, incline to display 
Ishmaelitish traits? In any well-regulated farm-yard, the 
swine are as tractable and as little disposed to wander or 
trespass as any of the animals that it contains. 

The WILD BOAR is generally admitted to be the parent of the 
stock from which all our domesticated breeds and varieties 
have sprung. This animal is generally of a dusky brown or 
iron-gray color, inclining to black, and diversified with black 
spots or streaks. The body is covered with coarse hairs, 
intermixed witn a downy wool ; these hairs become bristles as 
they approach the neck and shoulders, and are in those places 
so long as to form a mane, which the animal erects when 
irritated. The head is short, the forehead broad and flat, the 
ears short, rounded at the tips, and inclined toward the neck, 
the jaw armed with sharp, crooked tusks, which curve slightly 
upward, and are capable of inflicting fearful wounds, the eye 
full, neck thick and muscular, the shoulders high, the loins 
broad, the tail stiff", and finished off with a tuft of bristles 
at the tip, the haunch well turned, and the leg strong. A 
full-grown wild boar in India averages from thirty to forty 
inches in height at the shoulder ; the African wild boar is 
about twenty-eight or thirty inches high. 

The wild boar is a very active and powerful animal, and 
becomes fiercer as he grows older. When existing in a state 
of nature, he is generally found in moist, shady, and well- 
wooded situations, not far remote from streams or water. In 
India, they are found in the thick jungles, in plantations of 
sugar-cane or rice, or in the thick patches of high, long grass. 
In England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain, their resorts 

have been in the woods and forests. This animal is naturally 
250 



HISTORY AND BREEDS. 13 

herbivorous, and appears to feed bj choice upon plants, fruits, 
and roots. He will, however, eat the worms and larvae which 
he finds in the ground, also snakes and other such reptiles, 
and the eggs of birds. Thej seldom quit their coverts during 
the day, but prowl about in search of food during twilight and 
the night. Their acute sense of smell enables them to detect 
the presence of roots or fruits deeply imbedded in the soil, and 
they often do considerable mischief by ploughing up the 
ground in search of them, particularly as they do not, like the 
common hog, root up a little spot here and there, but plough 
long, continuous, furrows. 

The wild boar, properly so called, is neither a solitary nor a 
gregarious animal. For the first two or three years, the 
whole herd follows the sow, and all unite in defence against 
any enemies, calling upon each other with loud cries in case 
of emergency, and forming in regular line of battle, the 
weakest occupying the rear. When arrived at maturity, the 
animals wander alone, as if in perfect consciousness of their 
strength, and appear as if they neither sought nor avoided any 
living creature. They are reputed to live about thirty years ; 
as they grow old, the hair becomes gray, and the tusks begin 
to show symptoms of decay. Old boars rarely associate with 
a herd, but seem to keep apart from the rest, and from each 
other. 

The female produces but one litter in the year, much smaller 

in number than those of the domestic pig ; she carries her 

young sixteen or twenty weeks, and generally is only seen 

with the male during the rutting season. She suckles her 

young for several months, and continues to protect them for 

some time afterward ; if attacked at that time, she will defend 

251 



14 



SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES, 



herself and tliein witli exceeding courage and fierceness. 
Many sows will often be found herding together, each followed 
by her litter of young ; and in such parties they are exceed- 
ingly formidable to man and beast. Neither they nor the 
boar, however, seem desirous of attacking any thing ; and 
only when roused by aggression, or disturbed in their retreat, 
do they turn upon their enemies and manifest th'e mighty 
strength with which Nature has endowed them. When 
attacked by dogs, the wild boar at first sullenly retreats, turn- 
ing upon them from time to time and menacing them with 
his tusks ; but gradually his anger rises, and at length he 
stands at bay, fights furiously for his life, and tears and rends 

his persecu- 
tors. He 
has even 
been observ- 
ed to single 
out the most 
tormenting 
of them, and 
rush savage- 
ly upon him. 
Hunting this 

animal has been a favorite sport, in almost all countries in 
which it has been found, from the earliest ages. 

Wild boars lingered in the forests of England and Scotland 
for several centuries after the Norman conquest, and many 
tracts of land in those countries derived their name from this 
circumstance ; while instances of valor in their destruction are 

recorded in the heraldic devices of many of their noble 
252 




THE WILD BOAR AT BAT. 



HISTORY AND BREEDS. 15 

families. The precise period at wliich the animal became 
exterminated there cannot be precisely ascertained. They 
had, however, evidently been long extinct in the time of 
Charles I., since he endeavored to re-introduce them, and was 
at considerable expense to procure a wild boar and his mate 
from Germany. They still exist in Upper Austria, on the 
Syrian Alps, in many parts of Hungary, and in the forests of 
Poland, Spain, Russia, and Sweden ; and the inhabitants of 
those countries hunt them with hounds, or attack them with 
fire-arms, or with the proper boar-spear. 

All the varieties of the domestic hog will breed with the 
wild boar ; the period of gestation is the same in the wild and 
the tame sow ; their anatomical structure is identical ; their 
general form bears the same characters ; and their habits, so 
far as they are not changed by domestication, remain the 
same. Where individuals of the pure wild race have been 
caught young and subjected to the same treatment as a 
domestic pig, their fierceness has disappeared, they have 
become more social and less nocturnal in their habits, lost 
their activity, and lived more to eat. In the course of one or 
two generations, even the form undergoes certain modifica- 
tions ; the body becomes larger and heavier ; the legs shorter, 
and less adapted for exercise ; the formidable tusks of the boan 
being no longer needed as weapons of defence, disappear ; the 
shape of the head and neck alters; and in character as well as 
in form, the animal adapts itself to its situation. Nor does it 
appear that a return to their native wilds restores to them 
their original appearance ; for, in whatever country pigs have 
escaped from the control of man, and bred in the wilderness 

and woods, not a single instance is on record in which they 

253 



Ig SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

Lave resumed the habits and form of the wild boar. Thej, 
indeed, become fierce, wild, gaunt, and grisly, and live upon 
roots and fruits ; but they are, notwithstanding, merely 
degenerated swine, and they still associate together in herds, 
and do not walk solitary and alone, like their grim ancestors. 



AMEBICAN SWIJSTE. 

In the United States, swine have been an object of attention 
since its earliest settlement, and whenever a profitable market 
has been found for pork abroad, it has been exported to the 
full extent of the demand. Swine are not, however, indigenous 
to this country, but were doubtless originally brought hither 
by the early English settlers ; and the breed thus introduced 
may still be distinguished by the traces they retain of their 
parent stock. France, also, as well as Spain, and, during the 
existence of the slave-trade, Africa, have also combined to 
furnish varieties of this animal, so much esteemed throughout 
the whole of the country, as furnishing a valuable article of 
food. For nearly twenty years following the commencement 
of the general European wars, soon after the organization of our 
national government, pork was a comparatively large article 
of commerce ; but exports for a time diminished, and it was 
not until within a more recent period that this staple has 
been brought up to its former standard as an article of expor- 
tation to that country. The recent use which has been made 
of its carcass in converting it into lard oil, has tended to still 
further increase its consumption. By the census of 18G0, 
there were upward of thirty-two and a half millions of these 
animals in the United States. 

They are reared in every part of the Union, and, when 
254 



AMERICAN SWINE. It 

properly managed, always at a fair profit. At the extreme 
Nortb, in the neighborhood of large markets, and on such of 
the Southern plantations as are particularly suited to sugar or 
rice, they should not be raised beyond the number required for 
the consumption of the coarse or refuse food produced. Swine 
are ad^^antageously kept in connection with a dairy or 
orchard ; since, with little additional food besides what is thus 
afforded, they can be put in good condition for the butcher. 

On the rich bottoms and other lands of the West, however, 
where Indian corn is raised in profusion and at small expense, 
they can be reared in the greatest numbers and yield the 
largest profit. The Scioto, Miami, Wabash, Illinois, and other 
valleys, and extensive tracts in Kentucky, Tennessee, Mis- 
souri, and, some adjoining States, have for many years taken 
the lead in the production of Swine ; and it is probable that 
the climate and soil, which are peculiarly suited to their rapid 
growth, as well as that of their appropriate food, will enable 
them to hold their position as the leading pork-producers of 
the North American Continent. 

The breeds cultivated in this country are numerous ; and, 

like our native cattle, they embi'ace many of the best, and a 

few of the worst, to be found among the species. Great 

attention has been paid, for many years, to their improvement 

in the Eastern States ; and nowhere are there better specimens 

than in many of their yards. This spirit has rapidly extended 

West and South ; and among most of the intelligent farmers, 

who make them a le9,ding object of attention, on their rich 

corn-grounds, swine have attained a high degree of excellence. 

This does not consist in the introduction and perpetuity of 

^ any distinct races, so much as in the breeding up to a desir- 

255 



18 SAVINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

1 

able size and aptitude for fattening, from such meritorious 
individuals of any breed, or their crosses, as come within their 
reach. 



THE BYEFIELD. 

This breed was formerly in high repute in the Eastern 
States, and did much good among the species generally. 
They are white, with fine curly hair, well made and compact, 
moderate in size and length, with broad backs, and at fifteen 
months attaining some three hundred to three hundred and 
fifty pounds net. 



THE BEDFORD, 

The Bedford or Woburn is a breed originating with the 
Duke of Bedford, on his estate at Woburn, and brought to 
their perfection, probably, by judicious crosses of the Chinese 
hog on some of the best English swine. A pair was sent by 
the duke to this country, as a present to General Washington ; 
but they were dishonestly sold by the messenger, in Maryland, 
in which State, and in Pennsylvania, they were productive of 
much good at an early day, by their extensive distribution 
through different States. Several other importations of this 
breed have been made, at various times, and especially by the 
enterprising masters of the Liverpool packets, in the neighbor- 
hood of New York. They are a large, spotted animal, well 
made, and inclining to early maturity and fattening. This 
is an exceedingly valuable hog, but nearly extinct, both in 
England and in this country, as a breed. 
256 



THE LEICESTER — THE YORKSHmE. 19 

THE LEICESTER. 

The old Leicestershire breed, in England, was a perfect 
type of the original hogs of the midland counties ; large, un- 
gainly, slab-sided animals, of a light color, and spotted with 
brown or black. The only good parts about them were their 
heads and ears, which showed greater traces of breeding than 
any other portions. These have been materially improved by 
various crosses, and the original breed has nearly lost all its 
peculiarities and defects. They may now be characterized as 
a large, white hog, generally coarse in the bone and hair, great 
eaters, and slow in maturing. Some varieties differ essentially 
in these particulars, and mature early on a moderate amount 
of food. The crosses with small compact breeds are generally 
thrifty, desirable animals. 



THE YORKSHIRE. 

The old Yorkshire breed was one of the very large varieties, 
and one of the most unprofitable for a farmer, being greedy 
feeders, difficult to fatten, and unsound in constitution. They 
were of a dirty white or yellow color, spotted with black, had 
long legs, flat sides, narrow backs, weak loins, and large 
bones. Their hair was short and wirey, and intermingled 
with numerous bristles about the head and neck, and their 
ears long. When full grown and fat, they seldom weighed 
more than from three hundred and fifty to four hundred 
pounds. 

These have been crossed with pigs of the improved Leicester 
breed ; and where the crossings have been judiciously managed, 
and not carried too far, a fine race of deep-sided, short-legged, 
n 257 



20 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

thin-haired animals has been obtained, fattening kindly, and 
risin"* to a weight of from two hundred and fifty to four 
hundred pounds, when killed between one and two years old ; 
and when kept over two years, reaching even from five 
hundred to seven hundred pounds. 

They have also been crossed with the Chinese, Neapolitan, 
and Berkshire breeds, and hardy, profitable, well-proportioned 
animals thereby obtained. The original breed, in its purity, 
size, and defectiveness, is now hardly to be met with, havin;:^ 
shared the fate of the other large old breeds, and given placid 
to smaller and more symmetrical animals. The Torl.<In'ir, 
white is among the large breeds deserving commendation 
among us. To the same class belong also the large Miami 
white, and the Kenilworth; each frequently attaining, when 
dressed, a weight of from six hundred to eight hundred 
pounds. 

THE CHINESE. 

This hog is to be found in the southeastern countries of 
Asia, as Siam, Cochin China, the Burman Empire, Cambodia, 
Malacca, Sumatra, and in Batavia, and other Eastern islands ; 
and is, without doubt, the parent stock of the best European 
and American swine. 

There are two distinct varieties, the white and the black ; 

both fatten readily, but from their diminutive size attain no 

great weight. They are small in limb, round in body, short 

in the head, wide in the cheek, and high in the chime ; 

covered with very fine bristles growing from an exceedingly 

thin skin ; and not peculiarly symmetrical, since, when fat, the 

head is so buried in the neck that little more than the tip of 
258 



THE CHINESE. 




THE CHISESE HOS. 



the snout is visible. The pure Chinese is too delicate and 
su>eeptible to cold ever to become a really profitable animal in 
this country ; 
it is difficult to 
rear, and the 
sows are not 
good nurses ; 
but one or two 
judicious cros- 
ses have, in a 
manner, natu- 
ralized it. This 

breed will fatten readily, and on a comparatively small quantity 
of food ; the flesh is exceedingly delicate, but does not make 
good bacon, and is often too fat and oily to be generally 
esteemed as pork. They are chiefly kept by those who rear 
sucking-pigs for the market, as they make excellent roasters 
at three weeks or a month old. Five, and even seven, varieties 
of this breed are distinguished, but these are doubtless the 
i-esults of different crosses with our native kinds ; among 
these are black, white, black and white, spotted, blue and 
white, and sandy. 

Many valuable crosses have been made with these animals ; 
for the prevalent fault of the old English breeds having been 
coarseness of flesh, unwieldiness of form, and want of aptitude 
to fatten, an admixture of the Chinese breed has materially 
corrected these defects. Most of our smaller breeds are more 
or less indebted to the Asiatic swine for their present com- 
pactness of form, the readiness with which they fatten on a 

small quantity of food, and their early maturity ; but these 

259 



22 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

advantages are not considered, in the judgment of some, as 
sufficiently great to compensate for the diminution in size, the 
increased delicacy of the animals, and the decrease of number 
in the litters. The best cross is between the Berkshire and 
Chinese. * 



THE SUFFOLK. 
The old Suffolks are white in color, long-legged, long- 
bodied, with narrow backs, broad foreheads, short hams, and 

a n abun- 
dance of 
^'f'^^ bristles. 
They are by 
no means 
profitable 
animals. ♦A 
cross be- 
tween the 
THE SUFFOLK pio. Suffolk and 

Lincoln has produced a hardy animal, which fattens kindly, 
and attains the weight of from four hundred to five hundred 
and fifty, and even seven hundred pounds. Another cross, 
much approved by farmers, is that of the Suffolk and Berk- 
shire. 

There are few better breeds, perhaps, than the improved 
Suffolk — that is, the Suffolk crossed with the Chinese. The 
greater part of the pigs on the late Prince Albert's farm, near 
Windsor, were of this breed. They are well-formed, compact, 
of medium size, with round, bulky bodies, short legs, small 

heads, and fat cheeks. Many, at a year or fifteen months old, 
260 




THE BERKSHIRE. 23 

weigh from two hundred and fifty to three hundred pounds j 
at which age they make fine bacon hogs. The sucking-pigs 
are also very delicate and delicious. 

Those arising from Berkshire and Sufi'olk are not so well 
shaped as the latter, being coarser, longer-legged, and more 
prominent about the hips. They are mostly white, with thin, 
fine hair ; some few are spotted, and are easily kept in fine 
condition-; they have a decided aptitude to fatten early, and 
are likewise valuable as store-pigs. 



THE BEEKSHIKE. 

The Berkshire pigs belong to the large class, and are dis- 
tinguished by their color, which is a sandy or whitish brown, 
spotted regu- 
1 a r 1 y with 
dark brown or 
black spots, 
and by their 
having no 
bristles. The 
hair is long, 
thin, some- 
what curly, 
and looks 
rough; the 

A BERKSHIRE BOAR. 

ears are 

fringed with long hair round the outer edge, which gives 

them a ragged or feathery appearance ; the body is thick, 

compact, and well formed ; the logs short, the sides broad, the 

head well set on, the snout short, the jowl thick, the ears erect, 

261 




24 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

skin exceedingly thin in texture, the flesh firm and well 
flavored, and the bacon very superior. This breed has 
generally been considered one of the best in England, on 
account of its smallness of bone, early maturity, aptitude to 
fatten on little food, harcfihood, and the females being good 
breeders. Hogs of the pure original breed have been known 
to weigh from eight hundred to nine hundred and fifty pounds. 

Numerous crosses have been made from this breed ; the 
principal foreign ones are those with the Chinese and Nea- 
politan swine, made with the view of decreasing the size of 
the animal, improving the flavor of the flesh, and rendering it 
more delicate ; and the animals thus attained are superior to 
almost any others in their aptitude to fatten ; but are very 
susoeptible to cold, from being almost entirely without hair. 
A cross with the Suffolk and Norfolk also is much improved, 
which produces a hardy kind, yielding well when sent to the 
butcher ; although, under most circumstances, the pure Berk- 
shire is the best. 

No other breeds have been so extensively difl'used in the 
United States, within coni[)aratively so brief a period, as the 
Berkshires, and they have produced a marked improvement in 
many of our former races. They weigh variously, from two 
hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds net, at sixteen 
months, according to their food and style of breeding; and 
some full-grown have dressed to more than eight hundred 
pounds. They particularly excel in their hams, which are 
round, full, and heavy, and contain a large proportion of lean, 
tender, and juicy meat, of the best flavor. 

None of our improved breeds afford long, coarse hair or 

bristles ; and it is a gratifving evidence of our decided im- 

2G2 



THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HOG. 



iio 



provenient in this depai-tment of domestic animals, that our 
brush-makers are obliged to import most of what they use 
from Russia and northern Europe. This improvement is 
manifest not only in the hair, but in the skin, which is soft 
and mellow to the touch ; in the finer bones, shorter head, 
upright ears, dishing face, delicate muzzle, and wild eye ; and 
in the short legs, low flanks, deep and wide chest, broad back, 
and early maturity. 



THE TTATURAIi HISTOEY OF THE HOG. 
10 ^ 




SKELETOir OF THE HOO AS COVERED BY THE HtTSCLES. 

1. The lower jaw. 2. The teeth. 3. The nasal bones. 4. The upper jaw. 6. The 
irontal bone. 6. The orbit or socket of tne eye. 7. The occipital bone. 8. The first 
vertebrae of the neck. 9. The vertebras ot the neck. 10. The vertebrao of the back. 
11. The vertebrae of the loins. 12. The bouef ->f the tail. 13, 14 The true and false 
ribs. 15. The shoalder-blade. 16. The round shoulder-bone 17. The breast-bone. 
18. The elbow. 19. The bone of the fore-arm. 20. The navicular bone. 21. The first 
and second bones of the foot. 22. The bones of ihe hoof. 23. The haunch bones. 
M. The thigh bone. 2.5. The stifle bone. 26. The upper bone of the leg. 27. The 
hock bones. 28. The navicular bone. 29. The first digits of the foot. 30. The second 
digits of the foot. 

Division. Vertebrata — possessing a back-bone. 

Class. Mammalia — such as give suck. 

263 



26 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

Order Pachydermata — thick-skinned. 

Family. Suidce — the swine kind. 

Genus. Sus — the hog. Of this genus there are five 
varieties. 

Sus Scropa, or Domestic Hog. 
Sus Papuensis, or Bene. 
Sus Guineensis, or Guinea Hog. 
Sus Africanus, or Masked Boar. 
Sus Bahirussa, or Babirussa. 

A very slight comparison of the face of this animal with 
that of any other will prove that strength is the object in 
view — strength toward the inferior part of the bone. In point 
of fact, the snout of the hog is his spade, with which, in his 
natural state, he digs and ruts .in the ground for roots, earth- 
nuts, worms, etc. To render this implement more nearly 
perfect, an extra bone is added to the nasal bone, being con- 
nected with it by strong ligaments, cartilages, and muscles, 
and termed the snout-bone, or spade-bone, or ploughshare. 
By it and its cartilaginous attachment, the snout is rendered 
strong as well as flexible, and far more efficient than it other- 
wise could be ; and the hog often continues to give both 
farmers and gardeners very unpleasant proofs of its efficiency, 
by ploughing up deep furrows in newly-soM'n fields, and 
grubbing up the soil in all directions in quest of living and 
dead food. 

As roots and fruits buried in the earth form the natural food 

of the hog, his face terminates in this strong, muscular snout, 

insensible at the extremity, and perfectly adapted for turning up 

the soil. There is a large plexus or fold of nerves proceeding 

down each side of the nose ; and in these, doubtless, resides 
264 



FORMATION OP THE TEETH. 27 

that peculiar power which enables the hog to select his food, 
though buried some inches below the surface of the ground. 
The olfactory nerve is likewise large, and occupies a middle 
rank between that of the herbivorous and carnivorous animals ; 
it is comparatively larger than that of the ox ; indeed, few 
animals — with the exception of the dog, none — are gifted with 
a more acute sense of smell than the hog. To it epicures are 
indebted for the truffles which form such a delicious saupe, for 
they are the actual finders. A pig is turned into a field, 
allowed to pursue his own course, and watched. He stops, 
and begins to grub up the earth; the man hurries up, drives 
him away, and secures the truffle, which is invariably growing 
under that spot ; and the poor pig goes off to sniff out another, 
and another, only no-v and then being permitted, by way of 
encouragement, to reap the fruits of his research. 



FORMATION OF THE TEETH. 

The hog has fourteen molar teeth in each jaw, six incisors, 
and two canines; these latter are curved upward, and com- 
monly denominated tushes. The molar teeth are all slightly 
different in structure, and increase in size from first to last ; 
they bear no slight resemblance to those of the human being. 
The incisors are so fantastic in form that they cannot well be 
described, and their destined functions are by no means clear. 
Those in the lower jaw are long, round, and nearly straight ; 
of those in the upper jaw, four closely resemble the corres- 
ponding teeth in the horse ; while the two corner incisors bear 
something of the shape of those of the dog. These latter are 
placed so near the tushes as often to obstruct their growth, 
and it is sometimes necessary to draw them, in order to relieve 

the animal and enable him to feed. 

265 



28 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

The hog is born with two molars on each side of the jaw ; 
by the time he is three or four months old, he is provided 
with his incisive milk-teeth and the tushes ; the supernumerary- 
molars protrude between the fifth and seventh month, as does 
the first back molar ; the second back molar is cut at about 
the age of ten months ; and the third, generally, not until the 
animal is three years old. The upper corner teeth are shed 
at abqut the age of six or eight months ; and the lower ones 
at about seven, nine, or ten months old, and replaced by the 
permanent ones. The milk tushes are also shed and re- 
placed between six and ten months old. The age of twenty 
months, and from that to two years, is denoted by the 
shedding and replacement of the middle incisors, or pincers, 
in both jaws, and the formation of a black circle at the base 
of each of the tushes. At about two years and a half or 
three years of age, the adult middle teeth in both jaws 
protrude, and the pincers are becoming black and rounded 
at the ends. 

After three years, the age may be computed by the growth 
of the tushes ; at about four years, or rather before, the upper 
tushes begin to raise the lip ; at five, they protrude through 
the lips ; and at six years, the tushes of the lower jaw begin 
to show themselves out of the mouth, and assume a spiral 
form. These acquire a prodigious length in old animals, 
and particularly in uncastrated boars ; and as they in- 
crease in size, they become curved backward and outward, 
and at length are so crooked as to interfere with the motion 
of the jaws to such a degree that it -is necessary to cut off 
those projecting teeth, which is done with the file, or with 

nippers. 

266 




In the selection of a boar and sow for breeding, much 
more attention and consideration are requisite than is generally 
imagined. It is as easy, with a very little judgment and 
management, to procure a good as an inferior breed ; and the 
former is much more remunerative, in proportion to the outlay, 
than the latter can possibly ever be. 

The object of the farmer or breeder is to produce and retain 

such an animal as will be best adapted to the purpose he has 
(29) 267 



30 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

in view, whether that is the consumption of certain things 
which could not otherwise be so well disposed of, the convert- 
ing into hams, bacon, and pork, or the raising of sucking-pigs 
and porkers for the market. Almost all farmers keep one or 
more pigs to devour the offal and refuse, which would other- 
wise be wasted. This is, however, a matter totally distinct 
from breeding swine. In the former case, the animal or 
animals are purchased young for a small price, each person 
buying as many as he considers he shall have food enough for, 
and then sold to the butcher, or killed, when in proper con- 
dition ; and thus a certain degree of profit is realized. In the 
latter, many contingencies must be taken into account : the 
available means of feeding them ; whether or not the food may 
be more profitably disposed of; the facilities afforded by 
railroads, the vicinity of towns, or large markets, etc., for dis- 
posing of them. 

In the breeding of swine, as much as that of any other live- 
stock, it is important to pay great attention, not only to the 
breed, but also to the choice of individuals. The sow should 
produce a great number of young ones, and she must be well 
fed to enable her to support them. Some sows bring forth 
ten, twelve, or even fifteen pigs at a birth ; but eight or nine 
is the usual number; and sows which produce fewer than 
this must be rejected. It is, however, probable that fecundity 
depends also on the boar; he should, therefore, be chosen 
from a race which multiplies quickly. 

If a bacon and a late market be objects, the large and 

heavy varieties should be selected, care being taken that 

the breed has the character of possessing those qualities most 

likely to insure a heavy return — growth, and facility of taking 

268 



BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 31 

fat. Good one-year bacon-hogs being in great demand, thej 
may be known by their long bodies, low belh'es, and short 
legs. With these qualities are usually coupled long, pendu- 
lous ears, which attract purchasers. If, however, hogs are 
to be sold at all seasons to the butchers, the animals must 
attain their full growth and be ready for killing before they 
are a year old. This quality is particularly prominent in the 
Chinese breed ; but among our ordinary varieties, hogs are 
often met with better adapted for this purpose than for pro- 
ducing large quantities of bacon and lard. The Berkshire 
crossed with Chinese is an excellent porker. 

The sow should be chosen from a breed of proper size and 
shape, sound and free from blemishes and defects. In every 
case — whether the object be pork or bacon — the j^oints to be 
looked for in the sow are a small, lively head ; a broad and 
deep chest ; round ribs ; capacious barrel ; a haunch falling 
almost to the hough ; deep and broad loin ; ample hips ; and 
considerable length of body, in proportion to its height. One 
qualification should ever be kept in view, and, perhaps, should 
be the first point to which the attention should be directed — 
that is, smallness of bone. She should have at least twelve 
teats ; for it is observed that each pig selects a teat for himself 
and keeps to it, so that a pig not having one belonging to him 
would be starved. A good sow should produce a great 
number of pigs, all of equal vigor. She must be very careful 
of them, and not crush them by her weight ; above all, she 
must not be addicted to eating the after-birth, and, what may 
often follow, her own young. If a sow is tainted with those 
bad habits, or if she has difficult labors, or brings forth dead 

pigs, she must be spayed forthwith. It is, therefore, well to 

269 



32 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

Tbrin"" up several young sows at once, so as to keep those 
only which are free from defects. Breeding sows and boars 
should never be raised from defective animals. Sows that 
have very low bellies, almost touching the ground, seldom 
produce large or fine litters. A good-sized sow is generally 
considered more likely to prove a good breeder and nurse, 
and to farrow more easily and safely than a small, delicate 
animal. 

The ancients considered the distinguishing marks of a good 
boar to be a small head, short legs, a long body, large thighs 
and neck, and this latter part thickly covered with strong, 
erect bristles. The most experienced modern breeders prefer 
an animal with a long, cylindrical bodj^ ; small bones ; well- 
developed muscles ; a wide chest, which denotes strength of 
constitution : a broad, straiglit back ; short head and fine 
snout ; brilliant eyes ; a short, thick neck ; broad, well-de- 
veloped shoulders ; a loose, mellow skin ; fine, bright, long 
hair, and few bristles ; and small legs and hips. Some give 
the preference to long, flapping ears ; but experience seems to 
demonstrate that those animals are best which have short, 
erect, fine ears The boar should always be vigorous and 
masculine in appearance. 

Few domesticated animals suffer so much from in-and-in 
breeding as swine. Wliere this system is pursued, the 
number of young ones is decreased at every litter, until the 
sows become, in a manner, barren. This practice also un- 
doubtedly contributes to their liability to hereditary diseases, 
such as scrofula, epilepsy, and rheumatism ; and when those 
possessing any such diseases are coupled, the ruin of the flock 
is easily and speedily efi"ected, since tbey are propagated by 
270 



BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 33 

either parent, and always most certainly and in most aggra- 
vated form, when occurring in both. As soon as the slightest 
degeneracy is observed, the breed should be crossed from time 
to time, keeping sight, however, while so doing, of the end in 
view. The Chinese will generally be found the best which 
can be used for this purpose ; since a single cross, and even 
two, with one of these animals, will seldom do harm, but 
often effect considerable improvements. The best formed, of 
the progeny resulting from this cross must be selected as 
breeders, and with them the old original stock crossed back 
again. Selection, with judicious and cautious admixture, is 
the true secret of forming and improving the breed. Re- 
peated and indiscriminate crosses are as injurious as an 
obstinate adherence to one particular breed, and as much to 
be avoided. 

The following rules for the selection of the best stock of 
hogs will apply to all breeds : 

Fertility. In a breeding sow, this quality is essential, and 
it is one which is inherited. Besides this, she should be a 
careful mother. A young, untried sow will generally display 
in her tendencies those which have predominated in the race 
from which she has descended. Both boar and sow should be 
sound, healthy, and in fair, but not over fat, condition. 

Form Where a farmer has an excellent breed, but with 
certain defects, or too long in the limb, or too heavy in the 
bone, the sire to be chosen, whether of a pure or of a cross 
breed, should exhibit the opposite qualities, even to an 
extreme ; and be, moreover, one of a strain noted for early and 
rapid fattening. If in perfect health, young stock selected 

2V1 



34 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES, 

for breeding will be lively, animated, liolJ up the head, and 
move freely and nimbly. 

Bristles. These should be fine and scanty, so as to show 
the skin smooth and glossy ; coarse, vvirey, rough bristles 
usually accompany heavy bones, large, spreading hoofs, and 
flapping ears, and thus become one of the indications of a 
thick-skinned and low breed. 

Color. Diffei'ent breeds of high excellence have their own 
colors ; white, black, parti-colored, black and white, sandy, 
mottled with large marks of black, are the most prevalent. 
A black skin, with short, scanty bristles, and small stature, 
demonstrate the prevalence of the Neapolitan strain, or the 
black Chinese, or, perhaps, an admixture of both. Many 
prefer white ; and in sucking-pigs, destined for the table, and 
for porkers, this color has its advantages, and the skin looks 
more attractive ; it is, however, generally thought that the 
skin of black hogs is thinner than that of white, and less 
subject to eruptive diseases. 

The influence of a first impregnation upon subsequent pro- 
geny by other males is at times curiously illustrated. Thi-s 
has been noticed in respect of the sow. A sow of the black 
and white breed, in one instance, became pregnant by a boar 
of the wild breed of a deep chestnut color. The pigs produced 
were duly mixed, the color of the boar being very predomi- 
nant in some. The sow being afterwards put to a boar of the 
same breed as herself, some of the produce were still stained 
or marked with the chestnut color which prevailed in the first 
litter ; and the same occurred after a third impregnation, the 
boar being then of the same kind as herself What adds to 

the force of this case is, that in the course of many years' 
272 



BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT. S5 

observation, the breed in question was never known to produce 
progeny having the slightest tinge of chestnut color. 

A sow is capable of conceiving at the age of six or seven 
months ; but it is always better not to let her commence breed- 
ing too early, as it tends to weaken her. From ten to twelve 
months — and the latter is preferable — is about the best age. 
The boar should be, at least, a twelvemonth old — some even 
recommend eighteen months, at least — before he is employed 
for the purpose of propagating his species. If, however, the 
sow has attained her second year, and the boar his third, a 
vigorous and numerous offspring is more likely to result. The 
boar and sow retain their ability to breed for almost five 
years ; that is, until the former is upward of eight years old, 
and the latter seven. It is not advisable, however, to use a 
boar after he has passed his fifth year, nor a sow after her 
fourth, unless she has proved a peculiarly valuable breeder — 
in which case she might produce two or three more litters. 

A boar left on the pasture, at liberty with the sows, might 
suffice for thirty or forty of them ; but as he is commonly shut 
up, and allowed access at stated times only, so that the young 
ones may be born at nearly the same time, it is usual to allow 
him to serve from six to ten — on no account should he serve 
more. The best plan is, to shut up the boar and sow in a sty 
together ; for, when turned in among several females, he is apt 
to ride them so often that he exhausts himself without effect. 
The breeding boar should be fed well and kept in high condi- 
tion, but not fat. Full grown boars being often savage and 
difficult to tame, and prone to attack men and animals, should 
be deprived of their tusks. 

Whenever it is practicable, it should always be so arranged 
18 273 



36 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

that the animals shall farrow early in the spring, and at the 
latter end of summer, or quite the beginning of autumn. In 
the former case, the young pigs will have the run of the early 
pastures, which will be a benefit to them, and a saving to their 
owners ; and there will also be more whey, milk, and other 
dairy produce which can be spared for them by the time they 
are ready to be weaned. In the second case, there will be 
sufficient time for the young to have grown and acquired 
strength before the cold weather comes on, which is always 
very injurious to sucking-pigs. 



POINTS OF A GOOD HOG. 

It may be not amiss to group together what is deemed 
desirable under this head. No one should be led away by 
mere name in his selection of a hog. It may be called a 
Berkshire, or a Suffolk, or any other breed most in estimation, 
and yet, in reality, may possess none of this valuable blood. 
The only sure way to avoid imposition is, to make name 
always secondary to points. If a hog is found possessing such 
points of form as are calculated to insure early maturity and 
faculty of taking on flesh, one needs to care but little by what 
name he is called ; since no mere name can bestow value upon 
an animal deficient in the qualities already indicated. 

The true Berkshire — that possessing a dash of the Chinese 
and Neapolitan varieties — comes, perhaps, nearer to the 
desired standard than any other. 

The chief points which characterize such a hog are the fol- 
lowing : — In the first place, sufficient depth of carcass, and such 
an elongation of body as will insure a sufficient lateral expan- 
sion. The loin and breast should be broad. The breadth of 
274 



- POINTS OF A GOOD HOG. 31 

the former denotes good room for the play of the lungs, and, 
as a consequence, a free and healthy circulation, essential to 
the thriving or fattening of any animal. The bone should be 
small, and the joints fine— nothing is more indicative of high 
breeding than this ; and the legs should be no longer than, 
when fully fat, would just prevent the animal's belly from 
trailing upon the ground. The leg is the least profitable 
portion of the hog, and no more of it is required than is 
absolutely necessary for the support of the rest. The feet 
should be firm and sound ; the toes should lie well together, 
and press straightly upon the ground ; the claws, also, should 
be even, upright and healthy. 

The form of the head is sometimes deemed of little or nO' 
consequence, it being generally, perhaps, supposed that a good 
hog may have an ugly head ; but the head of all animals is 
one of the very principal points in w^hich pure or impure 
breeding will be most obviously indicated. A high-bred 
animal will invariably be found to arrive more speedily at 
maturity, to take flesh more easily, and at an earlier period, 
and, altogether, to turn out more profitably than one of 
questionable or impure stock. Such being the case, the head 
of the hog is a point by no means to be overlooked. The 
description of head most likely to promise — or, rather to be 
the accompaniment of — high breeding, is one not carrying 
heavy bones, not too flat on the forehead, or possessing a 
snout too elongated ; the snout should be short, and the fore- 
head rather convex, curving upward ; and the ear, while pen- 
dulous, should incline somewhat forward, and at the same time 
be light and thin. The carriage of the pig should also be 

noticed. If this be dull, heavy, and dejected, one may reason- 

275 



38 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

ably suspect ill health, if not some concealed disorder actually 
existing, or just about to break forth ; and there cannot be a 
more unfavorable symptom than a hung-down, slouching head. 
Of course, a fat hog for slaughter and a sow heavy with 
young, have not much sprightliness of deportment. 

Color is, likewise, not to be disregarded. Those colors are 
preferable which are characteristic of the most esteemed breeds. 
If the hair is scant, black is desirable, as denoting connection 
with the Neapolitan ; if too bare of hair, a too intimate alliance 
with that variety may be apprehended, and a consequent want 
of hardihood, which — however unimportant, if pork be the 
object — renders such animals a hazardous speculation for store 
purposes, on account of their extreme susceptibility of cold, 
and consequent liability to disease. If white, and not too 
small, they are valuable as -exhibiting connection with the 
Chinese. If light, or sandy, or red with black marks, the 
favorite Berkshire is detected ; and so on, with reference to 
every possible variety of hue. 



TREATMENT DUBING PREGWANCY. 

Sows with pigs should be well and judiciously fed ; that is 
to say, they should have a sufficiency of wholesome, nutritious 
food to maintain their strength and keep them in good con- 
dition, but should by no means be allowed to get fat; as 
when they are in high condition, the dangers of parturition 
are enhanced, the animal is more awkward and liable to 
smother and crush her young, and, moreover, never has as 
much or as good milk as a leaner sow. She should also have 
a separate sty ; for swine are prone to lie so close together 

that, if she is even among others, her young would be in 
276 



ABORTION. 39 

great danger; and this stj sliould be perfectly clean and 
comfortably littered, but not so thickly as to admit of the 
young being able to bury themselves in the straw. 

As the time of her farrowing approaches, she should be 
well supplied with food, especially if she be a young sow, and 
this her first litter, and also carefully watched, in order to 
prevent her devouring the after-birth, and thus engendering a 
morbid appetite which will next induce her to fall upon her 
own young. A sow that has once done this can never 
afterward be depended upon. Hunger, thirst, or irritation of 
any kind, will often induce this unnatural conduct, which is 
another reason why a sow about to farrow should have a sty 
to herself, and be carefully attended to, and have all her wants 
supplied. 



ABORTION. 

This is by no means of so common occurrence in the case 
of the sow as in many other of the domesticated animals. 
Various causes tend to produce it : insufficiency of food, 
eating too much succulent vegetable food, or unwholesome, 
unsubstantial diet ; blows and falls ; and the animal's habit 
of rubbing itself against hard bodies, for the purpose of allay- 
ing the irritation produced by the vermin or cutaneous erup- 
tions to whicli it is subject. Reiterated copulation does not 
appear to produce abortion in the sow ; at least to the extent 
it does in other animals. 

The symptoms indicative of approaching abortion are 

similar to those of parturition, but more intense. There are, 

generally, restlessness, irritation, and shivering ; and the cries 

of the animal evince the presence of severe labor-pains. 

277 



40 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

Sometimes the rectum, vagina, or uterus, becomes relaxed, 
and one or the other protrudes, and often becomes inverted at 
the moment of the expulsion of the foetus, preceded bj the 
placenta, which presents itself foremost. 

Nothing can be done, at the last hour, to prevent abortion ; 
but, from the first, every predisposing cause should be re- 
moved. The treatment will depend upon circumstances. 
Where the animal is young, vigorous, and in high condition, 
bleeding will be beneficial — not a copious blood-letting, but 
small quantities taken at different times ; purgatives may also 
be administered. If, when abortion has taken place, the 
whole of the litter was not born, emollient injections may be 
resorted to with considerable benefit ; otherwise, the after 
treatment should be made the same as in parturition, and the 
animal should be kept warm, quiet, and clean, and allowed a 
certain degree of liberty. Whenever one sow has aborted, the 
causes likely to have produced this accident should be sought, 
and an endeavor made, by removing them, to secure the rest 
of the inmates of the piggery from a similar mishap. 

In cases of abortion, the foetus is seldom born alive, and 
often has been dead for some days ; where this is the case — 
which may be readily detected by a peculiarly unpleasant 
putrid exhalation, and the discharge of a fetid liquid from the 
vagina — the parts should be washed with a diluted solution 
of chloride of lime, in the proportion of one part of chloride to 
three parts of water, and a portion of this lotion gently 
injected into the uterus, if the animal will submit to it. 
Mild doses of Epsom salts, tincture of gentian, and Jamaica 
ginger, will also act beneficially in such cases, and, with atten- 
tion to diet, soon restores the animal. 
278 



PARTUEITION. 



41 



PAETURITION. 

The period of gestation varies according to age, constitu- 
tion, food, and the peculiarities of the individual breed. The 
most usual 
period dur- 
ing which 
the sow- 
carries her 
young is, 
according 
to some, 
three 
months, 
three 
weeks, and J 
three days, 

or one hundred and eight days ; according to others, four 
lunar months, or sixteen weeks, or about one hundred and 
thirteen days. It may safely be said to range from one 
hundred and nine to one hundred and forty-three days. 

The sow produces from eight to thirteen young at a litter, 
and sometimes even more. Young and weakly sows not 
only produce fewer pigs, but farrow earlier than those of 
maturer age and sounder condition ; and besides, as might be 
expected, their offspring are deficient in vigor, oftentimes, 
indeed, puny and feeble. Extraordinary fecundity is not 
however, desirable, for nourishment cannot be afforded to 
more than twelve, the sow's number of teats. The super- 
numerary pigs must therefore suffer ; if but one, it is, of course, 

279 




42 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

the smallest and weakest ; a too numerous litter are all, indeed, 
generally undersized and weakly, and seldom or never prove 
profitable ; a litter not exceeding ten will usually be found to 
turn out most advantageously. On account of the discrepancy 
between the number farrowed by different sows, it is a good 
plan, if it can be managed, to have more than one breeding at 
the same time, in order that the number to be suckled by each 
may be equalized. The sow seldom recognizes the presence 
of a strange little one, if it has been introduced among the 
others during her absence, and has Iain for half an hour or so 
among her own offspi'ing in their sty. 

The approach of the period of farrowing is marked by the 
immense size of the belly, by a depression of the back, and by 
the distention of the teats. The animal manifests symptoms 
of acute suffering, and wanders restlessly about, collecting 
straw, and carrying it to her sty, grunting piteously mean- 
while. As soon as this is observed, she should be persuaded 
into a separate sty, and carefully watched. On no account 
should several sows be permitted to farrow in the same place 
at the same time, as they will inevitably irritate each other, 
■ or devour their own or one another's young. 

The young ones should be taken away as soon as they are 

born, and deposited in a warm spot ; for the sow being a 

clumsy animal, is not unlikely in her struggles to overlie 

them ; nor should they be returned to her, until all is over, 

and the after-birth has been removed, which should always be 

done the moment it passes from her ; for young sows, 

especially, will invariably devour it, if permitted, and then, as 

the young are wet with a similar fluid, and smell the same, 

they will eat them also, one after another. Some advise 
280 



PARTURITION. 43 

washing the backs of young pigs with a decoction of aloes, 

colocynth, or some other nauseous substance, as a remedy for 

this ; but the simplest and easiest one is to remove the little 

ones until all is over, and the mother begins to recover herself 

and seek about for them, when they should be put near her. 

Some also recommend strapping up the sow's mouth for the 

first three or four days, only releasing it to admit of her taking 

her meals. 

Some sows are apt to lie upon and crush their young. 

This may best be avoided by not keeping her too fat or heavy, 

and by not leaving too many young upon her. The straw 

forming the bed should likewise be short, and not in too great 

quantity, lest the pigs get huddled up under it, and the sow 

unconsciously over-lie them in that condition. 

It does not always happen that the parturition is effected 

with ease. Cases of false presentation, of enlarged foetus, and 

of debility in the mother, often render it difficult and dangerous. 

The womb will occasionally become protruded and inverted, 

in consequence of the forcing pains of difficult parturition, and 

even the bladder has been known to come away. These parts 

must be returned as soon as may be; and if the womb has 

come in contact with the dung or litter, and acquired any 

dirt, it must first be washed in lukewarm water, and then 

returned, and confined in its place by means of a suture passed 

through the lips of the orifice. The easiest and perhaps the 

best way, however, is not to return the protruded parts at all, 

but merely tie a ligature round them and leave them to slough 

off, which they will do in the course of a few days, without 

effusion of blood, or farther injury to the animal. No sow 

281 



44 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

that has once suffered from protrusion of the womb should be 
allowed to breed again. 



TREATMENT WHILE SUCKLING. 

Much depends upon this ; as many a fine sow and promising 
litter have been ruined for want of proper and judicious care 
at this period. Immediately after farrowing, many sows in- 
cline to be feverish ; where this is the case, a light and sparing 
diet only should be given them for the first day or two, as 
gruel, oatmeal porridge, whey, and the like. Others, again, 
are very much debilitated, and require strengthening; for 
them, strong soup, bread steeped in wine, or in a mixture of 
brandy and sweet spirits of nitre, administered in small 
quantities, will often prove highly beneficial. 

The rations must gradually be increased and given more 
frequently ; and tliey must be composed of wholesome, nutri- 
tious, and succulent substances. All kinds of roots — carrots, 
turnips, potatoes, and beet-roots — well steamed or boiled, but 
never raw, may be given ; bran, barley, and oatmeal, bran- 
flour, Indian corn, whey, sour, skim, and butter-milk, are all 
well adapted for this period ; and, should the animal appear to 
require it, grain well bruised and macerated may be added. 
Whenever it is possible, the sow should be turned out for an 
hour each day, to graze in a meadow or clover-field, as the 
fresh air, exercise, and herbage, will do her immense good. 
The young pigs must be shut up for the first ten days or 
fortnight, after which they will be able to follow her, and take 
their share of the benefit. 

The food should be given regularly at certain hours ; small 

and often -repeated meals are far preferable to large ones, since 
282 



TREATMENT OF YOTJNG PIGa 45 

indigestion, or any disarrangement of the functions of the 
stomach vitiates the milk, and produces diarrhoea and other 
similar affections in the young. The mother should always 
be well fed, but not over-fed ; the better and more carefully 
she is fed, the more abundant and nutritious will her milk be, 
the better will the sucking-pigs thrive, and the less will she be 
reduced by suckling them. 

When a sow is weakly, and has not a sufficiency of milk, 
the young pigs must be taught to feed as early as possible. 
A kind of gruel, made of skim-milk and bran, or oatmeal, is a 
good thing for this purpose, or potatoes, boiled and then 
mashed in milk or whey, with or without the addition of a 
little bran or oatmeal. Toward the period when the pigs are 
to be weaned, the sow must be less plentifully fed, otherwise 
the secretion of milk will be as great as ever ; it will, besides, 
accumulate, and there will be hardness, and perhaps inflamma- 
tion of the teats. If necessary, a dose of physic may be given 
to assist in carrying off the milk ; but, in general, a little 
judicious management in the feeding and weaning will be all 
that is required. 

TREATMENT OF YOUWG PIGS. 

For the first ten days, or a fortnight, the mother will 
generally be able to support her litter without assistance, 
unless, as has been already observed, she is weakly, or her 
young are too numerous ; in either of which eases they must 
be fed from the first. When the young pigs are about a fort- 
night old, warm milk should be given to them. In another 
week, this may be thickened with some species of farina ; and 

afterward, as they gain strength and increase in size, boiled 

283 



46 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES 

roots and vegetables may be added. As soon ais tlicy begin 
to eat, an open frame or railing should be placed in the sty, 
under which the little pigs can run, and on the otherofe d so 
this should be the small troughs containing their food ; for it 
never answers to let them eat out of the same trough with 
their mother, because the food set before her is generally too 
strong and stimulating for them, even if they should secure 
any of it, which is, to say the least, extremely doubtful. 
Those intended to be killed for sucking-pigs should not be 
above four weeks old ; most kill them for this purpose on the 
twenty-first or twenty-second day. The others, excepting 
those kept for breeding, should be castrated at the same 
time. 



CASTBATION AND SPAYING. 

Pigs are chiefly castrated with a view to fattening them ; 
and, doubtless, this operation has the desired effect — for at 
the same time that it increases the quiescent qualities of the 
animal, it diminishes also his courage, spirits, and nobler 
attributes, and even affects his form. The tusks of a castrated 
boar never grow like those of the natural animal, but always 
have a dwarfed, stunted appearance. The operation, if possi- 
ble, should be performed in the spring or autumn, as the 
temperature is the more uniform, and care should be taken 
that the animal is in perfect health. Those which are fat and 
plethoric should be prepared by bleeding, cooling diet and 
quiet. Pigs are castrated at all ages, from a fortnight to 
three, six and eight weeks, and even four months old. 

There are various modes of performing this operation. If 

the pig is not more than six weeks old, an incision is made at 
284 



CASTRATION AND SPAYING. 4t 

the bottom of the scrotum, the testicle pushed out, and the 
cord cut, without any precautionary means whatever. When 
the animal is older, there is reason to fear that hemorrhage, to 
a greater or less extent, will supervene ; consequently, it will 
be advisable to pass a ligature round the cord a little above 
the spot where the division is to take place. 

By another mode — to be practised only on very young 
animals — a portion of the base of the scrotum is cut ofi", the 
testicles forced out, and, the cord sawn through with a some- 
what serrated but blunt instrument. If there is any hem- 
orrhage, it is arrested by putting ashes in the wound. The 
animal is then dismissed and nothing further done with him. 

On animals two and three years old, the operation is some 

times performed in the following manner : An assistant holds 

the pig, pressing the back of the animal against his chest and 

belly, keeping the head elevated, and grasping all the four 

legs together ; or, which is the preferable way, one assistant 

holds the animal against his chest, while another knee\s down 

and secures the four legs. The opcBator then grasps the 

scrotum with his left hand, makes one horizontal incision 

across its base, opening both divisions of the oag at the same 

time. The testicles are then pressed out with his finger and 

thumb, and removed with a blunt knife, which lacerates the 

part without bruising it and rendering it painful. Laceration 

only is requisite in order to prevent the subsequent hemorrhage 

which would occur, if the cord were simply severed by a sharp 

instrument. The wound is then closed by pushing the edges 

gently together with the fingers, and it speedily heals. Some 

break the spermatic cord without tearing it ; they twist it, and 

then pull it gently and finally until it gives way. 

285 



48 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

In other cases, a waxed cord is passed as tightly as possible 
round the scrotum, above the epididymus, which completely 
stops the circulation, and in a few days the scrotum and 
testicles Avill drop ofif. This operation should never be per- 
formed on pigs of more than six weeks of age, and the 
spermatic should always, first of all, be measured. It, more- 
over requires great nicety and skill ; otherwise, accidents will 
occur, and considerable pain and inflammation be caused. 
Too thick a cord, a knot not tied sufficiently tight, or a portion 
of the testicle included in the ligature, will prevent its success. 

The most fatal consequence of castration is tetanus, or lock- 
jaw, induced by the shock communicated to the nervous 
system by the torture of the operation. 



SPAYING, 

This operation consists in removing the ovaries, and some- 
times a portion of the uterus, more or less considerable, of the 
female. The animal is laid upon its left side, and firmly held 
by one or two assistants ; an incision is then made into the 
flank, the forefinger of the right hand introduced into it, and 
gently moved about until it encounters and hooks hold of the 
right ovary, which it draws through the opening ; a ligature is 
then passed round this one, and the left ovary felt for in like 
manner. The operator then severs these two ovaries, either 
by cutting or tearing, and returns the womb and its appurte- 
nances to their proper position. This being done, he closes 
the wound with two or three stitches, sometimes rubs a little 
oil over it, and releases the animal. All goes on well, for the 
healing power of the pig is very great. 

The after-treatment is very simple. The animals should be 
286 



WEANINa. 49 

well littered with clean straw, in styes weather-tight and 
thoroudily ventilated ; their diet should be cared for ; some 
milk or whey, with barley-meal is an excellent article ; it is 
well to confine them for a few days, as they should be pre^ 
vented from getting into cold water or mud until the wound ia 
perfectly healed, and also from creeping through fences. 

The best age for spaying a sow is about six weeks ; indeed, 
as a general rule, the younger the animal is when either 
operation is performed the quicker it recovers. Some persons, 
however, have two or three litters from their sows before they 
operate upon them ; where this is the case, the result is more 
to be feared, as the parts have become more susceptible, and 
are, consequently, more liable to take on inflammation. 



■WEANING. 

Some farmers wean the pigs a few hours after birth, and 
turn the sow at once to the boar. The best mode, however, 
is to turn the boar into the hog-yard about a week after par- 
turition, at which time the sow should be removed a few hours 
daily from her young. It does not injure either the sow or 
her pigs if she takes the boar while suckling ; but some sows 
will not do so until the drying of their milk. 

The age at which pigs may be weaned to the greatest 

advantage is when they are about eight or ten weeks old ; 

many, however, wean them as early as six weeks, but they 

seldom turn out as well. They should not be taken from the 

sow at once, but gradually weaned. At first they should be 

removed from her for a certain number of hours each day, and 

accustomed to be impelled by hunger to eat from the trough ; 

then they may be turned out for an hour without her, and 

287 



50 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

afterwards shut up while she also is turned out by herself. 
Subsequently, they must only be allowed to suck a certain 
number of times in twenty-four hours ; perhaps six times at 
first, then four, then three, and, at last, only once ; and mean- 
while they must be proportionably better and more plentifully 
fed, and the mother's diet in a like manner diminished. Some 
advise that the whole litter should be weaned at once ; this is 
not best, unless one or two of the pigs are much weaker and 
smaller than the others ; in such case, if the sow remain in 
tolerable condition, they might be suffered to suck for a week 
longer ; but this should be the exception, and not a general 
rule. 

Pigs are more easily weaned than almost any other animals, 
because they learn to feed sooner ; but attention must, never- 
theless, lie paid to them, if they are to grow up strong, healthy 
animals. Their styes must be warm, dry, clean, well-venti- 
lated, and weather-tight. They should have the run of a 
grass meadow or enclosure for an hour or two every fine day, 
in spring and summer, or be turned into the farm-yard among 
the cattle in the winter, as fresh air and exercise tend to 
prevent them from becoming rickety or crooked in the legs. 

The most nutritious and succulent food that circumstances 
will permit should be furnished them. Newly-weaned pigs 
require five or six meals in the twenty-four hours. In about 
ten days, one may be omitted ; in another week, a second ; and 
then they should do with three regular meals each day. A 
little sulphur mingled with the food, or a small quantity of 
Epsom or Glauber salts dissolved in the water, will frequently 
prove beneficiah A plentiful supply of clear, cold water 

should always be within their reach ; the food left in the 

288 



RINGING. 51 

trough after the animals have finished eating should be 
removed, and the trough thoroughly rinsed out before any 
more is put into it. Strict attention should also be paid to 
cleanliness. The boars and sows should be kept apart from 
the period of weaning. 

The question, which is more profitable, to breed swine, or 
to buy young pigs and fatten them, can best be determined by 
those interested ; since they know best what resources they 
can command, and what chance of profits each of these 
separate branches offers. 



HINGING. 

This operation is performed to counteract the propensity 
which swine have of digging and furrowing up the earth. 
The ring is passed through what appears to be a prolongation 
of the septum, between the supplemental, or snout-bone, and 
the nasal. The animal is thus unable to obtain sufficient 
purchase to use his snout with any effect, without causing the 
ring to press so painfully upon the part that he is forced to 
desist. The ring, however, is apt to break, or it wears out in 
process of time, and has to be replaced. 

The snout should be perforated at weaning-time, after the 

animal has recovered from castration or spaying ; and it will 

be necessary to renew the operation as it becomes of large 

growth. It is too generally neglected at first ; but no pigs, 

young or old, should be suffered to run at large without this 

precaution. The sow's ring should be ascertained to be of 

sufficient strength previously to her taking the boar, on 

account of the risk of abortion, if the operation is renewed 

while she is with pig. Care must be taken by the operator 
19 289 



52 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

not to go too close to the bone, and tliat the ring turn 
easily. 

A far better mode of proceeding is, when the pig is young, 
to cut through the cartilaginous and ligamentous prolongations, 
by which the supplementary bone is united to the proper 
nasals. The divided edges of the cartilage will never re-unite, 
and the snout always remains powerless. 



FEEDING AND FATTENING. 

Roots and fruits are the natural food of the hog, in a wild as 
well as in a domesticated state ; and it is evident that, however 
omnivorous it may occasionally appear, its palate is by no 
means insensible to the diffei'ence in eatables, since, whenever 
it finds variety, it will select the best with as much cleverness 
as other quadrupeds. Indeed, the hog is more nice in the 
selection of his vegetable diet than any of the other domesti- 
cated herbivorous animals. To a certain extent he is oiv-nm 
orous, and may be reared on the refuse of slaughter-houses ; 
but such food is not wholesome, nor is it natural ; for, though 
he is omnivorous, he is not essentially carnivorous. The 
refuse of the dairy-farm is more congenial to his health, to say 
nothing of the quality of its flesh. 

Swine are generally fattened for pork at from six to nine 

months old; and for bacon, at from a year to two years. 

Eighteen months is generally considered the proper age for a 

good bacon hog. The feeding will always, in a great measure, 

depend upon the circumstances of the owner — upon the kind 

of food which he has at his disposal, and can best spare — and 

the purpose for which the animal is intended. It will also, in 

some degree, be regulated by the season ; it being possible to 
290 



FEEDING AND FATTENING. 53 

feed pigs very differently in the summer from what they'are 
fed in the winter. 

The refuse wash and grains, and other residue of breweries 
and distilleries, may be given to swine with advantage, and 
seem to induce a tendency to lay on flesh. They should not, 
however, be given in too large quantities, nor unmixed with 
other and more substantial food ; since, although they give 
flesh rapidly when fed on it, the meat is not firm, and never 
makes good bacon Hogs eat acorns and beech-mast greedily, 
and so far thrive on this food that it is an easy matter to 
fatten them afterwards. Apples and pumpkins are likewise 
valuable for this purpose. 

There is nothing so nutritious, so eminently and in every 
way adapted for the purpose of fattening, as are the various 
kinds of grain — nothing that tends more to create firmness as 
well as delicacy in the flesh. Indian corn is equal, if not 
superior, to any kind of grain for fattening purposes, and can 
be given in its natural state, as pigs are so fond of it that they 
will eat up every kernel. The pork and bacon of animals thai 
have been thus fed are peculiarly firm and solid. Animal 
food tends to make swine savage and feverish, and often lays 
the foundation of serious inflammation of the intestines. 
Weekly washing with soap and a brush adds wonderfully tc 
the thriving condition of a hog. 

In the rich corn regions of our States, upon that grain 

beginning to ripen, as it does in August, the fields are fenced 

off into suitable lots, and large herds are successively turned 

into them, to consume the grain at their leisure. They waste 

nothing except the stalks, which in that land of plenty are 

considered of little value, and they are still useful as manure 

291 



54 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

for succeeding crops ; and whatever grain is left by them, 
leaner droves which follow will readily glean. Peas, early 
buckwheat, and apples, may be fed on the ground in the same 
way. 

There is an improvement in the character of the grain from 
a few months' keeping, which is fully equivalent to the interest 
of the money and the cost of storage. If fattened early in the 
season, hogs will consume less food to make an equal amount 
of flesh than in colder weather ; they will require less attention ; 
and, generally, early pork will command the highest price in 
market. 

It is most economical to provide swine with a fine clover 
pasture, to run in during the spring and summer ; and they 
ought also to have access to the orchard, to pick up all the 
unripe and superfluous fruit that falls. They should also have 
the wash of the house and the dairy, to which add meal, 
and let it sour in large tubs or barrels. Not less than one- 
third, and perhaps more, of the whole grain fed to hogs, is 
saved by grinding and cooking, or souring. Care must, how- 
ever, be taken that the souring be not carried so far as to 
injure the food by putrefaction. A mixture of meal and 
water, with the addition of yeast or such remains of a former 
fermentation as adhere to the sides or bottom of the vessel, 
and exposure to a temperature between sixty-eight and 
seventy-seven degrees Fahrenheit, will produce immediate 
fermentation. 

In this process there are five stages : the saccharine, by 

which the starch and gum of the vegetables, in their natural 

condition, are converted into sugar ; the vinous, which changes 

the sugar into alcohol ; the mucilaginous, sometimes taking 

292 



FEEDING AND FATTENING. 55 

the place of the vinous, and occurring where the sugar solution, 
or fermenting principle, is weak, producing a slimy, glutinous 
product; the acetic, forming vinegar, from the vinous or 
alcoholic stage ; and the putrefactive, which destroys all the 
nutritive principles and converts them into a poison. The 
precise points in fermentation, when the food becomes most 
profitable for feeding, has not as yet been satisfactorily deter- 
mined ; but that it should stop short of the putrefactive, and 
probably the full maturity of the acetic, is certain. 

The roots for fattening ought to be washed, and steamed or 
boiled ; and when not intended to be fermented, the meal may 
be scalded with the roots. A small quantity of salt, should be 
added. Potatoes are the best roots for swine ; then parsnips ; 
orange or red carrots, white or Belgian ; sugar-beets ; mangel- 
wurtzels ; ruta-bagas ; and then white turnips, in the order 
mentioned. The nutritive properties of turnips are diffused 
through so large a bulk that it is doubtful if they can ever be 
fed to fattening swine with advantage ; and they will barely 
sustain life when fed to them uncooked. 

There is a great loss in feeding roots to fattening swine, 
without cooking. When unprepared grain is fed, it should be 
on a full stomach, to prevent imperfect mastication, and con- 
sequent loss of the food. It is better, indeed, to have it 
always before them. The animal machine is an expensive one 
to keep in motion ; and it should be the object of the farmer 
to put his food in the most available condition for its imme- 
diate conversion into fat and muscle. 

The following injunctions should be rigidly observed, if one 

would secure the greatest results : 

1. A-Yoidi foul feeding. 

293 



56 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

2. Do not omit adding salt in moderate quantities to the 
mess given. 

3. Feed at regular intervals. 

4." Cleanse the troughs previous to feeding. 

5. Do not over-feed; give only as much as will he con- 
sumed at the meal. 

6. Vary the food. Variety will create, or, at all events, 
increase appetite, and it is most conducive to health. Let 
the variations be governed by the condition of the dung cast, 
which should be of a medium consistence, and of a grayish- 
brown color ; if hard, increase the quantity of bran and suc- 
culent roots ; if too liquid, diminish, or dispense with bran, 
and make the mess firmer ; add a portion of corn. 

Y. Feed the stock separately, in classes, according to their 
relative conditions. Keep sows with young by themselves ; 
store-hogs by themselves ; and bacon-hogs and porkers by 
themselves. It is not advisable to keep the store-hogs too 
high in flesh, since high feeding is calculated to retard develop- 
ment of form and bulk. It is better to feed pigs intended 
to be put up for bacon loosely and not too abundantly, until 
they have attained their full stature ; they can then be brought 
into the highest possible condition in a surprisingly short 
space of time. 

8. Keep the swine clean, dry, and warm. Cleanliness, 
dryness, and warmth are essential, and as imperative as feed- 
ing ; for an inferior description of food will, by their aid, succeed 

far better than the highest feeding will without them. 
294 



piggeries: 57 

PIGGEBIES. 

Few items conduce more to the thriving and well-being of 
swine than airy, spacious, well-constructed styes, and above 
all, cleanliness. They were formerly too often housed in 
damp, dirty, close, and imperfectly-built sheds, which was a 
fruitful source of disease and of unthrifty animals. Any place 
was once thought good enough to keep a pig in. 

In large establishments, where numerous pigs are kept, 
there should be divisions appropriated to all the different kinds ; 
the boars, the breeding sows, the newly weaned, and the 
fattening pigs should all be kept separate ; and in the divisions 
assigned to the second and last of these classes, it is best to 
have a distinct apartment for each animal, all opening into a 
yard or inclosure of limited extent. As pigs require wai'mth, 
these buildings should face the south, and be kept weather- 
tight and well drained. Good ventilation is also important ; 
for it is idle to expect animals to make good flesh and retain 
their health, unless they have a sufficiency of pure air. The 
blood requires this to give it vitality and free it from im- 
purities, as much as the stomach requires wholesome and 
strengthening food ; and when it does not have it, it becomes 
vitiated, and impairs all the animal functions. Bad smells 
and exhalations, moreover, injure the flavor of the meat. 

Damp and cold floors should be guarded against, as they 

tend to induce cramp and diarrhoea ; and the roof should be so 

contrived as to carry off the wet from the pigs. The walls of 

a well-constructed sty should be of solid masonry ; the roof 

sloping, and furnished with spouts to carry off the rain ; the 

floors either slightly inclined toward a gutter made to carry 

295 



58 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

off the rain, or else raised from the ground on beams or joists, 
and perforated so that all urine and moisture shall drain off. 
Bricks and tiles, sometimes used for flooring, are objectionable, 
because, however well covered with straw, thej still strike 
cold. Wood is far superior in this respect, as well as because 
it admits of those clefts or perforations being made, which 
serve not only to drain off all moisture, but also to admit 
fresh air. 

The manure proceeding from the pig-sty has often been 
much undervalued, and for this reason, that the litter is sup- 
posed to form the principal portion of it ; whereas it consti- 
tutes the least valuable part, and, indeed, it can scarcely be 
regarded as manure at all — at least by itself — where the 
requisite attention is paid to the cleanliness of the animals and 
of their dwellings. The urine and the dung are valuable, 
being, from the very nature of the food of the animals, ex- 
ceedingly rich and oleaginous, and materially beneficial to cold 
soils and grass-lands. The manure from the sty should always 
be collected as carefully as that from the stable or cow-house, 
and husbanded in the same way. 

The door of each sty ought to be so hung that it will open 

inward or outward, so as to give the animals free ingress and 

egress. For this purpose, it should be hung across from side 

to side, and the animal can push it up to effect its entry or 

exit ; for, if it were hung in the ordinary way, it would 

derange the litter every time it opened inward, and be very 

liable to hitch. If it is not intended that the pigs shall leave 

their sty, there should be an upper and lower door ; the former 

of which should alwaj^s be left open when the weather is warm 

and dry, while the latter will serve to confine the animal. 
296 



PIGGERIES. 59 

There should likewise be windows or slides, which can be 
opened or closed at will, to give admission to the fresh air, or 
exclude rain or cold. 

Wherever it can be managed, the troughs — which should 
be of stone or cast metal, since wooden ones will soon be 
gnawed to pieces — should be so situated that they can be 
filled and cleaned from the outside, without interfering with 
or disturbing the animals at all ; and for this purpose it is 
well to have a flap, or door, with swinging hinges, made to 
hang horizontally on the trough, so that it can be moved to 
and fro, and alternately be fastened by a bolt to the inside or 
outside of the manger. When the hogs have fed sufficiently, 
the door is swung inward and fastened, and so remains until 
feeding-time, when the trough is cleansed and refilled without 
any trouble, and then the flap drawn back, and the animals 
admitted to their food. Some cover the trough with a lid 
having as many holes in it as there are pigs to eat from it, 
which gives each pig an opportunity of selecting his own hole, 
and easing away without interfering with or incommoding his 
neighbor. 

A hog ought to have three apartments, one each for sleep- 
ing, eating, and evacuations ; of which the last may occupy the 
lowest, and the first the highest level, so that nothing shall 
be drained, and as little carried into the first two as possible. 
The piggery should always be built as near as possible to 
that portion of the establishment from which the chief part of 
the provision is to come, since much labor will thus be saved. 
Washings, and combings, and brushings, as has been previ- 
ously suggested, are valuable adjuncts in the treatment of 

swine ; the energies of the skin are thus roused, the pores 

297 



60 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

opened, the healthful functions aided, and that inertness, so 
likely to be engendered by the lazy life of a fattening pig, 
counteracted. 

A supply of fresh water is essential to the well-being of 
swine, and should be freely furnished. If a stream can be 
brought through the piggery, it answers better than any 
thing else. Swine are dirty feeders and dirty drinkers, usually 
plunging their forefeet into the trough or pail, and thus 
polluting with mud or dirt whatever may be given to them. 
One of the advantages, therefore, to be derived from the 
stream of running water is, its being kept constantly clean and 
wholesome by its running. If this advantage cannot be pro- 
cured, it is desirable to present water in vessels of a size to 
receive but one head at a time, and of such height as to render 
it impossible, or difficult, for the drinker to get his feet into it. 
The water should be renewed twice daily. If swine are 
closely confined in pens, they should have as much charcoal 
twice a week as they will eat, for the purpose of correcting 
any tendency to disorders of the stomach. Rotten wood is an 
imperfect substitute for charcoal. 



SLAUGHTERING. 

A pig that is to be killed should be kept without food for 
from twelve to sixteen hours previous to slaughtering ; a little 
water must, however, be within his reach. He should, in the 
first place, be stunned by a blow on the head. Some advise 
that the knife should be thrust into the neck so as to sever the 
artery leading from the heart ; while others prefer that the 
animal should be stuck through the brisket in the direction of 

the heart — care being exercised not to toucht he first rib. The 

298 



SLAUGHTERING. 



61 



blood should then be allowed to drain from the carcass into 
vessels placed for the purpose ; and the more completely it 
does so, the better will be the meat. 

A large tub, or other vessel, has been previously got ready, 
which is now filled with boiling water. The carcass of the 

m \\\ \ r I mi 



plunged 
into this, 
and the 
hair is then 
removed 
with the 
edge of a 
knife. The 
hair is more 
easily re- 
moved if 
the hog is 

scalded before he stiffens, or becomes quite cold. It is not, 
however, necessary, but simply brutal and barbarous, to scald 
him while there is yet some life in him. Bacon-hogs may be 
singed, by enveloping the body in straw, and setting the straw 
on fire, and then scraping it all over. When this is done, care 
must be observed not to burn or parch the cuticle. The 
entrails should then be removed, and the interior of the body 
well washed with lukewarm water, so as to remove all blood 
and impurities, and afterward wiped dry with a clean cloth ; 
the carcass should then be hung up in a cool place for 
eighteen or twenty hours, to become set and firm. 

For cutting up, the carcass should be laid on the back, upon 

299 




THE OLD ENGLISH HOG. 



62 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

a strong table. The head should then be cut off close by the 
ears, and the hinder feet so far below the houghs as not to dis- 
figure the hams, and leave room sufficient for hanging them 
up ; after which the fcarcass is divided into equal halves, up 
the middle of the back bone, with a cleaving-knife, and, if 
necessary, a hand-mallet. Then cut the ham from the side by 
the second joint of the back-bone, which will appear on divid- 
ing the carcass, and dress the ham by paring a little off the 
flank, or skinny part, so as to shape it with a half round point, 
clearing off any top fat which may appear. Next cut off the 
sharp edge along the back bone with a knife and mallet, and 
slice off the first rib next the shoulder, where there is a bloody 
vein, which must be taken out, since, if it is left in, that part is 
apt to spoil. The corners should be squared off when the ham 
is cut. The ordinary practice is to cut out the spine, or back 
bone. Some take out the chine and upper parts of the ribs 
in the first place ; indeed, almost every locality has its peculiar 
mode of proceeding. 

PICKLIlxTG AND CURING. 

The usual method of curing is to pack the pork in clean 
salt, adding brine to the barrel when filled. But it may be 
dry-salted, by rubbing it in thoroughly on ever}^ side of each 
piece, with a strong leather rubber firuily secured to the palm 
of the right hand. The pieces are then thrown into heaps 
and sprinkled with salt, and occasionally turned till cured ; or 
it may at once be packed in dry casks, which are rolled at 
times to bring the salt into contact with every part. 

Hams and shoulders may be cured in the same manner 

either dry or in pickle, but with differently arranged materials. 
300 



PICKLING AND CURING. 63 

The following is a good pickle for two hundred pounds : 
Take fourteen pounds of Turk's Island salt ; one-half pound 
of saltpetre ; two quarts of molasses, or four pounds of brown 
sugar ; with water enough to dissolve them. Bring the 
liquor to the scalding-point, and skim off all the impurities 
which rise to the top. When cold, pour it upon the ham, 
which should be perfectly cool, but not frozen, and closely 
packed ; if not sufficient to cover it, add pure water for this 
purpose. Some extensive packers of choice hams add pepper, 
allspice, cinnamon, nutmegs, or mace and cloves. 

The hams may remain six or eight weeks in this pickle, 
then should be hung up in the smoke-house, with the small 
end down, and smoked from ten to twenty days, according to 
the quantity of smoke. The fire should not be near enough 
to heat the hams. In Holland and Westphalia, the fire^is 
made in the cellar, and the smoke carried by a flue into a cool, 
dry chamber. This is, undoubtedly, the best mode of smoking. 
The hams should at all times be dry and cool, or their flavor 
will suffer. Green sugar-maple chips are best for smoke ; 
next to them are hickory, sweet birch, corn-cobs, white ash, 
or beech. 

The smoke-house is the best place in which to keep hams 

until they are wanted. If removed, they should be kept cool, 

dry, and free from flies. A canvas cover for each, saturated 

with lime, which may be put on with a whitewash brush, is a 

perfect protection^against flies. When not to be kept long, 

they may be packed in dry salt, or even in sweet brine, 

without injury. A common method is to pack in dry oats, 

baked saw-dust, etc. 

The following is the method in most general use in several 

301 



— 1 



(54 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

of the Western States. The chine is taken out, as also 
the spare-ribs from the shoulders, and the mouse-pieces and 
short-ribs, or griskins, from the middlings. No acute angles 
should be left to shoulders or hams. In salting up, all the 
meat, except the heads, joints, and chines, and smaller pieces, 
is put into powdering-tubs — water-tight half-hogsheads — or 
into large troughs, ten feet long and three or four feet wide 
at the top, made of the poplar tree. The latter are much 
more convenient for packing the meat in, and are easily 
caulked, if they should crack so as to leak. The salting- 
tray — or box in which the meat is to be salted, piece by piece, 
and from which each piece, as it is salted, is to be transferred 
to the powdering-tub, or trough — must be placed just so near 
the trough that the man standing between can transfer the 
pieces from one to the other easily, and without wasting the 
salt as they are lifted from the salting-box into the trough. 
The Salter stands on the off-side of the salting-box. The hams 
should be salted first, the shoulders next, and the middlings 
last, which may be piled up two feet above the top of the 
trough or tub. The joints will thus in a short time be im- 
mersed in brine. 

Measure into the salting-tray four measures of salt — a peck 
moa«nre will be found most convenient — and one measure of 
clean, dry, sifted ashes ; mix, and incorporate them well. The 
Salter takes a ham into the tray, rubs the skin and the raw 
end with his composition, turns it over, and? packs the com- 
position of salt and ashes on the fleshy side till it is at least 
three-quarters of an inch deep all over it ; and on the interior 
lower part of the ham, which is covered with the skin, as 

much as will lie on it. The man standing ready to transfer 
302 



PICKLING AND CURING. 65 

the pieces, deposits it carefully, without disturbing the com- 
position, with the skin-side down, in the bottom of the trough. 
Each succeeding ham is then deposited, side by side, so as 
to leave the least possible space unoccupied. 

When the bottom is wholly covered, see that every visible 
part of this layer of meat is covered with the composition of 
salt and ashes. Then begin another layer, every piece being 
covered on the upper or fleshy side three-quarters of an inch 
thick with the composition. When the trough is filled, even 
full, in this way, with the joints, salt the middlings with salt 
only, without the ashes, and pile them up on the joints so 
that the liquified salt may pass from them into the trough. 
Heads, joints, back bones, etc., receive salt only, and should 
not be put in the trough with the large pieces. 

Much slighter salting will preserve them, if they are salted 
upon loose boards, so that the bloody brine from them can 
pass off. The joints and middlings are to remain in and 
above the trough without being re-handled, re-salted, or dis- 
turbed in any way, till they are to be hung up to be smoked. 

If the hogs do not weigh more than one hundred and fifty 
pounds, the joints need not remain longer than five weeks in 
the pickle ; if they weigh two hundred, or upward, six or 
seven weeks are not too long. It is better that they should 
stay in too long, rather than too short a time. 

In three weeks, the joints, etc., may be hung up. Taking 

out of pickle, and preparing for hanging up to smoke, are thus 

performed : Scrape off the undissolved salt ; if the directions 

have been followed, there will be a considerable quantity on 

all the pieces not immersed in the brine ; this salt and the 

brine are all saved ; the brine is boiled down, and the dry 

303 



66 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

composition given to stock, especially to hogs. Wash every 
piece in lukewarm water, and with a rough towel clean off the 
salt and ashes. Next, put the strings in to hang up. Set 
the pieces up edgewise, that they may drain and dry. Every 
piece is then to be dipped into the meat-paint, as it is termed, 
composed of warm — not hot — water and very fine ashes, stirred 
together until they are of the consistence of thick paint, and 
hang up to smoke. By being thus dipped, they receive a 
coating which protects them from the fly, prevents dripping, 
and tends to lessen all external injurious influences. Hang 
up the pieces while yet moist with the paint, and smoke them 
well. 



VALUE OF THE CABCASS. 

"No part of the hog is valueless, excepting, perhaps, the 
bristles of the fine-bred races. The very intestines are 
cleansed, and knotted into chittarlings, very much relished by 
some ; the blood, mixed with fat and rice, is made into black 
puddings ; and the tender muscle under the lumbar vertebras 
is worked up into sausages, sweet, high-flavored, and delicious ; 
the skin, roasted, is a rare and toothsome morsel ; and a roast 
sucking-pig is a general delight ; salt pork and bacon are in 
incessant demand, and form important articles of commerce. 

One great value arises from the peculiarity of its fat, which, 

in contradistinction to that of the ox or of the sheep, is termed 

lard, and differs from either in the proportion of its constituent 

principles, which are essentially oleine and stearine. It is 

rendered, or fried out, in the same manner as mutton-suet. It 

melts completely at ninety-nine degrees Fahrenheit, and then 

has the appearance of a transparent and nearly colorless fixed 
304 



VALUE OP THE CARCASS. Gt 

oil. Eighty degrees is the melting-point. It consists of sixty- 
two parts oleine, and thirty-eight of stearine, out of one hun- 
dred. When subjected to pressure between folds of blotting- 
paper, the oleine is absorbed, while the stearine remains. For 
domestic purposes, lard is much used ; it is much better than 
butter for frying fish ; and is much used in pastry, on the score 
of economy. 

The stearine contains the stearic and margaric acids, which, 
when separated, are solid, aud used as inferior substitutes for 
wax or spermaceti candles. The other, oleine, is fluid at a 
low temperature, and in American commerce is known as 
lard-oil, which is very pure, and extensively used for ma- 
chinery, lamps, and most of the purposes for which olive or 
spermaceti oils are valued. It has given to pork a new and 
profitable use, by which the value of the carcass is greatly 
increased. A large amount of pork has thus been withdrawn 
from the market, and the depression, which must otherwise 
have occurred, has been thereby prevented. 

Where the oil is required, the whole carcass, after taking 

out the hams and shoulders, is placed in a tub having two 

bottoms, the upper one perforated with holes. The pork is 

laid on the latter, and then tightly covered. Steam, at a high 

temperature, is then admitted into the tub, and in a short 

time all the fat is extracted, and falls upon the lower bottom. 

The remaining mass is bones and scraps. The last is fed to 

pigs, poultry, or dogs, or affords the best kind of manure. 

The bones are either used for manure, or are converted into 

animal charcoal, valuable for various purposes in the arts. 

When the object is to obtain lard of a fine quality, the animal 
20 305 



68 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

is first skinned, and the adhering fat then carefully scraped 

oflf; thus avoiding the oily, viscid matter of the skin. 

The bristles of the coarse breeds are long, strong, firm, and 

elastic. These are formed into brushes for painters and 

artists, as well as for numerous domestic uses. The skin, 

when tanned, is of a peculiar texture, and very tough. It is 

used for making pocket-books, and for some ornamental 

purposes ; but chiefly for the seats of riding-saddles. The 

numerous little variegations on it, which constitute its beauty, 

are the orifices whence the bristles have been removed. 
306 




r- 



THEIK 

By reason of being generally considered a 
subordinate species of stock, swine do not, in many 
cases, share in the benefits which an improved 
system of agriculture and the present advanced state of veteri- 
nary science, have conferred upon other domesticated animals. 
Since they are by no means the most tractable, of patients, it 
is any thing but an easy matter to compel them to swallow 
any thing to which their appetite does not incite them ; and, 
(69) 307 



VO SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

hence, prevention will be found better than cure. Cleanliness 
is the great point to be insisted upon in the management of 
these animals If this, and warmth, be only attended to, ail- 
ments among them are comparatively rare. 

As, however, disappointment may occasionally occur, even 
under the best system of management, a brief view of the 
principal complaints with which they are liable to be attacked 
is presented, together with the best mode of treatment to be 
adopted in such cases. 



CATCHING THE PIG. 

Swine are very difficult animals to obtain any mastery over, 
or to operate on, or examine. Seldom tame, or easily handled, 
they are at such periods most unmanageable — kicking, scream- 
ing, and even biting fiercely. The following method of getting 
hold of them has been recommended : Fasten a double cord 
to the end of a stick, and beneath the stick let there be a 
running noose in the cord ; tie a piece of bread to the cord, and 
present it to the animal ; and when he opens his mouth to 
seize the bait, catch the upper jaw in the noose, run it tight, 
and the animal is fast. 

Another method is, to catch one foot in a running noose 
suspended from some place, so as to draw the imprisoned 
foot off the ground ; or, to envelop the head of the animal in 
a cloth or sack. 

All coercive measures, however, should, as far as possible, 

be avoided ; for the pig is naturally so averse to being handled 

that in his struggles he will often do himself far more mischief 

than the disease which is to be investigated or remedied 

would effect. 
308 



ELEEDIXa *ll 

BLEEDING. 

The common mode of drawing blood from the pig is bj 
cutting off portions of the ears or tail ; this should only be 
resorted to when local and instant blood-letting is requisite. 
The jugular veins of swine lie too deep, and are too much 
imbedded in fat to admit of their being raised by any ligature 
about the neck ; it is, therefore, useless to attempt to puncture 
them, as it would only be striking at random. 

Those veins, however, which run over the interior surface 
of the ear, and especially toward its outer edge, may be 
opened without much difficulty ; if the ear is turned back on 
the poll, one or more of them may easily be made sufficiently 
prominent to admit of its being punctured by pressing the 
fingers on the base of the ear, near to the conch. When the 
necessary quantity of blood has been obtained, the finger may 
be raised, and it will cease to flow. 

The palate veins, running on either side of the roof of the 
mouth, are also easily opened by making two incisions, one on 
each side of the palate, about half way between the centre of 
the roof of the mouth and the teeth. The flow of blood may 
be readily stopped by means of a pledget of tow and a string, 
as in bleeding the horse. 

The brachial vein of the fore-leg — commonly called the 
plate-vein — running along the inner side under the skin affords 
a good opportunity. The best place for puncturing it is 
about an inch above the knee, and scarcely half an inch back- 
ward from the radius, or the bone of the fore-arm. No danger 
need to be apprehended from cutting two or three times, if 

sufficient blood cannot be obtained at once. This vein will 

309 



— — 1 

72 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

become easily discernible if a ligature is tied firmly around the 
leg, just below the shoulder. 

This operation should always be performed with the lancet, 
if possible. In cases of urgent haste, where no lancet is at 
hand, a small penknife may be used ; but the fleam is a 
dangerous and objectionable instrument. 

DRENCHIIfG. 

Whenever it is possible, the medicine to be administered 
should be mingled with a portion of food, and the animal thus 
cheated or coaxed into taking it ; since many instances are on 
record, in which the pig has ruptured some vessel in his 
struggles, and died on the spot, or so injured himself as to 
bring on inflammation and subsequent death. 

Where this cannot be done, the following is the best 
method : Let a man get the head of the animal firmly between 
his knees — without, however, pinching it — while another 
secures the hinder parts. Then let the first take hold of the 
head from below, raise it a little, and incline it slightly toward 
the right, at the same time separating the lips on the left side 
so as to form a hole into which the fluid may be gradually 
poured — no more being introduced into the mouth at a time 
than can be swallowed at once. Should the animal snort or 
choke, the head must be released for a few moments, or he will 
be in danger of being strangled. 



CATABRH. 

This ailment — an inflammation of the mucous membranes 

of the nose, etc. — is, if taken in time, easily cured by opening 

medicines, followed up by warm bran-wash — a warm, dry sty — 
310 



CHOLERA. IS 

and abstinence from rich grains, or stimulating, farinaceous 
diet. The cause, in most cases, is exposure to drafts of air, 
which should be guarded against. 



OHOLEKA. 

For what is presented concerning this disease, the author is 
indebted to his friend, G. W. Bowler, V. S., of Cincinnati, 
Ohio, whose familiarity with the various diseases of our 
domestic animals and the best modes of treating them, entitles 
his opinions to great weight. 

The term " cholera" is employed to designate a disease 
which has been very fatal among swine in different parts of 
the United States ; and for the reason, that its symptoms, as 
well as the indications accompanying its termination, are very 
nearly allied to what is manifested in the disease of that name 
which visits man. 

Epidemic cholera has, for several years past, committed 
fearful ravages among the swine of, particularly, Ohio, Indiana, 
and Kentucky. Indeed, many farmers who, until recently, 
have been accustomed to raise large numbers of these animals, 
are, in a great measure, disinclined to invest again in such 
stock, on account of the severe losses — in some instances to 
the extent of the entire drove upon particular places. 

Yarious remedies have, of course, been prescribed ; but the 
most have failed in nearly every case where the disease has 
secured a firm foothold. Preventives are, therefore, the most 
that can at present be expected ; and in this direction some- 
thing may be done. Although some peculiar change in the 

atmosphere is, prpbably, an impelling cause of cholera, its 

311 



74 SWINE AND TIIEtR DISEASES. 

ravages may be somewhat stayed by removing other predis- 
posing associate causes. 

Granting that the hog is a filthy animal and fond of rooting 
among filth, it is by no means necessary to persist, for that 
reason, in surrounding him with all the nastiness possible ; for 
even a hog, when penned up in a filthy place, in company 
with a large number of other .hogs — particularly when that 
place is improperly ventilated — is not as healthy as when the 
animals are kept together in smaller numbers in a clean and 
well ventilated barn or pen. Look, for a moment, at a drove 
of hogs coming along the street, the animals all fat and ready 
for the knife. They have been driven several miles, and are 
scarcely able to crawl along, many of them having to be 
carried on drays, while others have died on the road. At last 
they are driven into a pen, perhaps, several inches deep with 
the manure and filth deposited there by hundreds of predeces- 
sors ; every hole in the ground has become a puddle ; and in such 
a place some one hundred or two hundred animals are piled 
together, exhausted from the drive which they have had. They 
lie down in the mud ; and in a short time one can see the steam 
beginning to rise from their bodies in volumes, increasing 
their already prostrate condition by the consequent inhalation 
of the noxious gas thus thrown oflf from the system; the 
blood becomes impregnated with poison ; the various functions 
of the body are thereby impaired ; and disease will inevitably 
be developed in one form or another. Should the disease, 
known as the hog cholera, prevail in the neighborhood, the 
chances are very greatly in favor of their being attacked by it, 
and consequently perishing. 

The symptoms of cholera are as follows; The animal 
312 



CHOLERA. 15 

appears to be instantaneously deprived of energy ; loss of 
appetite; lying down by himself ; occasionally moving about 
slowly, as though experiencing some slight uneasiness inter- 
nally ; the eyes have a very dull and sunken appearance, 
which increases with the disease ; the evacuations are almost 
continuous, of a dark color, having a fetid odor, and containing 
a large quantity of bile ; the extremities are cold, and soreness 
is evinced when the abdomen is pressed ; the pulse is quick- 
ened, and sometimes hardly perceptible, while the buccal 
membrane — that belonging to the cheek — presents a slight 
purple hue ; the tongue has a furred appearance. The 
evacuations continue fluid until the animal expires, which 
may be in twelve hours from the first attack, or the disease 
may run on for several days. 

In a very short time after death, the abdomen becomes of 
a dark purple color, and upon examination, the stomach is 
found to contain but a little fluid ; the intestines are almost 
entirely empty, retaining a slight quantity of the dark colored 
matter before mentioned ; the mucous membrane of the 
alimentary canal exhibits considerable inflammation, which 
sometimes appears only in patches, vphile the other parts are 
filled with dark venous blood — indicating a breaking up of the 
capillary vessels in such places. 

Treatment. As a preventive, the following will be found 
valuable : Flour of sulphur, six pounds ; animal charcoal, one 
pound ; sulphate of iron, six ounces ; cinchona pulverized, one 
pound. Mix well together in a large mortar ; afterwards give 
a tablespoonful to each animal, mixed with a few potato- 
peelings and corn meal, three times a day. Continue this for 

313 



76 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES, 

one week, keeping the animal at the same time in a clean, dry 
place, and not allowing too many together. 



CEACKINGS. 

These will sometimes appear on the skin of a hog, especially 
about the root of the ears and of the tail, and at the flanks. 
They are not at all to be confounded with mange, as they 
never result from any thing but exposure to extremes of 
temperature, while the animal is unable to avail himself of 
such protection as, in a state of nature, instinct would have 
induced him to adopt. They are peculiarly troublesome in 
the heat of summer, if he does not have access to water, m 
which to lave his parched limbs and half-scorched carcass. 

Anoint the cracked parts twice or three times a day with 
tar and lard, well melted up together. 



DIAKBHCEA. 

Before attempting to stop the discharge in this disease — 
which, it permitted to continue unchecked, will rapidly pros- 
trate the animal, and probably terminate fatally — ascertain 
the quality ot food which the animal has recently had. 

In a majority ot instances, this will be found to be the cause. 

If taken in its incipient stage, a mere change to a more binding 

diet, as corn, flour, etc., will suffice for a cure. If acidity is 

present — produced, probably, by the hog's having fed upon 

coarse, rank grasses in swampy places — give some chalk in 

the fdbd, or powdered egg-shells, with about half a drachm of 

powdered rhubarb ; the dose, of course, should vary with the 

size of the animal. In the acorn season, they alone will be 
314 



FEVER. 



11 



found sufficiently curative, where facilities for obtaining them 
exist. Dry lodging is indispensable ; and diligence is requisite 
to keep it dry and clean. 



FEVER. 

The symptoms of this disease are, redness of the eyes, dry- 
ness and heat of the nostrils, the lips, and the skin generally ; 
appetite gone, or very defective ; and, generally, a very violent 
thirst. 

Bleed as soon as possible ; after which house the animal 
well, taking care, at the same time, to have the sty well and 




HUKTIlfa THB WILD BOA^. 

thoroughly ventilated. The bleeding will usually be followed, 
in an hour or two, by such a return of appetite as to induce 
the animal to eat a sufficient quantity of food to be made the 
vehicle for administering external remedies. The best is 
bread, steeped in broth. The hog, however, sinks so rapidly 
when his appetite is near gone, that no depletive medicines 
are, in general, necessary or proper ; the fever will ordinarily 
yield to the bleeding, and the only object needs to be the sup- 

315 



78 SWINE AND THEIK DISEASES. 

port of his strength, by small portions of nourishing food, 
administered frequently. 

Do not let the animal eat as much as his inclination might 
prompt ; when he appears to be no longer ravenous, remove 
the mess, and do not offer it again until after a lapse of three 
or four hours. If the bowels are confined, castor and linseed 
oil, in equal quantities, should be added to the bread and 
broth, in the proportion of two to six ounces, 

A species of fever frequently occurs as an epizootic, often- 
times attacking the male pigs, and generally the most vigorous 
and best looking, without any distinction of age, and with a 
force and rapidity absolutely astonishing. At other times, its 
progress is much slower ; the symptoms are less intense and 
alarming ; and the veterinary surgeon, employed at the outset, 
may meet with some succ 

The causes are, in the majority of instances, the bad styes 
in which the pigs are lodged, and the noisome food which 
they often contain. In addition to these is the constant lying 
on the dung-heap, whence is exhaled a vast quantity of dele- 
terious gas ; also, the remaining far too long on the muddy 
or parched ground, or too protracted exposure to the rigor of 
the season. 

When an animal is attacked with this disease, he should be 
separated from the others, placed in a warm situation, some 
stimulating ointment applied to the chest, and a decoction of 
sorrel administered. Frictions of vinegar should also be ap- 
plied to the dorsal and lumbar region. The drinks should be 
emolient, slightly imbued with nitre and vinegar, and with 
aromatic fumigation about the belly. 

If the fever then appears to be losing, ground, which may be 
316 



FOUL SKIN — INFLAMMATION OP THE LUNGS. 79 

ascertained by the regularity of the pulse, by the absence of 
the plaintive cries before heard, by a less laborious respiration, 
by the absence of convulsions, and by the non-appearance of 
blotches on the skin, there is a fair chance of recovery. Then 
administer, every second hour, as before directed, and give a 
proper allowance of white water, with ground barley and rye. 
When the symptoms redouble in intensity, it is best to 
destroy the animal ; for it is rare that, after a certain period, 
much chance of recovery exists. Bleeding is seldom of much 
avail, but produces, occasionally, considerable loss of vi^al 
power, and augments the putrid diathesis. 



FOUL SKIN. 

A simple irritability or foulness of skin will usually yield to 
cleanliness, and a washing with a solution of chloride of lime ; 
but, if it is neglected for any length of time, it assumes a 
malignant character — scabs and blotches, or red and fiery 
eruptions appear — and the disease rapidly passes into mange, 
which will be hereafter noticed. 



INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 

This disease, popularly known as heavings, is scarcely to be 

regarded as curable. Were it observed in its first stage, 

when indicated by loss of appetite and a short, hard cough, it 

might, possibly, be got under by copious bleeding, and friction 

with stimulating ointment on the region of the lungs; minute 

and frequent doses of tartar emetic should also be given in 

butter — all food of a stimulating nature carefully avoided — 

and the animal kept dry and warm. If once the heavings set 

in, it may be calculated with confidence that the formation of 

317 



80 SAVINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

tubercles in the substance of the lungs has begun ; and when 
these are formed, they are very rarely absorbed. 

The causes of the disease are damp lodging, foul air, want 
of ventilation, and unwholesome food. When tubercular for- 
mation becomes established, the disease may be communicated 
through the medium of the atmosphere, the infectious influ- 
ence depending upon the noxious particles respired from the 
lungs of the diseased animah 

The following may be tried, though the knife is probably 
tl^e best resort, if for no other reason, at least to provide 
against the danger of infection : Shave the hair away from the 
chest, and beneath each fore-leg ; wet the part with spirits of 
turpentine, and set fire to it, having previously had the animal 
well secured, with his head well raised, and a flannel cloth at 
hand with which to extinguish the flame after it has burned 
a su.ffieient time to produce slight blisters ; if carried too far, a 
sore is formed, productive of no good effects, and causing un- 
necessary suffering. Calomel may also be used, with a view 
to promote the absorption of the tubercles ; but the success is 
questionable. 



JAUNDICE. 

The symptoms of this disease are, yellowness of the white 
of the eye ; a similar hue extending to the lips ; and some- 
times, but not invariably, swelling of the under part of the 
jaw. 

Treatment. Bleed freely ; diminish the quantity of food ; 

and give an active aperient every second day. Aloes are, 

perhaps, the best, combined with colocynth ; the dose will 

vary with the size of the animal. 
313 



LEPROSY — LETHARGY. 81 

LEPKOSY. 

This complaint commonly commences with the formation 
of a small tumor in the eye, followed by a general prostration 
of spirits ; the head is held down ; the whole frame inclines 
toward the ground ; universal languor succeeds ; the animal 
refuses food, languishes, and rapidly falls away in flesh ; 
blisters soon make their appearance beneath the tongue, then 
upon the throat, the jaws, the head, and the entire body. 

The Causes of this disease are want of cleanliness, absence 
of fresh air, want of due attention to ventilation, and foul 
feeding. The obvious treatment, therefore, is, first, bleed ; 
clean out the sty daily ; wash the affected animal thoroughly 
with soap and water, to which soda or potash has been added ; 
supply him with a clean bed ; keep him dry and comfortable ; 
let him have gentle exercise, and plenty of fresh air ; limit the 
quantity of his food, and diminish its rankness ; give bran 
with wash, in which add, for an average-sized hog — say one 
of one hundred and sixty pounds weight — a tablespoonful of 
the flour of sulphur, with as much nitre as will cover a dime, 
daily. A few grains of powdered antimony may also be given 
with effect. 



LETHARGY. 

Symptoms : torpor ; desire to sleep ; hanging of the head ; 

and, frequently, redness of the eyes. The origin of this 

disease is, apparently, the same as that of indigestion, or 

surfeit, except that, in this instance, it acts upon a hog having 

a natural tendency to a redundancy of blood. 

319 



82 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

Treatment. Bleed copiously; then administer an emetic. 
A decoction of camomile flowers will be safest ; thougli a 
sufficient dose of tartar emetic will be far more certain. After 
this, reduce for a few days the amount of the animal's food, 
and administer a small portion of nitre and sulphur in each 
morning's meal. 



MANGE. 

This cutaneous affection owes its existence to the presence 
of a minute insect, called acarus scahiei, or mange-fly, which 
burrows beneath the cuticle, and occasions much irritation and 
annoyance in its progress through the skin. 

Its symptoms are sufficiently well known, consisting of scabs, 
blotches, and sometimes multitudes of minute pustules on 
different parts of the body. If neglected, these symptoms 
become aggravated ; the disease spreads rapidly over the 
entire surface of the skin, and if allowed to proceed on its 
course unchecked, will before long produce deep-seated ulcers 
and malignant sores, until the whole carcass of the affected 
animal becomes a mass of corruption. 

The cause is to be looked for in dirt, accompanied by hot- 
feeding. Hogs, however well and properly kept, will occa- 
sionally become affected with this disease from contagion. 
Few diseases are more easily propagated by contact than 
mange. The introduction of a single affected pig into an 
establishment may, in one night, cause the seizure of scores 
of others. No foul-skinned pigs, therefore, should be in- 
troduced into the piggery ; indeed, it would be an excellent 
precaution to wash every animal newly purchased with a 

strong solution of chloride of lime. 
320 



MANGE. 83 

Treatment. If the mange is but of moderate violence, and 
not of very long standing, the best mode is to wash the animal, 
from snout to tail, leaving no portion of the body uncleansed, 
with soft soap and water. Place him in a dry and clean sty, 
which is so situated as to command a constant supply of fresh 
air, without, at the same time, an exposure to cold or draught y 
furnish a bed of clean, fresh straw. Reduce his food, both in 
quality and quantity ; let boiled or steamed roots, with butter- 
milk, or dairy-wash take the place of any food of a heating or 
inflammatory character. Keep him without food for five or 
six hours, and then give to a hog of average size two ounces 
of Epsom salts in a warm bran mash — to be increased or 
diminished, of course, as the animal's size may require. This 
should be previously mixed with a pint of warm water, and 
added to about half a gallon of warm bran mash, and it will 
act as a gentle purgative. Give in every meal afterward one 
tablespoonful of flour of sulphur, and as much nitre as will 
cover a dime, for from three days to a week, according to the 
state of the disease. When the scabs begin to heal, the 
pustules to retreat, and the fiery sores to fade, a cure may be 
anticipated. 

When the above treatment has been practised for fourteen 

days, without effecting a cure, prepare the following : train oil, 

one pint ; oil of tar, two drachms ; spirits of turpentine, two 

drachms ; naphtha, one drachm ; with as much flour of 

sulphur as will form the foregoing into a thick paste. Rub 

the animal previously washed with this mixture ; let no 

portion of the hide escape. Keep the hog dry and warm after 

this application, and allow it to remain on his skin for three 

days. On the fourth day wash him again with soft soap, 
21 321 



84 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 

adding a small quantity of soda to the water. Dry him well 
afterward, and let him remain as he is, having again changed 
his bedding, for a day or so ; continue the sulphur and nitre 
as before. Almost all cases of mange, however obstinate, will, 
sooner or later, yield to this treatment. After he is convales- 
cent, whitewash the sty, and fumigate it by placing a little 
chloride of lime in a cup, or other vessel, and pouring a little 
vitriol upon it. In the absence of vitriol, boiling water will 
answer nearly as well. 

MEASLES. 

This is one of the most common diseases to which hogs ai*e 
liable. The sympiovis are, redness of the eyes, foulness of 
the skin, and depression of spirits; decline, or total departure 
of the appetite ; small pustules about the throat, and red and 
purple eruptions on the skin. The last are more plainly 
visible after death, when they impart a peculiar appearange to 
the grain of the meat, with fading of its color, and distention 
of the fibre, giving an appearance similar to that which might 
be produced by puncturing the flesh. 

Treatment. Allow the animal to fast, in the first instance, 
for twenty-four hours, and then administer a warm drink, 
containing a drachm of carbonate of soda, and an ounce of 
bole armenian ; wash the animal, cleanse the sty, and change 
the bedding ; give at every feeding, or thrice a day, thirty 
grains of flour of sulphur, and ten of nitre. 

This malady is attributable to dirt, combined with the 
giving of steamed food or wash to hogs at too high a tempera- 
ture. It is troublesome to eradicate, but usually yields to 

treatment, and is rarely fatal. 
322 



MURjaAIN — QUINSY — STAGGERS — SWELLING OF THE SPLEEN 85 
MURRAIN. 

This resembles leprosy in its symptoms, with the addition 
of staggering, shortness of breath, and discharge of viscid 
matter from the eyes and mouth. 

The treatment should consist of cleanliness, coolness, bleed- 
ing, purging, and limitation of food. Cloves of garlic are 
recommended ; and as in all febrile diseases there exists a 
greater or less disposition to putrefaction, it is probable that 
garlic, from its antiseptic properties, may be useful. 



QUINSY, 

This is an inflammatory affection of the glands of the throat. 

Treatment. Shave away the hair, and rub with tartar-emetic 
ointment. Fomenting with very warm water is also useful.- 
When external suppuration takes place, it is to be regarded as 
a favorable symptom. In this case, wait until the swellings 
are thoroughly ripe ; then with a sharp knife make an incision 
through the entire length, press out the matter, wash with 
warm water, and afterward dress the wound with any resinous 
ointment, or yellow soap with coarse brown sugar. 



STAGGERS. 

This disease is caused by an excessive determination of 
blood to the head. 

Treatment. Bleed freely and purge. 



S^WELIilNG OF THE SPLEEN. 

The symptom most positively indicative of this disease is 
the circumstance of the affected animal leaning toward one 



323 



86 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES 

side, cringing, as it were, from internal pain, an bending 
toward the ground. 

Tlie cause of the obstruction on which the disease depends, 
is over-feeding — permitting the animal to indulge its appetite 
to the utmost extent that gluttony may prompt, and the 
capacity of its stomach admits. A very short perseverance 
in this mode of management — or, rather, mismanagement — 
will produce this, as well as other maladies, deriving their 
origin from a depraved condition of the secretions and the 
obstruction of the excretory ducts. 

Treatment. Clean out the alimentary canal by means of a 
powerful aperient. Allow the animal to fast for four or five 
hours, when he will take a little sweet wash or broth, in 
which may be mingled a dose of Epsom salts proportioned to 
his size. This will generally effect the desired end — a copious 
evacuation — and the action of the medicine on the w^atery 
secretions will also relieve the existing diseased condition of 
the spleen. 

If the affection has continued for any length, the animal 
should be bled. A decoction of the leaves and tops of worm- 
wood and liverwort, produced by boiling them in soft water 
for -six hours, may be given in doses of from half a pint to a 
pint and a half, according to the size, age, etc., of the animal. 
Scammony and rhubarb, mixed in a bran wash, or with Indian 
meal, may be given with advantage on the following day ; or, 
equal portions ol blue-pill mass and compound colocynth pill, 
formed into a bolus with butter. The animal having been 
kept fasting the previous night, will probably swallow it ; if 
not, let his fast continue a couple of hours longer. Lower his 

diet, and keep him on reduced fare, with exercise, and, if it 
324 



SURFEIT — TUMORS. 87 

can be managed, grazing, until the malady has passed away. 
If be is then to be fattened, it should be done gradually ; be 
cautious of at once restoring him to full diet. 



SUKFEIT. 

This is another name for indigestion. The symptoms are, 
panting ; loss of appetite ; swelling of the region about the 
stomach, etc. ; and frequently throwing up the contents of the 
stomach. 

Treatment. In general, this affection will pass away, 
provided only it is allowed to cure itself, and all food carefully 
kept from the animal for a few hours ; a small quantity of 
sweet grains, with a little bran mash, may then be given, but 
not nearly as much as the animal would wish to take. For 
a few days, the food should be limited in quantity, and of a 
washy, liquid nature. The ordinary food may then be resumed, 
only observing to feed regularly, and remove the fragments 
remaining after each meal. 



TUMOBS. 

These are hard swellings, which make their appearance on 

different parts of the body. They are not formidable, and 

require only to be suffered to progress until they soften ; then 

make a free incision, and press out the matter. Sulphur and 

nitre should be given in the food, as the appearance of these 

swellings, whatever be their cause, indicates the necessity of 

alterative medicines. 

325 




ElSTOJRYAM^J[ItIETJFS 

The domestic fowl. The cock tribe is used as a generic 
term, to include the whole family of domestic fowls ; the name 
of the male, in this instance, furnishing an appellation suffi- 
ciently comprehensive and well recognized. 

The domestic cock appears to have been known to man 
from a very early period. Of his real origin there is little 
definitely known ; and even the time and manner of his intro- 
duction into Greece, or Southern Europe, are enveloped in 
obscurity. In the palmiest days of Greece and Rome, how- 
ever, he occupied a conspicuous place in those public shows 
(T) 327 



8 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

which amused the masses of the people. He was dedicated 
to the service of the pagan deities, and was connected with 
the worship of Apollo, Mercury, Mars, and particularly 
Esculapius. The flesh of this bird was highly esteemed as a 
delicacy, and occupied a prominent place at the Koman 
banquets. Great pains were taken in the rearing and fatten- 
ing of poultry for this purpose. 

The practice of cock-fighting, barbarous as it is, originated 
in classic times, and among the most polished and civilized 
people of antiquity. To its introduction into Britain by the 
Caesars we owe our acquaintance with the domestic fowl. 

It is impossible to state positively to what species of the 
wild cock, known at present, we are to look .for the primitive 
type, so remote is the date of the original domestication of the 
fowl. Many writers have endeavored to show that all the 
varieties of the domestic fowl, of which we now have knowl- 
edge, are derived from a single primitive stock. It has, also, 
been confidently asserted that the domestic cock owes his 
origin to the jungle fowl of India. The most probable sup- 
position, however, is, that the varieties known to us may be 
referred to a few of the more remarkable fowls, as the 
progenitors of the several species. The great fowl of St. Jago 
and Sumatra may, perhaps, safely be recognized as the type 
of some of the larger varieties, such as the Spanish and the 
Padua fowls, and those resembhng them ; while to the 
Bankiva cock, probably, the smaller varieties belong, such as 
Bantams, the Turkish fowl, and the like. 

The reasons assigned for supposing these kinds to be the 

true originals of our domestic poultry, are, first, the close 

resemblance subsisting between their females and our do- 
328 



HISTORY AND VARIETIES. 9 

mestic hens; second, the size of our domestic cock being 
intermediate between the two, and alternating in degree, 
sometimes inclining toward the one, and sometimes toward 
the other ; third, from the nature of their feathers and their 
general aspect — the form and distribution of their tails being 
the same as our domestic fowls ; and, fourth, in these two 
birds alone are the females provided with a crest and small 
wattles, characteristics not to be met with in any other wild 
species. 

The wild cock, or the St. Jago fowl, is frequently so tall as 
to be able to peck crumbs without difficulty from an ordinary 
dinner-table. The weight is usually from ten to thirteen or 
fourteen pounds. The comb of both cock and hen is large, 
crown-shaped, often double, and sometimes, but not invariably, 
with a tufted crest of feathers, which occurs with the greatest 
frequency, and grows to the largest size, in the hen. The 
voice is strong and very harsh ; and the yoyng do not arrive 
to full plumage until more than half grown. 

The Bankiva fowl is a native of Java, and is characterized 

by a red indented comb, red wattles, and ashy-gray legs and 

feet. The comb of the cock is scolloped, and the tail elevated 

a little above the rump, the feathers being disposed in the 

form of tiles or slates ; the neck-feathers are of a gold color, 

long, dependent, and rounded at the tips ; the head and' neck 

are of a fawn color; the wing coverts a dusky brown and 

black ; the tail and belly, black. The color of the hen is a 

dusky ash-gray and yellow ; her comb and wattles much 

smaller than those of the cock, and — with the exception of the 

long hackles — she has no feathers on her neck. These fowl 

are exceedingly wild, and inhabit the skirts of woods, forests, 

329 



10 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES 

and other savage and unfrequented places These Bankivas 
resemble our Bantams very much ; and, like them, are also 
occasionally to be seen feathered to the feet and toes. 

Independent of all considerations of profitableness, domestic 
fowls are gifted with two qualifications, which — whether in 
man, beast, or bird — are sure to be popular : a courageous 
temper and an affectionate disposition. When we add to 
these beauty of appearance and hardiness of constitution, it is 
no wonder that they are held in such universal esteem. 

The courage of the cock is emblematic, his gallantry admira- 
ble, and his sense of discipline and subordination most exem- 
plary. The hen is deservedly the acknowledged pattern of 
maternal love. When her passion of philoprogenitiveness is 
disappointed by the failure or subtraction of her own brood, 
she will either continue incubating till her natural powers fail, 
or will violently kidnap the young of othei* fowls, and insist 
upon adopting them. 

It would be idle to attempt an enumeration here of the 
numerous breeds and varieties of the domestic fowl. Those 
only, therefore, will be described which are generally accepted 
as the best varieties ; and these arranged, not in the order of 
their merits necessarily, but alphabetically, for convenience of 
reference. 

THE BANTAM. 

The original of the Bantam is, as has been already remarked, 

the Bankiva fowl. The small white, and also the colored 

Bantams, whose legs are heavily feathered, are sufficiently 

well-known to render a particular description unnecessary. 

Bantam-fanciers generally prefer those which have clean, 
3.30 



THE BANTAM. 



11 




bright legs, without any vestige of feathers. A thorough- 
bred cock, in their judgment, should have a rose comb ; a well- 
feathered tail, but without 
the sickle feathers ; full 
hackles ; a proud, lively car- 
riage ; and ought not to 
exceed a pound in weight. 
The nankeen-colored, and 
the black are the general 
favorites. 

These little creatures ex- 
hibit some peculiar habits 
and traits of disposition. 
Amongst others, the cocks the bantam. 

are so fond of sucking the eggs laid by the hen that they will 
often drive her from the nest in order to obtain them ; they 
have even been known to attack her, tear open the ovarium, 
and devour its shell-less contents. To prevent this, first a 
hard-boiled, and then a marble egg may be given them to fight 
with, taking care, at the same time, to prevent their access 
either to the hen or to any real eggs. Another strange pro- 
pensity is a passion for sucking each other's blood, which is 
chiefly exhibited when they are moulting, when they have 
been known to peck each other naked, by pulling out the new 
feathers as they appear, and squeezing with their beaks the 
blood from the bulbs at the base. These fowls being subject, 
to a great heat of the skin, its surface occasionally becomes 
hard and tightened ; in which cases the hard roots of the 
feathers are drawn into a position more nearly at right angles 

with the body than at ordinary times, and the skin and super- 

331 



12 



POULTlir AND THEIR DISEASES. 











ficlal muscles are thus subjected to an unusual degree of 
painful irritation. The disagreeable habit is, therefore, simply 
a provision of Nature for their relief, which may be success- 
fully accomplished by washing with warm water, and the 
^^ subsequent application of poma- 
tum to the skin. 

Bantams, in general, are greedy 
devourers of some of the most 
destructive of our insects ; the 
grub of the cock-chafer and the 
crane-fly being especial favorites 
^^ with them. Their chickens can 
hardly Tbe raised so well, as by 
allowing them free access to 
minute insect dainties ; hence, the suitableness of a worn-out 
hotbed for them during the first month or six weeks. They 
are thus positively serviceable creatures to the farmer, as far 
as their limited range extends ; and still more so to the 
gardener and the nurser\'-man, as they will save various garden 
crops from injuries to which they would otherwise be exposed. 
The fowl commonly known as the Bantam is a small, 
elegantly-formed, and handsomely tinted variety, evidently 
but remotely allied to the game breed, and furnished with 
feathers to the toes. 

The African Bantam. The cock of this variety is red 
upon the neck, back, and hackles ; tail, black and erect, 
studded with glossy green feathers upon the sides ; breast, 
black ground spotted with yellow, like the Golden Pheasant ; 
comb, single ; cheeks, white or silvery ; the pullet is entirely 

black, except the inside of the wing-tips, which is perfectly 
332 



THE BOLTON GRAY. 



13 



white. In size, they compare with the common pigeon, being 
ver}^ small ; their wings are about two inches longer than their 
bodies ; and their legs dark and destitute of feathers. They are 
very quiet, and of decided benefit in gardens, in destroying bugs. 
These symmetricall3'--formed birds are highly prized, both by 
the fancier and the practical man, and the pure-bloods are 
very rare. They weigh from eight to twelve ounces each for 
the hens ; and the cocks, from sixteen to twenty ounces. 



THE BOLTON GRAY. 

These fowls — called, also, Dutch Every-day Layers, Pen- 
cilled Dutch Fowl, Chittaprats, and, in Pennsylvania, Creole 




BOLTON ORATS OR CREOLE FOWL. 



Fowl — were originally imported from Holland to Bolton, 
town in Lancashire, England, whence they were named. 



333 



14 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

They are small sized, short in the leg, and plump in the 
make ; color of the genuine kind, invariably pure white in the 
whole cappel of the neck ;• the body white, thickly spotted 
with black, sometimes running into a grizzle, with one or more 
black bars at the extremity of the tail. A good cock of this 
breed may weigh from four to four and a half pounds; and a 
hen from three to three and a half pounds. 

The superiority of a hen of this breed does not consist so 
much in rapid as in continued laying. She may not produce 
as many eggs in a month as some other kinds, but she will, it 
is claimed, lay more months in the year than probably any 
other variety. They are said to be very hardy ; but their 
eggs, in the judgment of some, are rather watery and in- 
hutritious. 



THE BLUE DUN. 

The variety known under this name originated in Dorset- 
shire, England. They are under the average size, rather 
slenderly made, of a soft and pleasing bluish-dun color, the 
neck being darker, with high, single combs, deeply serrated. 
The cock is of the same color as the hen, but has, in addition, 
some handsome dark stripes in the long feathers of the tail, 
and sometimes a few golden, or even scarlet marks, on the 
wings. They are exceedingly impudent, familiar, and pug- 
nacious. 

The hens are good layers, wanting to sit after laying a 

moderate number of eggs, and proving attentive and careful 

rearers of their own chickens, but rather savage to those of 

other hens. The eggs are small and short, tapering slightly 

at one end, and perfectly white. The chickens, on first 
334 



THE CHITTAGONQ. 15 

coming from the egg, sometimes bear a resemblance to the 
gray and yellow catkin of the willow, being of a soft bluish 
gray, mixed with a little yellow here and there. 

Some class thope birds among the game fowls, not recog- 
nizing them as a distinct race, upon the ground that, as there 
are Blue Dun families belonging to several breeds — the 
Spanish, the Polish, the Game, and the Hamburghs, for example 
— it is more correct to refer each Blue Dun to its own proper 
ancestry. 



THE CHITTAGOIira. 

The Chittagong is a very superior bird, showy in plumage, 
exceedingly hardy, and of various colors. In some, the gray 
predominates, interspersed with lightish yellow and white 
feathers upon the pullets. The legs are of a reddish flesh- 
color ; the meat is delicately white, the comb large and single, 
wattles- very full, wings good size. The legs are more or less 
feathered ; the model is graceful, carriage proud and easy, 
and action prompt and determined. 

This breed is the largest in the world ; the pullets usually 
weighing from eight to nine pounds when they begin to lay, 
and the cocks from nine to ten pounds at the same age. They 
do not lay as many eggs in a year as smaller hens ; but they 
lay as many pounds of eggs as the best breeds. This breed 
has been, by some, confounded with the great Malay ; but the 
points of difference are very noticeable. There is less offal ; 
the flesh is finer, although the size is greatly increased ; their 
fecundity is greater ; and the offspring arrive earlier at ma- 
turity than in the common Malay variety. 

There is also a red variety of the Chittagong, which is 

335 



16 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

rather smaller than the gray. These have legs sometimes 
yellow and sometimes blue ; the latter color, perhaps, from 
some mixture with the dark variety ; the wings and tail are 
short. Sometimes there is a rose-colored comb, and a top- 
knot, through crossing. This variety may weigh sixteen or 
eighteen pounds a pair, as ordinarily bred. The eggs are 
large and rich, but not very abundant, and they do not hatch 
remarkably well. 

There is, besides, a dark-red variety ; the hens yellow or 
brown, with single serrated comb, and no top-knot ; legs 
heavily feathered, the feathers black and the legs yellow 
The cock is black on the breast and thighs. 

The Chittagongs are generally quite leggy, standing some 
twenty-six inches high ; and the hens twenty-two inches. A 
first cross with the Shanghae makes a very large and valuable 
bird for the table, but not for breeding purposes. 



THE COCHIN- CHINA. 

The Cochin China fowl are said to have been presented to 
Queen Victoria from the East Indies. In order to promote 
their propagation, her majesty made presents of them occa- 
sionally to such persons as she supposed likely to appreciate 
them. They differ very little in their qualities, habits, and 
general appearance from the Shanghaes, to which they are 
undoubtedly nearly related. The e^g is nearly the same 
size, shape, and color ; both have an equal development of 
comb and wattles — the Cochins slightly differing from the 
Shanghaes, chiefly in being somewhat fuller and deeper in the 
breast, not quite so deep in the quarter, and being usually 

smooth-legged ; while the Shanghaes, generally, are more or 
336 



THE COCHIN CHINA. 



n 



less heavily feathered. The plumage is much the same in 

both cases ; and the crow in both is equally sonorous and 

prolonged, differing considerably from that of the Great Malay. 

The cock has a large, upright, single, deeply-indented comb, 




COCHIN CHINAS. 



very much resembling that of the Black Spanish, and, v^hen 
in high condition, of quite as brilliant a scarlet ; like him, also, 
he has sometimes a very large white ear-hole on each cheek, 
which, if not an indispensable or even a required qualification, 
is, however, to be preferred, for beauty at least. The wattles 
are large, wide, and pendent. The legs are of a pale flesh- 
color; some specimens have them yellow, which is objection- 
able. The feathers on the breast and sides are of a bright 



22 



337 



18 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

chestnut-brown, large and well-defined, giving a scaly or im- 
bricated appearance to those parts. The hackle of the neck 
is of a light yellowish brown ; the lower feathers being tipped 
with dark brown, so as to give a spotted appearance to the 
neck. The tail-feathers are black, and darkly iridescent ; 
back, scarlet-orange ; back-hackle, yellow- orange. It is, in 
short, altogether a flame-colored bird. Both sexes are lower 
in the leg than either the Black Spanish or the Malay. 

The hen approaches in her build more nearly to the Dorking 
than to any other breed, except that the tail is very small and 
proportionately depressed ; it is smaller and more horizontal 
than in any other fowl. Her comb is of moderate size, 
almost small ; she has, also, a small, white ear-hole. Her 
coloring is flat, being composed of various shades of very light 
brown, with light yellow on the neck. Her appearance is 
quiet, and only attracts attention by its extreme neatness, 
cleanliness, and compactness. 

The eggs average about two ounces each They are smooth, 
of an oval shape, equally rounded at each end, and of a rich 
buff color, nearly resembling those of the Silver Pheasant. 
The newly-hatched chickens appear very large in proportion 
to the size of the egg. They have light, flesh-colored bills, 
feet, and legs, and are thickly covered with down, of the hue 
commonly called "carroty." They are not less thrifty than 
any other chickens, and feather somewhat more uniformly than 
either the Black Spanish or the Malay. It is, however, most 
desirable to hatch these— as well as other large-growing 
varieties — as early in the spring as possible ; even so soon as 
the end of February. A peculiarity in the cockerels is, that 
they do not show even the rudiments of their tail-feathers till 
338 



THE CUCKOO, 19 

they are nearl}- full-grown. They increase so rapidly in other 
directions, that there is no material to spare for the production 
of these decorative appendages. 

The merits of this breed are such that it may safely be 
recommended to people residing in the country. For the 
inhabitants of towns it is less desirable, as the light tone of its 
plumage would show every mark of dirt and defilement ; and 
the readiness with which they sit would be an inconvenience, 
rather than otherwise, in families with whom perpetual layers 
are most in requisition. Expense apart, they are equal or 
superior to any other fowl for the table ; their flesh is delicate, 
white, tender, and well flavored. 



THE CUCKOO. 

The fowl so termed in Norfolk, England, is, very probably, 
an old and distinct variety; although they are generally 
regarded as mere Barn-door fowls — that is, the merely acci- 
dental result of promiscuous crossing. 

The name probably originated from its barred plumage, 
which resembles that on the breast of the Cuckoo. The pre- 
vailing color is a slaty blue, undulated, and softly shaded with 
white all over the body, forming bands of various widths. 
The comb is very small ; irides, bright orange ; feet and legs, 
light flesh-color. The hens are of a good size ; the cocks are 
large, approaching the heaviest breeds in weight. The 
chickens, at two or three months old, exhibits the barred 
plumage even more perfectly than the full-grown birds. The 
eggs average about two ounces each, are white, and of p#ce- 

lain smoothness. The newly-hatched chickens are gray, 

339 



20 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

much resembling those of the Silver Polands, except in the 
color of the feet and legs. 

This breed supplies an unfailing troop of good layers, good 
sitters, good mothers and good feeders ; and is well worth 
promotion in the poultry-yard. 



THE DOMINIQUE. 

This seems to be a tolerably distinct and permanent variety, 
about the size of the common Dunghill Fowl. Their combs 
are generally double — or rose, as it is sometimes called — and 
the wattles small. Their plumage presents, all over, a sort 
of greenish appearance, from a peculiar arrangement of blue 
and white feathers, Avhich is the chief characteristic of the 
variety ; although, in some specimens, the plumage is inevita- 
bly gray in both cock and hen. They are very hardy, healthy, 
excellent layers, and capital incubators. No fowl have better 
stood the tests of mixing without deteriorating than the pure 
Dominique. 

Their name is taken from the island of Dominica, from 
which they are reported to have been imported. Take all in 
all, they are one of the very best breeds of fowl which we 
have ; and although they do not come in to laying so young 
as the Spanish, they are far better sitters and nursers. 



THE DORKITTG. 

This has been termed the Capon Fowl of England. It 

forms the chief supply for the London market, and is dis- 

tin^ished by a white or flesh-colored smooth leg, armed with 

five, instead of four toes, on each foot. Its flesh is extremely 

delicate, especially after caponization ; and it has the advan- 
340 



THE DOllKIxa. 



21 



tage over some other fowls of feeding rapidly, and growing to 
a very respectable size when properly managed. 

For those who wish to stock their poultry yards with fowls 
of the most desirable shape and size, clothed in rich and 
varigated plumage, and, not expecting perfection, are willing 
to overlook one or two other points, the Speckled Dorkings 
— so called from the town of Surrey, England, which brought 
them into modern 
repute — should 
be selected. The 
hens, in addition 
to their gay 
colors, have a 
large, vertically 
flat comb, which, 
when they are in 
high health, adds 
very much to 
their brilliant ap- white dorkisgs. 

pearance, particularly if seen in bright sunshine. The cocks 
are magnificent. The most gorgeous hues are lavished upon 
them, which their great size and peculiarly square-built form 
display to the greatest advantage. Their legs are short ; thefr 
breast broad ; there is but a small proportion of offal ; and the 
good, profitable flesh is abundant. The cocks may be brought 
to considerable weight, and the flavor and appearance of their 
meat are inferior to none. The eggs are produced in reason- 
able abundance ; and, though not equal in size to those of 
Spanish hens, may fairly be called large. 

They are not everlasting layers, but at due or convenient 

341 




22 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

intervals manifest the desire of sitting. In this respcel, t'.icj 
are steady and good mothers when the little ones appear. 
They are better adapted than any other fowl, except the 
Malay, to hatch superabundant turkeys' eggs ; as their size 
and bulk enable them to afford warmth and shelter to the 
young for a long period. For the same reason, spare goose 
eggs may be entrusted to them. 

With all these merits, however, they are not found to be a 
profitable breed, if kept thorough-bred and unmixed. Their 
powers seem to fail at an early age. They are also apt to 
pine away and die just at the point of reaching maturity. 
They appear at a certain epoch to be seized with consumption 
— in the Speckled Dorkings, the lungs seeming to be the seat 
of the disease. The White Dorkings are, however, hardy and 
active birds, and are not subject to coasumptiou or any other 
disease. 

As mothers, an objection to the Dorkings is, that they are 
too heavy and clumsy to rear the chickens of any smaller and 
more delicate bird than themselves. Pheasants, partridges, 
bantams, and Guinea fowl are trampled under foot and crushed, 
if in the least weakly. The hen, in her affectionate industry 
in scratching for grub, kicks her smallest nurslings right ^nd 
Mt, and leaves them sprawling on their backs ; and before 
they are a month old, half of them will be muddled to death 
with this rough kindness. 

In spite of these drawbacks, the Dorkings are still in high 

favor ; but a cross is found to be more profitable than the true 

breed. A glossy, energetic game-cock, wnth Dorking hens, 

produces chickens in size and beauty little inferior to their 

maternal parentage, and much more robust. The supernu- 
342 



THE DOEKING. '26 

merary toe on each foot almost always disappears with the 
first cross ; but it is a point which can very well be spared 
without much disadvantage. In other respects, the appear- 
ance of the newly-hatched chickens is scarcely altered. The 
eggs of the Dorkings are large, pure white, very much 
rounded, and nearly equal in size at each end. The chickens 
are brownish-yellow, with a broad brown stripe down the 
middle of the back, and a narrower one on each side ; feet and 
legs yellow. 

The Fawn-colored Dorking. The fowl bearing this name 
is a cross between the white Dorking and the fawn-colored 
Turkish fowl. They are of lofty carriage, handsome, and 
healthy. The males of this breed weigh from eight to nine 
pounds, and the females from six to seven ; and they come to 
maturity early for so large a fowl. Their tails are shorter 
and their eggs darker than those of other Dorkings ; their flesh 
is fine and their eggs rich. It is one of the best varieties of 
fowl known, as the size is readily increased without diminish- 
ing the fineness of the flesh. 

The Black Dorking. The bodies of this variety are of a 
large size, with the usual proportions of the race, and of a jet- 
black color. The neck-feathers of some of the cocks are 
tinged with a bright gold color, and those of some of the hens 
bear a silvery complexion. Their combs are usually double, 
and very short, though sometimes cupped, rose, or single, 
with wattles small ; and they are usually very red about the 
head. Their tails are rather shorter and broader than most 
of the race, and they feather rather slowly. Their legs are 
short and black, with five toes on each foot, the bottom of 

which is sometimes yellow. The two back toes are very 

343 



;4 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

distinct, starting from the foot separately •, and there is fre- 
quently a part of an extra toe between the two. 

This breed commence laying when very young, and are 
very thrifty layers during winter. Their eggs are of a large 
size, and hatch well ; they are perfectly hardy, as their color 
indicates, and for the product are considered among the most 
valuable of the Dorking breed. 



THE DUNGHILL FOWL. 

This is sometimes called the Barn-door fowl, and is charac- 
terized by a thin, serrated, upright comb, and wattles hanging 
from each side of the lower mandible ; the tail rises in an arch, 
above the level of the rump ; the feathers of the rump are long 
and line-like ; and the color is finely vai-iegated. The female's 
comb and wattles are smaller than those of the cock ; she is 
less in size, and her colors are more dull and sombre. 

In the best specimens of this variety, the legs should be 
white and smooth, like those of the Dorking, and their bodies 
round and plump. Being mongrels, they breed all colors, and 
are usually from five to seven or eight pounds per pair. 



THE FRIZZLED FO^WL. 

This fowl is erroneously supposed to be a native of Japan, 

and, by an equally common error, is frequently called the 

" Friesland," under the apprehension that it is derived from 

that place. Its name, however, originates from its peculiar 

appearance. It is difficult to say whether this is an aboriginal 

variety, or merely a peculiar instance of the morphology of 

feathers ; the circumstance that there are also frizzled Bantams, 

would seem to make in favor of the latter position. 
344 



THE GAME FOWL. 25 

The feathers are ruffled or frizzled, and the reversion makes 
them peculiarly susceptible of cold and wet, since their 
plumage is of little use as clothing. They have thus the 
demerit of being tender as well as ugly. In good specimens, 
every feather looks as if it had been curled the wrong way 
with a pair of hot curling-irons. The plumage is variegated 
in its colors ; and there are two varieties, called the Black and 
White Frizzled. The stock, which is rather curious than 
valuable, is retained in this country more by importation than 
by rearing. 

Some writers say that this variety is a native of Asia, and 
that it exists in a domestic state throughout Java, Sumatra, 
and all the Philippine islands, where it succeeds well. It is, 
according to such, uncertain in what country it is still found 
wild. 



THE GAME PO'WL. 

It is probable that these fowl, like other choice varieties, 

are natives of India. It is certain that in that country an 

original race of some fowl exists, at the present day, bearing in 

full perfection all the peculiar characteristics of the species. 

In India, as is well known, the natives are infected with a 

passion for cock-fighting. These fowls are carefully bred for 

this barbarous amusement, and the finest birds become articles 

of great value. In Sumatra, the inhabitar>ts are so much 

addicted to the cruel sports to which these fowls are devoted, 

that instances are recorded of men staking not only their 

property upon the issue of a fight, but even their wives and 

children. The Chinese are likewise passionately fond of this 

pastime ; as, indeed, are all the inhabitants of the Indian 

345 



26 



POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 




countries professing the Mussulman creed. The Romans 
introduced the practice into Britain, in which country the 

earliest record- 
e d cock-fight 
dates back to 
about the year 
1100. In Mexi- 
co and the 
South Ameri- 
can countries it 
is still a national 
amusement. 

The game 
fowl is one of the 
most gracefully 
formed and 

beautifully colored of our domestic breeds of poultry ; aud in 
its form, aspect, and that extraordinary courage which charac- 
terizes its natural disposition, exhibits all that either the 
naturalist or the sportsman would at once recognize as the 
purest type of high blood, embodying, in short, all the most 
indubitable characteristics of gallinaceous aristocracy. 

It is somewhat inferior in size to other breeds, and in its 
shape approximates more closely to the elegance and light- 
ness of form usually characteristic of a pure and uncontami- 
nated race. Amongst poultry, he is what the Arabian is 
amongst horses, the high-bred Short-horn amongst cattle, and 
the fleet greyhound amongst the canine race. 

The flesh is beautifully white, as well as tender and delicate. 

The hens are excellent layers, and although the eggs are under 
346 



GRAY GAME FOWLS. 



THE G a:\ie fowl. it 

the avjerage size, thej are not to be surpassed in excellence of 
flavor. Such being the character of this variety of fowl, it 
would doubtless be much more extensively cultivated than it 
is, were it not for the difficulty attending the rearing of the 
young ; their pugnacity being such, that a brood is scarcely 
feathered before at least one-half are killed or blinded by 
fighting. 

With proper care, however, most of the difficulties to be 
apprehended may be avoided. It is exceedingly desirable to 
perpetuate the race, for uses the most important and valuable. 
Asa cross with other breeds, they are invaluable in improving 
the flavor of the flesh, which is an invariable consequence. 
The plumage of all fowl related to them is increased in 
brilliancy ; and they are, moreover, very prolific, and the eggs 
are always enriched. 

The Mexican Hen-cock. This unique breed is a favorite 
variety with the Mexicans, who term them Hen-cocks from 
the fact that the male birds have short, broad tails, and, in 
color and plumage, the appearance of the hens of the same 
variety, difl"ering only in the comb, which is very large and 
erect in the cock, and small in the hen. They are generally 
pheasant-colored, with occasional changes in plumage from a 
light yellow to a dark gray ; and, in some instances, there is a 
tendency to black tail-feathers and breast, as well as an incli- 
nation to gray and light yellow, and with a slight approxima- 
tion to red hackles in some rare instances. 

This variety has a strong frame, and very large and muscular 

thighs. The cocks are distinguished by large, upright combs, 

strong bills, and very large, lustrous eyes. The legs vary 

from a dirty to a dark-green color. The hen does not ma- 

347 



23 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES, 

teriallj differ in appearance from the cock. They are ae good 
layers and sitters as any other game breed, and are good 
nurses. 

The Wild Indian Game. This variety was originally im- 
ported into this country from Calcutta. The hen has a long 
neck, like a wild goose ; neither comb nor wattles ; of a dark, 
glossy green color ; very short fan tail ; lofty in carriage, trim 
built, and wild in general appearance ; legs very large and 
long, spotted with blue ; ordinary weight from four and a half 
to six pounds. As a layer, she is equal to other fowls of the 
game variety. 

The cock stands as high as a large turkey, and weighs nine 
pounds and upward ; the plumage is of a reddish cast, inter- 
spersed with spots of glossy green ; comb very small ; no 
wattles ; and bill unlike every other fowl, except the hen. 

The Spanish Game. This variety is called the English 

fowl by some writers. It is more slender in the body, the 

neck, the bill, and the legs, than the other varieties, and the 

colors, particularly of the cock, are very bright and showy. 

The flesh is white, tender, and delicate, and on this account 

marketable ; the eggs are small, and extremely delicate. The 

plumage is very beautiful — a clear, dark red, very bright, 

extending from the back to the extremities, while the breast 

is beautifully black. The upper convex side of the wing is 

equally red and black, and the whole of the tail-feathers white. 

The beak and legs are black ; the eyes resemble jet beads, very 

full and brilliant ; and the whole contour of the head gives a 

most ferocious expression. 

348 



THE GUELDERLAND. 



29 




fJFELDERLANDS. 



THE GUELDERLAND. 

The Guelderland fowl were originally imported into this 
country from the north of Holland, where they are supposed 
to have originated. 
They are very 
symmetrical in 
form, and graceful 
in their motions. 
They have one 
noticeable peculi- 
arity, which con- 
sists in the absence 
of a comb in either 
sex. This is re- 
placed by an indentation on the top of the head ; and from the 
extreme end of this, at the back, a small spike of feathers 
rises. This adds greatly to the beauty of the fowl. The 
presence of the male is especially dignified, and the female is 
little inferior in carriage. 

The plumage is of a beautiful black, tinged with blue, of 

very rich appearance, and bearing a brilliant gloss. The legs 

are black, and, in some few instances, slightly feathered. 

Crosses with the Shanghae have heavily feathered legs. The 

wattles are of good size in the cock, while those of the hen are 

slightly less. The flesh is fine, of white color, and of excellent 

flavor. The eggs are large and delicate — the shell being 

thicker than in those of most other fowls — and are much 

prized for their good qualities. The hens are great layers, 

seldom inclining to sit. Their weight is from five pounds for 

the pullets, to seven pounds for the cocks. 

349 



30 



POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 



The Guelderlands, in short, possess all the characteristics 
of a pei-fect breed ; and in breeding them, this is demonstrated 
by the uniform aspect which is observable in their descendants. 
They are light and active birds, and are not surpassed, in 
point of beauty and utility, by any breed known in this 
country. The only objection, indeed, which has been raised 
against them is the tenderness of the chickens. With a degree 
of care, however, equal to their value, this difficulty can be 
surmounted, and the breed must be highly appreciated by all 
who have a taste for beauty, and who desire fine flesh and 
luscious eggs. 



THE SPANGLED HAMBUBGH. 

The Spangled Hamburgh fowl are divided into two varieties, 

the distinctive 
characteristics 
being slight, 
and almost 
dependent upon 
color; these 
varieties are 
termed the 
Golden and Sil- 
ver-Spangled. 
The Golden 
Spangled is one 
_ __ ^^_^ of no ordinary 
/^ ^ / beauty : it is 

HAMBURGH FOWLS. •' ' 

well and very neatly made, has a good body, and no very 
great offal. On the crest, immediately above the beak, are 
350 




THE SPANGLED HAMBURGH. 31 

two small, fleshy horns, resembling, to some extent, an abor- 
tive comb. Above this crest, and occupying the place of a 
comb, is a very large brown or yellow tuft, the feathers com- 
posing it darkening toward their extremities. Under the in- 
sertion of the lower mandible — or that portion of the neck 
corresponding to the chin in man — is a full, dark-colored tuft, 
somewhat resembling a beard. The wattles are very small ; 
the comb, as in other high-crested fowls, is very diminutive ; 
and the skin and flesh white. The hackles on the neck are of 
a brilliant orange, or golden yellow ; and the general ground- 
color of the body is of the same hue, but somewhat darker. 
The thighs are of a dark-brown or blackish shade, and the legs 
and feet are of a bluish gray. 

In the Silver-spangled variety, the only perceptible differ- 
ence is, that the ground color is a silvery white. The ex- 
tremity and a portion of the extreme margin of each feather 
are black, presenting, when in a state of rest, the appearance 
of regular semicircular marks, or spangles — and hence the 
name, "Spangled Hamburgh;" the varieties being termed 
gold or silver, according to the prevailing color being bright 
yellow, or silvery white. 

The eggs are of moderate size, but abundant; chickens 

easily reared. In mere excellence of flesh and as layers, they 

are inferior to the 'Dorking or the Spanish. They weigh from 

four and a half to five and a half pounds for the male, and 

three and a half for the female. The former stands some 

twenty inches in height, and the latter about eighteen inches. 
351 



32 POULTRY AND THEIE DISEASES. 

THE JAVA. 

The Great Java fowl is seldom seen in this country in its 
purity. They are of a black or dark auburn color, with very 
large, thick legs, single comb and wattles. They are good 
layers, an^l their eggs are very large and well-flavored ; their 
gait is slow and majestic. They are, in fact, amongst the most 
valuable fowls in the country, and are frequently described as 
Spanish fowls, than which nothing is more erroneous. 

They are as distinctly an original breed as the pure-blooded 
Great Malay, and possess about the same qualities as to 
excellence, but fall rather short of them in beauty. Some, 
however, consider the pure Java superior to all other large 
fowls, so far as beauty is concerned. Their plumage is 
decidedly rich. 



THE JERSEY-BLUE, 

The color of this variety is light-blue, sometimes approach- 
ing to dun ; the tail and wings rather shorter than those of the 
common fowl ; its legs are of various colors, generally black, 
sometimes lightly feathered. Of superior specimens, the 
cocks weigh from seven to nine pounds, and the hens from 
six to eight. 

They are evidently mongrels ; and though once much 
esteemed, they have been quite neglected, so far as breeding 
from them is concerned, since the introduction of the purer 
breeds, as the Shanghaes and the Cochin-Chinas. 



THE LARK-CRESTED FOWL. 

This breed is sometimes confounded with the Polish fowl ; 

but the shape of the crest, as well as the proportions of the 
352 



THE LARK-CRESTED FOWL. 33 

bird, is different. This variety, of whatever color it may be, is 
of a peculiar taper-form, inclining forward, with a moderately 
depressed, backward-directed crest, and deficient in the neat* 
ness of the legs and feet so conspicuous in the Polands ; the 
latter are of more upright carriage and of a more squarely- 
built frame. Perhaps a good distinction between the two 
varieties is, that the Lark-crested have an occipital crest, and 
the Poland more of a frontal one. 

They are of various colors : pure* snow white, brown with 
yellow hackles, and black. The white is, perhaps, more bril- 
liant than is seen in any other domesticated gallinaceous bird, 
being much more dazzling than that of the White Guinea 
Fowl, or the White Pea Fowl. This white variety is in great 
esteem, having a remarkably neat and lively appearance when 
rambling about a homestead. They look very clean and 
attractive when dressed for market ; an old bird, cleverly 
trussed, will be, apparently, as delicate and transparent in 
skin and flesh as an ordinary chicken. Their feathers are also 
more salable than those from darker colored fowls. They 
are but little, if, indeed, any, more tender than other kinds 
raised near the barn-door ; they are in every way preferable to 
the White Dorkings. 

In the cocks, a single, upright comb sometimes almost 
entirely takes the place of the crest ; the hens, too, vary in 
this respect, some having not more than half a dozen feathers 
in their head-dress. 

If they were not of average merit, as to their laying and 
sitting qualifications, they would not retain the favor they do 
with the thrifty house-wives by whom they are chiefly culti- 
vated. 

23 353 



34 



POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 



THE MALAY. 

This majestic bird is found on the peninsula from which it 
derives its name, and, in the opinion of many, forms a connect- 
ing link between the wild and domesticated races of fowls. 




Something very like them is, indeed, still to be found in the 
East This native Indian bird — the Gigantic Cock, the Kulm 
Cock of Europeans — often stands considerably more than two 
feet from the crown ot the head to the ground. The comb 
extends backward in a line with the eyes ; it is thick, a little 
elevated, rounded upon the top, and has almost the appear- 
ance ot hivvmg been cut off. The wattles of the under maadi- 
354 



THE MALAY. 35 

bles are comparatively small, and the throat is bare. Pale, 
golden-reddish hackles ornament the head, neck, and upper 
part of the back, and some of these spring before the bare part 
of the throat. The middle of the back and smaller wing- 
coverts are deep chestnut, the webs of the feathers disunited ; 
pale reddish-yellow, long, drooping hackles cover the rump 
and base of the tail, which last is very ample, and entirely of 
a glossy green, of which color are the wing-coverts ; the 
secondaries and quills are pale reddish-yellow on their outer 
webs. All the under parts are deep glossy blackish-green, 
with high reflections ; the deep chestnut of the base of the 
feathers appears occasionally, and gives a mottled and inter- 
rupted appearance to those parts. 

The weight of the Malay, in general, exceeds that of the 
Cochin-China ; the male weighing, when full-grown, from 
eleven to twelve, and even thirteen pounds, and the female 
from eight to ten pounds ; height, from twenty-six to twenty- 
eight inches. They present no striking uniformity of plumage, 
being of all shades, from black to white ; the more common 
color of the female is a light reddish-yellow, with sometimes a 
faint tinge of dunnish-blue, especially in the tail. 

The cock is frequently of a yellowish-red color, with black 

intermingled in the breast, thighs, and tail. He has a small, 

but thick comb, generally inclined to one side ; he should be 

snake-headed, and free from the slightest trace of top- knot ; 

the wattles should be extremely small, even in an old bird ; 

the legs are not feathered, as in the case of the Shanghaes, but, 

like them and the Cochin-Chinas, his tail is small, compared 

with his size. In the female, there is scarcely any show of 

comb or wattles. Their legs are long and stout ; their flesh is 

355 



36 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

very well flavored, when they have been properly fattened ; 
and their eggs are so large and rich that two of them are 
equal to three of those of our ordinary fowls. 

The Malay cock, in his perfection, is a remarkably courage- 
ous and strong bird. His beak is very thick, and he is a 
formidable antagonist when offended. His crow is loud, 
harsh, and prolonged, as in the case of the Cochin-China, but 
broken off abruptly at the termination ; this is quite character- 
iatic of the bird. 

The chickens are at first very strong, with yellow legs, and 
are thickly covered with light brown down ; but, by the time 
they are one-third grown, the increase of their bodies has so 
far outstripped that of their feathers, that they are half naked 
about the back and shoulders, and extremely susceptible of 
cold and wet. The great secret of rearing them is, to have 
them hatched very early indeed, so that they may have safely 
passed through this period of unclothed adolescence during 
the dry, sunny part of May and June, and reached nearly their 
full stature before the midsummer rains descend. 

Malay hens are much used by some for hatching the eggs 
of turkeys — a task for which they are well adapted in every 
respect but one, which is, that they will follow their natural 
instinct in turning off their chickens at the usual time, instead 
of retaining charge of them as long as the mother turkey 
would have done. Goslings would suffer less from such un- 
timely desertion. 

The Pheasant Malay. This variety is highly valued by 
many, not on account of its intrinsic merits, which are con- 
siderable, but because it is believed to be a cross between the 

pheasant and the common fowl. This is, however, an errone- 
356 



THE PLYMOUTH ROCK. 37 

ous opinion. Hybrids between tlie pheasant and tlie fowl are, 
for the most part, absolutely sterile ; when they do breed, it is 
not with each other, but with the stock of one of their pro- 
genitors ; and the offspring of these either fail or assimilate 
to one or the other original type. No half-bred family is per- 
petuated, no new breed created, by human or volucrine 
agency. 

The Pheasant Malays are large, well-flavored, good sitters, 
good layers, good moiliers, and, in many points, an ornamental 
and desirable stock. Some object to them as being a trifle 
too long in their make ; but they have a healthy look of not 
being over-bred, which is a recommendation to those who rear 
for profit as well as pleasure. The eggs vary in size ; some 
are very large in summer, smooth, but not polished, sometimes 
tinged with light buff, balloon-shaped, and without the zone of 
irregularity. The chickens, when first hatched, are all very 
much alike ; yellow, with a black mark all down the back. 
The cock has a black tail, with black on the neck and wings. 



THE PLYMOUTH BOCK. 

This name has been given to a very good breed of fowls, 
produced by crossing a China cock with a hen, a cross 
between the Fawn-colored Dorking, the Great Malay, and the 
Wild Indian. 

At a little over a year old, the cocks stand from thirty-two 

to thirty-five inches high, and weigh about ten pounds ; and 

the pullets from six and a half to seven pounds each. The 

latter commence laying when five months old, and prove 

themselves very superior layers. Their eggs are of a medium 

size, rich, and reddish-yellow in color. Their plumage is rich 

357 



3:5 rouLTRY and their diseases. 

ami variegated ; the cocks usually red or speckled, and the 
pullets darkish brown. They have very fine flesh, and are 
fit for the table at an early age. The legs are very large, 
and usually blue or green, but occasionally yellow or white, 
generally having five toes upon each foot. Some have their 
legs feathered, but this is not usual. They have large and 
single combs and wattles, large cheeks, rather short tails, and 
small wings in proportion to their bodies. 

They are domestic, and not so destructive to gardens as 
smaller fowls. There is the same uniformity in size and 
general appearance, at the same age of the chickens, as in 
those of the pure bloods of primary races. 



THE POLAND. 

The Poland, or Polish fowl, is quite unknown in the country 
which would seem to have suggested the name, which origi- 
nated from some fancied resemblance between its tufted crest 
and the square-spreading crown of the feathered caps worn by 
the Polish soldiers. 

The breed of crested fowls is much esteemed by the curious, 

and is bred with great care. Those desirous of propagating 

any singular varieties, separate and confine the individuals, 

and do not suffer them to mingle with such as have the colors 

different. The varieties are more esteemed in proportion to 

the variety of the colors, or the contrast of the tuft with the 

rest of the plumage. Although the differences of plumage are 

thus preserved pretty constant, they seem to owe their origin 

to the same breed, and cannot be reproduced pure without 

careful superintendence. The cocks are much esteemed in 

Egypt, ill consequence of the excellence of their flesh, and are 
358 



THE POLAND. 



39 



so common that they are sold at a remarkably cheap rate. 
They are equally abundant at the Cape of Good Hope, where 
their legs are feathered. 

The Polish are chiefly suited for keeping in a small way, 
and in a clean and grassy place. They are certainly not so 
fit for the farm- 
yard, as they 
become blinded 
and miserable 
with dirt. Care 
should be exer- 
cised to procure 
them genuine, 
since there is no 
breed of fowls 
more d i s fi g - 
ured by mon- p^ft' 
grelism than - — ^^^ 
this. They 
will, without 
any cross-breeding, occasionally produce white stock that are 
very pretty, and equally good for laying. If, however, an 
attempt is made to establish a separate breed of them, they 
become puny and weak. It is, therefore, better for those who 
wish for them to depend upon chance ; every brood almost of 
the black produces one white chicken, as strong and lively as 
the rest. 

These fowls are excellent for the table, the flesh being white, 
tender, and juicy; but they are quite unsuitable for being 

reared in any numbers, or for general purposes, since they are 

359 




POLAND FOWLS. 



40 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

SO capricious in their growth, frequently remaining stationary 
in this respect for a whole month, getting no larger ; and this, 
too, when they are about a quarter or half grown — the time 
of their life when they are most liable to disease. As aviary 
birds, they are unrivalled among fowls. Their plumage often 
requires a close inspection to appreciate its elaborate beauty; 
the confinement and fretting seem not uncongenial to their 
health ; and their plumage improves in attractiveness with 
almost every month. 

The great merit, however, of all the Polish fowls is, that 
for three or four years they continue to grow and gain in size, 
hardiness, and beauty — the male birds especially. This fact 
certainly points out a very wide deviation in constitution 
from those fowls which attain their full stature and perfect 
plumage in twelve or fifteen months. The similarity of color- 
ing in the two sexes — almost a specific distinction of Polish 
and perhaps Spanish fowls — also separates them from those 
breeds, like the Game, in which the cocks and hens are re- 
markably dissimilar. Their edible qualities are as superior, 
compared with other fowls, as their outward apparel surpasses 
in elegance. They have also the reputation of being ever- 
lasting layers, which further fits them for keeping in small 
enclosures ; but, in this respect, individual exceptions, are often 
encountered — as in the case of the Hamburghs — however truly 
the habit may be ascribed to the race. 

There are four known varieties of the Polish fowl, one of 
which appears to be lost to this country. 

The Black Polish. This variety is of a uniform black — 

both cock and hen — glossed with metallic green. The head 

is ornamented with a handsome crest of white feathers, 
360 



THE POLAND. 41 

springing from a fleshy protuberance, and fronted more or less 

deeply with black. The comb is merely two or three spikes, 

and the wattles are rather small. Both male and female are 

the same in color, except that the former has frequently narrow 

stripes of white in the waving feathers of the tail, a sign, it is 

said, of true breeding. The hens, also, have two or three 

feathers on each side of the tail, tinged in the tip with white. 

They do not lay quite so early in the spring as some varieties, 

especially after a hard winter ; but they are exceedingly good 

layers, continuing a long time without wanting to sit, and 

laying rather large, very white, sub-ovate eggs. They will, 

however, sit at length, and prove of very diverse dispositions; 

some being excellent sitters and nurses, others heedless and 

spiteful. 

The chickens, when first hatched, are dull black, with white 

breasts, and white down on the front of the head. They do 

not always grow and get out of harm's way so quickly as 

some other sorts, but are not particularly tender. In rearing 

a brood of these fowls, some of the hens may be observed with 

crests round and symmetrical as a ball, and others in which 

the feathers turn all ways, and fall loosely over the eyes ; and 

in the cocks, also, some have the crest falling gracefully over 

the back of the head, and others have the feathers turning 

about and standing on end. These should be rejected, the 

chief beauty of the kind depending upon such little particulars. 

One hen of this variety laid just a hundred eggs, many of 

them on consecutive days, before wanting to incubate ; and 

after rearing a brood successfully, she laid twenty-five eggs 

before moulting in autumn. 

The Golden Polands. These are sometimes called Gold- 

361 



42 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

spangled, as their plumage approaches to that of the Gold; 
Spangled Hamburghs ; but many of the finest specimens have 
the feathers merely fringed with a darker color, and the cocks, 
more frequently than the hens, exhibit a spotted or spangled 
appearance. Many of them are disfigured by a muff or beard ; 
as to which the question has been raised whether it is an 
original appendage to these birds or not. A distinct race, of 
which the muff is one permanent characteristic, is not at 
present known. This appendage, whenever introduced into 
the poultry-yard, is not easily got rid of; which has caused 
some to suspect either that the original Polish were beardless, 
or that there were two ancient races. 

The Golden Polands, when well-bred, are exceedingly 
handsome ; the cock has golden hackles, and gold and brown 
feathers on the back ; breast and wings richly spotted with 
ochre and dark brown ; tail darker ; large golden and brown 
crest, falling back over the neck ; but little comb and wattles. 
The hen is richly laced with dark-brown or black on an ochre 
ground ; dark-spotted crest ; legs light-blue, very cleanly 
made, and displaying a small web between the toes, almost as 
proportionately large as that in some of the waders. 

They are good layers, and produce fair-sized eggs. Many 
of them make excellent mothers, although they cannot be 
induced to sit early in the season. The chickens are rather 
clumsy-looking little creatures, of a dingy-brown, with some 
dashes of ochre about the head, breast and wings. They are 
sometimes inclined to disease in the first week of their exist- 
ence ; but, if they pass this successfully, they become tolerably 
hardy, though liable to come to a pause when about half- 
grown. It may be noted as a peculiarity in the temper of 
362 



THE POLAND. 43 

this breed, that, if one is caught, or attacked by auy animal, 
the rest, whether cocks or hens, will instantly make a furious 
attack upon the aggressor, and endeavor to effect the rescue 
of their companion. 

The Silver Polands. These are similar to the preceding 
in shape and markings, except that white, black, and gray are 
exchanged for ochre or yellow, and various shades of brown. 
They are even more delicate in their constitution, more liable 
to remain stationary at a certain point of their adolescence, 
and, still more than the other varieties, require and will repay 
extra care and accommodation. Their top-knots are, perhaps, 
not so large, as a general thing ; but they retain the same neat 
bluish legs and slightly-webbed feet. The hens are much 
more ornamental than the cocks; though the latter are sure to 
attract notice. They may, unquestionably, be ranked among 
the choicest of fowls, whether their beauty or their rarity is 
considered. They lay, in tolerable abundance, eggs of 
moderate size, French-white, much pointed at one end ; and 
when they sit, acquit themselves respectably. 

The newly-hatched chickens are very pretty; gray, with 

black eyes, light lead-colored legs, and a swelling of down on 

the crown of the head, indicative of the future top-knot, which 

is exactly the color of a powdered wig, and, indeed, gives the 

chicken the appearance of wearing one. There is no difficulty 

in rearing them for the first six weeks or two months ; the 

critical time being the interval between that age and their 

reaching the fifth or sixth month. They acquire their peculiar 

distinctive features at a very early age, and are then the most 

elegant little miniature fowls which can possibly be imagined. 

The distinction of sex is not very manifest till they are nearly 

363 



44 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

full-grown ; the first observable indication being in the tail. 
That of the pullet is carried uprightly, as it ought to be ; but 
in the cockerel, it remains depressed, awaiting the growth of 
the sickle-feathers. The top-knot of the cockerel inclines to 
hang more backward than that of the pullets. It is remarka- 
ble that the Golden Polish cock produces as true Silver 
chickens, and those stronger, with the Silver Polish hen, as 
the Silver Polish cock would bring. 

The Silver Polands have all the habits of their golden com- 
panions, the main difference being the silvery ground instead of 
the golden. This variety will sometimes make its appearance 
even if merely its Golden kind is bred, precisely as the Black 
Polish now and then produce some pure White chickens that 
make very elegant birds. 

The Black-topped White. This variety does not at 
present exist among us ; and some have even questioned 
whether it ever did. Buffon mentions them as if extant in 
France in his time. An attempt has been made to obtain 
them from the preceding, by acting on the imagination of the. 
parents. The experiment failed, though similar schemes are 
said to have succeeded with animals ; it proved, however, that 
it will not do to breed from the White Polish as a separate 
breed. Being Albinos, the chickens come very weakly, and 
few survive. 

This breed is now recoverable, probably, only by importa- 
tion from Asia. 



THE SHAM-QHAE. 

For all the purposes of a really good fowl — for beauty of 

model, good size, and laying qualities — the thorough- bred 
364 



THE SHANGHAE, 



45 



Shanghae is among the best, and generally the most profitable 
of domestic birds. The cock, when full-grown, stands about 
twenty-eight inches high, if he is a good specimen ; the female, 
about twenty-two or twenty-three inches. A large comb or 
heavy wattles are rarely seen on the hen at any age ; but the 
comb of the male is high, deeply indented, and his wattles 
double and large. The comb and wattles are not, however, 
to be regarded as the chief characteristics of this variety, nor 
even its reddish-yellow feathered leg ; but the abundant, soft, 
and downy covering of the thighs, hips, and region of the 
vent, together 
with the remarka- 
bly short tail, and 
large mound of 
feathers piled over 
the upper part of 
its root, givingrise 
to a considerable 
elevation on that 
part of the rump. 
It should be re- 
marked, also, that the wings are quite short and small in propor- 
tion to the size of the fowl, and carried very high up the body, 
thus exposing the whole of the thighs, and a considerable 
portion of the side. 

These characteristics are not found, in the same degree, in 
any other fowl. The peculiar arrangement of feathers gives 
the Shanghae in appearance, what it has in reality — a greater 
depth of quarter, in proportion to the brisket, than any other 

fowl. 

365 




BHAKaHAES. 



46 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

As to the legs, tliej are not very peculiar. The color is 
usually reddish-white, or flesh-color, or reddish-yellow, mostly 
covered down the outside, even to the end of the toes, with 
feathers. This last, however, is not always the case. The 
plumage of the thorough-bred is remarkably soft and silky, or 
rather downy ; and is, in the opinion of many, equally as good 
for domestic purposes as that of the goose. The feathers are 
certainly quite as fine and soft, if not as abundant. 

In laying qualities, the pure Shanghae equals, if it does not 
excel, any other fowl. The Black Poland, or the Bolton Gray, 
may, perhaps, lay a few more eggs in the course of a year, 
in consequence of not so frequently inclining to sit ; but their 
eggs are not so rich and nutritious. A pullet of this breed 
laid one hundred and twenty eggs in one hundred and twenty- 
five days, then stopped six days, then laid sixteen eggs more, 
stopped four days, and again continued her laying. The eggs 
are generally of a pale yellow, or nankeen color, not remarkably 
large, compared with the size of the fowl, and generally blunt 
at the ends. The comb is commonly single, though, in some 
specimens, there is a slight tendency to rose. 

The flesh of this fowl is tender, juicy, and unexceptionable 
in every respect. Taking into consideration the goodly size 
of the Shanghae — weighing, as the males do, at maturity, from 
ten to twelve pounds, and the females from seven and a half 
to eight and a half, and the males and females of six months, 
eight and six pounds respectively — the economical uses to 
which its soft, downy feathers may be applied, its productive- 
ness, hardiness, and its quiet and docile temper, this variety 
must occupy, and deservedly so, a high rank among our 
366 



THE SriANGHAE. 



4T 



domestic fowls ; and the more it is known, the better will it be 
appreciated. 

The White Shanghae. This variety is entirely white, 
with the legs usually feathered, and differ in no material 




WHITE SHANOEAES. 



respect from the red, yellow, and Dominique, except in color. 

The legs are yellowish, or reddish-yellow, and sometimes of 

flesh-color. Many prefer them to all others. The eggs are 

of a nankeen, or dull yellow color, and blunt at both ends. 

It is claimed by the friends of this variety that they are 

larger and more quiet than other varieties, that their flesh is 

much superior, their eggs larger, and the hens more profitable. 

Being more quiet in their habits, and less inclined to ramble, 

367 



48 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

tlie hens are invaluable as incubators and nurses ; and the 
mildness of their disposition makes them excellent foster- 
mothers, as thev never injure the chickens belonging to other 
hens. 

These fowls will rank among the largest coming from China, 
and are very thrifty in our climate. A cock of this variety 
attained a weight of eight pounds, at about the age of eight 
months, and the pullets of the same brood were proportionably 
large. They are broad on the back and breast, Avith a body 
well rounded up ; the plumage white, with a downy softness 
— in the latter respect much like the feathering of the Bremen 
goose ; the tail-feathers short and full ; the head small, sur- 
mounted by a small, single, serrated comb ; wattles long and 
wide, overlaying the cheek-piece, w^hich is also large, and 
extends back on the neck ; and the legs of a yellow hue, 
approaching a flesh-color, and feathered to the ends of the 
toes. 



THE SILVER PHEASATTT. 

This variety of fowls is remarkable for great brilliancy of 
plumage and diversity of colors. On a white ground, which is 
usually termed silvery, there is an abundance of black spots. 
The feathers on the upper part of the head are much longer 
than the rest, and unite together in a tuft. They have a small, 
double comb, and their wattles are also comparatively small. 
A remarkable peculiarity of the cock is, that there is a spot 
of a blue color on the cheeks, and a range of feathers under 
the throat, which has the appearance of a collar. 

The hen is a smaller bird, with plumage similar to that of 

the cock, and at a little distance seems to be covered with 
368 



THE SPANISH. 



49 



BCales. On the head is a top-knot of ver3' large size, which 
droops over it on every side. The Silver Pheasants are 
beautiful and showy birds, and chiefly valuable as ornamental 
appendages to the poultry-yard. 



THE SPAiriSH. 

This name is said to be a misnomer, as the breed in question 
was originally brought by the Spaniards from the West 




SPANISH FOWLS. 



Indies ; and, although subsequently propagated in Spain, it 
has for some time been very difficult to procure good speci- 
mens from that country. From Spain, they were taken in 
considerable numbers into Holland, where they have been 
carefully bred, for many years ; and it is from that quarter 

that our best fowls of this variety come. 

24 369 



50 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

The Spanish is a noble race of fowls, possessing many 
merits ; of spirited and animated appearance ; of considerable 
size ; excellent for the table, both in whiteness of flesh and 
skin, and also in flavor ; and laying exceedingly large eggs in 
considerable numbers. Among birds of its own breed it is not 
deficient in courage ; though it yields, without showing much 
fight, to those which have a dash of game blood in their veins. 
It is a general favorite in all large cities, for the additional 
advantage that no soil of smoke or dirt is apparent on its 
plumage. 

The thorough-bred birds should be entirely black, as far as 
feathers are concerned ; and when in high condition, display a 
greenish, metallic lustre. The combs of both cock and hen 
are exceedingly large, of a vivid and most brilliant scarlet ; 
that of the hen droops over upon one side. Their most 
singular feature is a large, white patch, or ear-hole, on the 
cheek — in some specimens extending over a great part of the 
face — of a fleshy substance, similar to the wattle ; it is small 
in the female, but large and very conspicuous in the male. 
This marked contrast of black, bright red, and white, makes 
the breed of the Spanish cock as handsome as that of any 
variety which we have ; in the genuine breed, the whole form 
is equally good. 

Spanish hens are celebrated as good layers, and produce 

very large, quite white eggs, of a peculiar shape, being very 

thick at both ends, and yet tapering off a little at each. 

They are, by no means, good mothers of families, even when 

they do sit — which they will not often condescend to do — 

proving very careless, and frequently trampling half their brood 

under foot. The inconveniences of this habit are, however, 
370 



. THE SPANISH. 51 

easily obviated by causing the eggs to be hatched by some 
more motherly hen. 

This variety of fowl has frequently been known to lose 
nearly all the feathers in its body, besides the usual quantity 
on the neck, wings, and tail; and, if they moult late, and the 
weather is severe, they feel it much. This must often happen 
in the case of an "everlasting layer;" for if the system of a 
bird is exhausted by the unremitting production of eggs, it 
cannot contain within itself the material for supplying the 
growth of feathers. They have not, even yet, become accli- 
mated in this country, since continued frost at any time is 
productive of much injury to their combs ; frequently causing 
mortification in the end, which at times terminates in death. 
A warai poultry-house, high feeding, and care that they do 
not remain too long exposed to severe weather, are the best 
means of preventing this disfigurement. Some birds are 
occasionally produced, handsomely streaked with red on the 
hackle and back. This is no proof of bad breeding, if other 
points are right. 

The chickens are large, as would be expected from such 

eggs, entirely shining black, except a pinafore of white on the 

breast — in which respect they are precisely like the Black 

Polish chickens — and a slight sprinkling under the chin, with 

sometimes also a little white round the back and eyes ; their 

legs and feet are black. Many of them do not get perfectly 

feathered till they are three-fourths grown ; and, therefore, to 

have this variety come to perfection in a country where the 

summers are much shorter than in their native climate, they 

must be hatched early in spring, so that they may be well covered 

with plumage before th*e cold rains of autumn. There is, how- 

371 



52 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

ever, a great lack of uniformity in the time when they get 
their plumage ; the pullets are always earlier and better 
feathered than the cockerels — the latter being generally half 
naked for a considerable time after being hatched, though some 
feather tolerably well at an early age. 

The Black is not the only valuable race of Spanish fowl ; 
there is, also, the Gray, or Speckled, of a slaty gray color, with 
■white legs. Their growth is so rapid, and their size, eventually, 
so large, that they are remarkably slow in obtaining their 
feathers. Although well covered with down when first hatched, 
they look almost naked when half-grown, and should, there- 
fore, be hatched as early in spring as possible. The cross 
between the Pheasant-Malay and the Spanish produces a 
particularly handsome fowl. 

As early pullets, for laying purposes in the autumn and 
winter after they are hatched, no fowls can surpass the 
Spanish. They are believed, also, to be more precocious in 
their constitution ; and consequently to lay at an earlier age 
than the pullets of other breeds. 



THE NATUBAIi HISTORY OF DOMESTIC FO"W"LS. . 

Fowls are classed by modern naturalists as follows : 

Division. Vertebrata — possessing a back bone. 

Class. Aves — birds. 

Order. Rasores — scrapers. 

Family. Phasianidoe — Pheasants. 

Genus. Gallus — the cock. 

Birds, as well as quadrupeds, may be divided into two great 

clas.«!OS, according to their food : the Carnivorous and the 

Graminivorous. Fowls belong, strictly speaking, to the latter. 
372 



THE NATURAL HISTORY OF DOMESTIC FOWLS. 53 

In the structure of the digestive 07^gans, birds exhibit a great 
uniformity. The oesophagus, which is often very muscular, is 
dilated into a large sac — called the crop — at its entrance into 
the breast ; this is abundantly supplied with glands, and 
serves as a species of first stomach, in which the food receives 
a certain amount of preparation before being submitted to the 
action of the proper digestive organs. A little below the 
crop, the narrow oesophagus is again slightly dilated, forming 
what is called the ventriculus succenturiatus, the walls of 
which are very thick, and contain a great number of glands, 
which secrete the gastric juice. Below this, the intestinal 
canal is enlarged into a third stomach, the gizzard, in which 
the process of digestion is carried still farther. In the grami- 
nivorous birds, the walls of this cavity are very thick and 
muscular, and clothed internally with a strong, horny epithe- 
lium, serving for the trituration of the food. The intestine is 
rather short, but usually exhibits several convolutions ; the 
large intestine is always furnished with two corea. It opens 
by a semicircular orifice into the cloaca, which also receives 
the orifices of the urinary and generative organs. The liver 
is of large size, and usually furnished with a gall-bladder. 
The pancreas is lodged in a kind of loop, formed by the small 
intestine immediately after quitting the gizzard. There are 
also large salivary glands in the neighborhood of the mouth, 
which pour their secretion into that cavity. 

The organs of circulation and respiration in birds are 
adapted to their peculiar mode of life ; but are not separated 
from the abdominal cavity by a diaphragm, as in the mamma- 
lia. The heart consists of four cavities distinctly separated — 

two auricles and two ventricles — so that the venous and 

373 



54 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

arterial blood can never mix in that organ ; and the whole of 
the blood returued from the different parts of the body passes 
through the lungs before being again driven into the systemic 
arteries. The blood is received from the veins of the body in 
the right auricle, from which it passes through a tabular open- 
ing into the right ventricle, and is thence driven into the 
lungs. From these organs it returns through the pulmonary 
veins into the left auricle, and passes thence into the ventricles 
of the same side, by the contraction of which it is driven into 
the aorta. This soon divides into two branches, which, by 
their subdivision, give rise to the arteries of the body. 

The jaws, or mandibles, are sheathed in a horny ease, 
usually of a conical form, on the sides of which are the nostrils. 
In most birds, the sides of this sheath or bill are smooth and 
sharp ; but in some they are denticulated along the margins. 
The two anterior members of the body are extended into 
wings. The beak is'used instead of hands; and such is the 
flexibility of the vertebral column, that the bird is able to touch 
with its beak every part of its body. This curious and im- 
portant result is obtained chiefly by the lengthened vertebrae 
of the neck, which, in the swan, consists of twenty-three 
bones, and in the domestic cock, thirteen. The vertebrae of 
the back are seven to eleven ; the ribs never exceed ten on 
each side. 

The clothing of the skin consists of feathers, which in their 
nature and development resemble hair, but are of a more com- 
plicated structure. A perfect feather consists of the shaft, 
a central stem, which is tubular at the base, where it is in- 
serted into the skin, and the barbs, or fibres, which form the 

webs on each side of the shaft. The two principal modifica- 
374 



THE NATURAL HISTORY OF DOMESTIC FOWLS. 55 

tions of feathers are quills and plumes; the former confined to 
the wings and tail, the latter constituting the general clothing 
of the body. Besides the common feathers, the skin of many 
birds is covered with a thick coating of down, which consists 
of a multitude of small feathers of peculiar construction ; each 
of these down feathers is composed o-f a very small, soft tube 
imbedded in the skin, from the interior of which there rises a 
small tuft of soft filaments, without any central shaft. These 
filaments are very slender, and bear on each side a series of 
still more delicate filaments, which may be regarded as analo- 
gous to th^ barbules of the ordinary feathers. This downy 
coat fulfils the same office as the soft, woolly fur of many 
quadrupeds ; the ordinary feathers being analogous to the 
long, smooth hair by which the fur of these animals is con- 
cealed. The skin also bears many hair-like appendages, which 
are usually scattered sparingly over its surface ; they rise from 
a bulb which is imbedded in the skin, and usually indicate 
their relation to the ordinary feathers by the presence of a few 
minute barbs toward the apex. 

Once or twice in the course of a year the whole plumage of 
the bird is renewed, the casting of the old feathers being called 
moulting. The base of the quills is covered by a series of 
large feathers, called the wing coverts ; and the feathers of the 
tail are furnished with numerous muscles, by which they can 
be spread out and folded up like a fan. In the aquatic birds — 
like the goose, the duck, and the swan — the feathers are con- 
stantly lubricated by an oily secretion, which completely 
excludes the water. 

In their reproduction, birds are strictly oviparous. The 

eggs are always enclosed in a hard shell, consisting of calcare- 

375 



56 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

ous matter, and birds almost invariably devote their whole 
attention, during the breeding season, to the hatching of their 
eggs and the development of their offspring ; sitting constantly 
upon the eggs to communicate to them the degree of warmth 
necessary for the evolution of the embryo, and attending to 
the wants of their newly-hatched young, until the latter are 
in a condition to shift for themselves. 

In the structure and development of the egg there is a great- 
uniformity; but there is a remarkable difference in the condi- 
tion of the young bird at the moment of hatching. In the 
class under consideration, the young are able to run about 
from the moment of their breaking the egg-shell ; and the only 
care of the parents is devoted to protecting their offspring from 
danger, and leading them into those places where they are 
likely to meet with food. 

The longevity of birds is various, and, unlike the case of 
men and quadrupeds, seems to bear little proportion to the age 
at which they acquire maturity. A few mouths, or even a few 
weeks, suffice to bring them to their perfection of stature, 
instincts, and powers. Domestic fowls live to the age of 
twenty years ; geese, fifty ; while swans exceed a century. 

The order Raaores includes the numerous species of gallina- 
ceous birds, and the term is applied to them from their habit 
of scratching in the ground in 'search of food. They are 
generally marked by a small head, stout legs, plumage fine, 
the males usually adorned with magnificent colors, and the 
tails often developed in a manner to render the appearance 
extremely elegant. The wings are usually short and weak, 

and the flight of the birds is neither powerful nor pro- 
376 



THE NATURAL HISTORY OF DOMESTIC FOWLS 5*7 

longed. The corla of this order are larger than in any other 
birds. 

The species are found in almost all parts of the world, from 
the tropics to the frozen regions of the north ; but the finest 
and most typical kinds are inhabitants of the temperate and 
w^armer parts of Asia. They feed principally on seeds, fruit, 
and herbage, but also, to a considerable extent, on insects, 
worms, and other small animals. Their general habitation is 
on the ground, where they run with great celerity, but many 
of them roost on trees. They are mostly polygamous in their 
habits, the males being usually surrounded by a considerable 
troop of females ; and to these, with a few exceptions, the 
whole business of incubation is generally left. The nest is 
always placed on the ground in some sheltered situation, and 
very little art is exhibited in its construction ; indeed, an 
elaborate nest is the less necessary, as the young are able to 
run about and feed almost as soon as they have left the eg^ ; 
and at night or on the approach of danger, they collect beneath 
the wings of their mother. Most of these species are esteemed 
for the table, and many of them are among the most celebrated 
of game birds. 

The pheasant family, of this order, includes the most beau- 
tiful of the rasorial birds ; indeed, some of them may, perhaps, 
be justly regarded as pre-eminent in this respect over all the 
rest of their class. In these, the bill is of moderate size and 
compressed, with the upper mandible arched to the tip, where 
it overhangs the lower one ; the tarsi are of moderate length 
and thickness, usually armed with one or two spurs ; the toes 
are moderate, and the hinder one short and elevated; the 

wings are rather short and rounded, and the tail more or less 

377 



58 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

elongated and broad, but frequently wedge-shaped and pointed. 
The head is rarely feathered all over ; the naked skin is some- 
times confined to a space about the eye, but generally occupies 
a greater portion of the surface, occasionally covering the 
whole head, and even a part of the neck, and frequently form- 
ing combs and wattles of very remarkable forms. In some 
species, the crown is furnished with a crest of feathers. 

The birds of this family are, for the most part, indigenous 
to the Asiatic continent and islands, from which, however, 
several species have been introduced into other parts of the 
globe. The Guinea Fowl of Africa, and the Turkeys of 
America, are almost the only instances of wild Phasianidous 
birds out of Asia. Some species, such as the Domestic Fowl, 
the Peacock, the Turkey, and the Guinea Fowl, have been 
reduced to a state of complete domestication, and are dis- 
tributed pretty generally over the w^orld. 



THE GUINEA FOWL, 

This bird belongs to the same division, class, order, and 

family as the Domestic Fowl; but is assigned by naturalists to 

the genus Numida, or Numidian. It is indigenous to the 

tropical parts of Africa, and in a wild state, Guinea Fowls live 

in flocks, in woods, preferring marshy places, and feed on 

insects, worms, and seeds ; they roost on trees ; the nest is 

made on the ground, and usually contains as many as twenty 

eggs. They have been propagated in the Island of Jamaica to 

such an extent as to have become wild, and are shot like other 

game. They do much damage to the crops, and are therefore . 

destroyed by various means ; one of which is, to get them 

tipsy by strewing corn steeped in rum, and mixed with the 
378 



THE GUINEA FOWL. 



53 







intoxicating juice of the cassava, upon the ground ; the birds 
devour this, and are soon found in a helpless state of inebriety. 
The Guinea Fowl, to a certain degree, unites the character- 
istics of the pheasant and the turkey ; having the delicate 

shape of the one, 
and the bare 
head of the other. 
There are sever- 
al varieties : the 
White, the Spot- 
ted, the Mada- 
gascar, and the 
Crested. The 
latter is not so 
large as the com- 
mon species ; the 
head and neck 
are bare, of a dull blue, shaded with red, and, instead of the 
casquie, it has an ample crest of hair-like, disunited feathers, 
of a bluish black, reaching as far forward as the nostrils, but, 
in general, turned backward. The whole plumage, except the 
quills, is of a bluish black, covered with small grayish spots, 
sometimes four, sometimes six on each feather. 

This fowl is not a great favorite among many keepers of 
poultry, being so unfortunate as to have gained a much worse 
reputation than it really deserves, from having been occa- 
sionally guilty of a few trifling faults. It is, however, useful, 
ornamental, and interesting during its life ; and, when dead, 
a desirable addition to the table, at a time when all other 

poultry is scarce. 

379 






'ji'*\K^<:t^'^ -"^ ' . . ^1 . . .*^^— ^5*-^"' 




THE GDISEA FOWL. 



60 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

The best way to commence keeping Guineas is to procure a 
sitting of eggs which can be depended upon for freshness, and, 
if possible, from a place where but a single pair is kept. A 
Bantam hen is the best mother ; she is lighter, and less likely 
to injure them by treading on them than a full-sized fowl. 
She will cover nine eggs, and incubation will last a month. 
The young are excessively pretty. When first hatched, they 
are so strong and active as to appear not to require the atten- 
tion which is really necessary to rear them. Almost as soon 
as they are dry from the moisture of the egg, they will peck 
each other's toes, as if supposing them to be worms, scramble 
with each other for a crumb of bread, and domineer over any 
little Bantam or chicken that may chance to have been hatched 
at the same time with themselves. No one, ignorant of the 
fact, would guess, from their appearance, to what species of 
bird they belonged ; their orange-red bills and legs, and the 
dark, zebra-like stripes with which they are regularly marked 
from head to tail, bear no traces of the speckled plumage of 
their parents. 

Of all known birds, the Guinea fowl is, perhaps, the most 

prolific of eggs. Week after week, and month after month, 

there are very few intermissions, if any, of the daily deposit. 

Even the process of moulting is sometimes insufficient to draw 

off the nutriment which it takes to make feathers instead of 

eggs ; and the poor thing will sometimes go about half-naked 

in the chilly autumn months, unable to refrain from its diurnal 

visit to the nest, and consequently unable to furnish itself 

with a new outer garment. The body of the Guinea hen may 

be regarded, in fact, as a most admirable machine for producing 
380 



THE PEA FOWL, 61 

eggs out of insects, grain, and vegetables, garbage, or what- 
ever material an omnivorous creature can appropriate. 

Its normal plumage is singularly beautiful, being spangled 
over with an infinity of white spots on a black ground, shaded 
with gray and brown. The spots vary from the size of a pea 
to extreme minuteness. The black and white occasionally 
change places, causing the bird to appear covered with a net 
of lace. 

The white variety is not uncommon, and is said to be equally 
hardy and profitable with the usual kind ; but the peculiar 
beauty of the original plumage is, certainly, all exchanged for 
a dress of not the purest M'hite. It is doubtful how long 
either this or the former variety would remain permanent ; 
though, probably, but for a few generations. Pied birds 
blotched with patches of white, are frequent, but arenot com- 
parable, in point of beauty, with those of the original wild 
color. • 



THE PEA FOWL. 
This bird is assigned to the genus paro, or peacock — the 
division, class, or sex, and family, being the same as the pre- 
ceding. The male of this species is noted for its long, lustrous 
tail, which it occasionally spreads, glittering with hundreds of 
jewel-like eye-spots, producing an unrivalled eff'ect of grace 
and beauty. The form of the bird is also exceedingly elegant, 
and the general plumage of the body exhibits rich metallic 
tints ; that of the neck, particularly, being of a fine deep blue, 
tinged with golden green. The female, however, is of a much 
more sober hue, her whole plumage being usually of a brownish 

color. The voice of the peacock is by no means suitable to 

381 . 



"1 



C2 



POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 



the beauty of its external appearance, consisting of a harsh, 
disagreeable cry, not unlike the word paon, which is the 
French name of the bird. 

Although naturalized as a domestic bird in Europe and 
America, the pea fowl is a native of India, where it is still 
found abundantly 
in a wild state ; 
and the wild spec- 
imens are Said to 
be moi'e brilliant 
than those bred in 
captivity. The 
date of its intro- 
duction into Eng- 
land is not known; 
but the first pea- 
cocks appear to 
have been brought 
into Europe by 
Alexander the Great, although these birds were among the 
articles imported into Judea by the fleets of Solomon. They 
reached Rome toward the end of the republic, and their costli- 
ness soon caused them to be regarded as one of the greatest 
luxuries of the table, though the moderns find them dry and 
leathery. This, perhaps, as much as the desire of ostentation, 
may have induced the extravagance of Yitellius and Heliogabu- 
lus, who introduced dishes composed only of the brains and 
tongues of peacocks at their feasts. In Europe, during the 
middle ages, the peacock was still a favorite article in the bill 

of fare of grand entertainments, at which it was served with 
'3S2 




THE PEA FOWL. 



THE PEA FOWL. 63 

the greatest pomp and magnificence. And during the period 
of chivalry, it was usual for knights to make vows of enter- 
prize on these occasions, "before the peacock and the ladies." 
At present, however, the bird is kept entirely on account of 
the beauty of its appearance. 

In a state of nature, pea fowl frequent jungles and wooded 
localities, feeding upon grain, fruits, and insects. They are 
polygamous, and the females make their nests upon the ground 
among bushes ; the nest is composed of grass, and the number 
of eggs laid is said to be five or six. They roost in high 
trees, and, even in captivity, their inclination to get into an 
elevated position frequently manifests itself; and they may 
often be seen perched upon high walls, or upon the ridges of 
buildings. 

The latter characteristic is, indirectly, one reason why many 
are disinclined to keep pea fowl in a domestic state. Their 
decided determination so to roost prevents such a control 
being exercised over them as would restrain them from mis- 
chief, until an eye could be kept on their movements ; and, 
consequently, they commit many depredations upon gardens, 
stealing off to their work of plunder at the first dawn, or at 
the most unexpected moments. Their cunning indeed is such 
that, if 'frequently driven away from the garden at any par- 
ticular hour of the day or evening, they will never be found 
there, after a certain time, at that special hour, but will in- 
variably make their inroads at day-break. Many have tried, 
as a last resort, to eject them with every mark of scorn and 
insult, such as harsh words, the cracking of whips, and the 

throwing of harmless brooms ; but they remain incorrigible 

383 



64 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

marauders, indifferent to this disrespectful usage, and careless 
of severe rebuke. 

A mansion, therefore, where the fruit and vegetable garden 
is at a distance, is almost the only place where they can be 
kept without daily vexation. The injury they do to flowers 
is comparatively trifling ; though, like the Guinea-fowl, they 
are great eaters of buds, cutting them out cleanly from the 
axillae of leaves. They must likewise have a dusting-hole, 
which is large and unsightly ; but this can be provided for 
them in some nook out of the way; and by feeding and 
encouragement, they will soon be taught to dispose themselves 
into a pleasing spectacle, at whatever point of view may be 
deemed desirable. No one with a very limited range should 
attempt to keep them at all, unless confined in an aviary. 
Where they can be kept at large, they should be collected in 
considerable numbers, that their dazzling effects may be as 
impressive as possible. 

A wanton destructiveness toward the young of other 
poultry is also charged upon them. Relative to this, how- 
ever, statements differ ; some contending that such instances 
of cruelty constitute the exceptions, and not the rule. 

The hen does not lay till her third summer; but she then 
seems to have an instinctive fear of her mate, manifested by 
the secrecy with which she selects the place for her nest ; nor, 
if the eggs are disturbed, will she go there again. She lays 
from four or five to seven. If these are taken, she will fre- 
quently lay a second time during the summer ; and the plan 
is recommended to those who are anxious to increase their 
stock. She sits from twenty-seven to twenty-nine days. A 

common hen will hatch and rear the young ; but the same 
384 



THE PEA FOWL. 65 

objection lies against her performing that office, except in 
very fine, long summers, for the pea fowl as for turkeys — that 
the young require to be brooded longer than the hen is con- 
veniently able to do. A turkey will prove a much better 
foster-mother in every respect. The peahen should, of course, 
be permitted to take charge of one set of eggs. Even without 
such assistance, she will be tolerably successful. 

The same wise provision of Nature noticed in the case 
of the Guinea fowl is evinced in a still greater degree in the 
little pea chickens. Their native jungle — tall, dense, some- 
times impervious, swarming with reptile, quadruped, and even 
insect, enemies — would be a most dangerous habitation for a 
little tender thing that could merely run and squall. Accord- 
ingly, they escape from the egg with their quill-feathers very 
highly developed. In three days, they will fly up, and perch 
upon any thing three feet high ; in a fortnight, they will roost 
on trees, or the tops of sheds ; and in a month or six weeks, 
they will reach the ridge of a barn, if there are any inter- 
mediate low stables or other buildings to help them to mount 
from one to the other. 

There are two varieties of the common pea fowl : the pied 

and the white. The first has irregular patches of white about 

it, like the pied Guinea fowl, and the remainder of the plumage 

resembling the original sorts ; the white have the ocellated 

spots on the tail faintly visible in certain lights. These last 

are tender, and much prized by those who prefer variety to 

real beauty. They are occasionally produced by birds of the 

common kind, in cas«s where no intercourse with other white 

birds can have taken place. In one instance, in the same 
25 385 



66 



POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 



brood, wliose parents were both of tlie usual colors, there were 
two of the common sort, and one white cock, and one white 
hen. 



THE TURKEY. 

The Wild Turkey. The turkey belongs to the genus mel- 
eagris, and, though now known as a domestic fowl in most civi- 
lized countries, 
was confined to 
America until 
after the discov- 
=^ ery of that coun- 
try by Columbus. 
It was probably 
introduced into 
Europe by the 
Spaniards about 
the year 1530. It 
was found in the 
forests of North 
America, when 
the country was 
first settled, from 
the Isthmus of 




THE WILD TURKEY. 



Darien to Canada, being then abundant even in New England ; 
at present, a few are found in the mountains of Massachusetts, 
New York, and New Jersey ; in the "Western and the South- 
western States they are still numeroiis, though constantly 
diminishing before the extending and increasing settlements. 

The wild male bird measures about three feet and a half, or 
386 



THE TURKEY. 67 

nearly four feet, in length, and almost six in expanse of the 
wings, and weighs from fifteen to forty pounds. The skin of the 
head is of a bluish color, as is also the upper part of the neck, 
and is marked with numerous reddish, warty elevations, with 
a few black hairs scattered here and there. On the under 
part of the neck, the skin hangs down loosely, and forms a 
sort of wattle ; and from the point where the bill commences, 
and the forehead terminates, arises a fleshy protuberance, with 
a small tuft of hair at the extremity, which becomes greatly 
elongated when the bird is excited ; and at the lower part of 
the neck is a tuft of black hair, eight or nine inches in length. 

The feathers are, at the base, of a bright dusky tinge, suc- 
ceeded by a brilliant metallic band, which changes, according 
to the point whence the light falls upon it, to bronze, copper, 
violet, or purple ; and the tip is formed by a narrow, black, 
velvety band. This last marking is absent from the neck and 
breast. Tlie color of the tail is brown, mottled with black, 
and crossed with numerous lines ot the latter color ; near the 
tip is a broad, black band, then a short mottled portion, 
and then a broad band of dingy yellow. The wings are white, 
banded closely with black, and shaded with brownish yellow, 
which deepens in tint toward the back. The head is very 
small, in proportion to the size of the body ; the legs and feet 
are strongly made, and furnished with blunt spurs, about an 
inch long, and of a dusky reddish color ; the bill is reddish, 
and brown-colored at the tip. 

The female is less in size ; her legs are destitute of spurs ; her 

neck and head are less naked, being furnished with short, 

dirty, gray feathers ; the feathers on the back of the neck have 

brownish tips, producing on that part a brown, longitudinal 

387 



68 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

band. She also, frequently, but not invariably, wants the 
tuft of feathers on the breast. Her prevailing color is a dusky 
gray, each feather having a metallic band, less brilliant than 
that of the cock, then a blackish band, and a gi'ayish fringe. 
Her whole color is, as usual among birds, duller than that of 
the cock ; the wing-feathers display the white, and have no 
bands ; the tail is similarly colored to that of the cock. When 
young, the sexes are so much alike that it is not easy to dis- 
cern the difiference between them ; and the cock acquires his 
beauty only by degrees, his plumage not arriving at perfection 
until the fourth or fifth year. 

The habits of these birds in their native wilds are exceed- 
ingly curious. The males, called Gobblers, associate in parties 
of from ten to a hundred, and seek their food apart from the 
females, which either go about singly with their young, at 
that time about two-thirds grown, or form troops with other 
females and their families, sometimes to the numJber of seventy 
or eighty. These all avoid the old males, who attack and 
destroy the young, whenever they can, by reiterated blows 
upon the skull. But all parties travel in the same direction, 
and on foot, unless the dog or the hunter or a river on their 
line of march compels them to take wing. When about to 
cross a river, they select the highest eminences, that their 
flight may be more sure, and in such positions they sometimes 
stay for a day or more, as if in consultation. The males upon 
such occasions gobble obstreperously, strutting with extra- 
ordinary importance, as if to animate their companions ; and 
the females and the young assume much of the same pompous 
manner, and spread their tails as they move silently around. 

Having mounted, at length, to the tops of the highest trees, 
388 



THE TURKEY. 69 

the assembled multitude, at the signal note of their leader, 
wing their way to the opposite shore. The old and fat birds, 
contrary to what might be expected, cross without difficulty, 
even when the river is a mile in width ; but the wings of the 
young and the meagre, and, of course, those of the weak, 
frequently fail them before they have completed their passage, 
when they drop in, and are forced to swim for their lives, 
which they do cleverly enough, spreading their tails for a sup- 
port, closing their wings, stretching out their necks, and strik- 
ing out quickly and strongly with their feet. All, however, 
do not succeed in such attempts, and the weaker often perish. 

The wild turkeys feed on maize, all sorts of berries, fruits, 
grasses, and beetles; tadpoles, young frogs, and lizards, are 
occasionally found in their crops. The pecan nut is a favorite 
food, and so is the acorn, on which last they fatten rapidly. 
About the beginning of October, while the mast still hangs on 
the trees, they gather together in flocks, directing their course 
to the rich bottom-lands, and are then seen in great numbers 
on the Ohio and Mississippi. This is the turkey -month of the 
Indians. When they have arrived at the land of abundance, 
they disperse in small, promiscuous flocks of both sexes and 
every age, devouring all the mast as they advance. Thus 
they pass the autumn and winter, becoming comparatively 
familiar after their journeys, when they venture near planta- 
tions and farm-houses. They have even been known, on such 
occasions, to enter stables and corn-cribs in quest of food. 
Numbers are killed in the winter, and preserved in a frozen 
state for distant markets. 

The beginning of March is the pairing season, for a short 

time previous to which the females separate from their mates, 

389 



YO POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

and shun them, though the latter pertinaciously follow them, 
gobbling loudly. The sexes roost apart, but at no great 
distance, so that when the female utters a call, every male 
withia hearing responds, rolling note after note in the 
most rapid succession ; not as when spreading the tail and 
strutting near the hen, but in a voice resembling that of the 
tame turkey when he hears any unusual or frequently-repeated 
noise. 

Where the turkeys are numerous, the woods, from one end 
to the other, sometimes for hundreds of miles, resound with 
this remarkable voice of their wooing, uttered responsively 
from their roosting-places. This is continued for about an 
hour ; and, on the rising of the sun, they silently descend from 
their perches, and the males begin to strut for the purpose of 
winning the admiration of their mates. 

If the call of a female be given from the ground, the males 

in the vicinity fly toward the indi^'-'^n-^l. and, whether they" 

perceive her or not, erect and spread their tails, throw the 

head backward, and distend the comb and wattles, shout 

pompously, and rustle their wings and body-feathers, at the 

same moment ejecting a puff of air ft-om the lungs. While 

thus occupied, they occasionally halt to look out for the female, 

and then resume their strutting and puffing, moving with as 

much rapidity as the nature of their gait will admit. During 

this ceremonious approach, the males often encounter each 

other, and desperate battles ensue, when the conflict is only 

terminated by the flight or death of the vanquished. The 

usual fruits of such victories are reaped by the conqueror, 

who is followed by one or more females, that roost near him, 

if not upon the same tree, until they begin to lay, when their 
390 



THE DOMESTIC TURKEY. 11 

habits are altered, with the view of saving their eggs, which the 
male breaks, if he can get at them. These are usually from 
nine to fifteen in number, sometimes twenty, whitish and 
spotted with brown, like those of the domestic bird. The 
nest consists of a few dried leaves placed on the ground, 
sometimes on a dry ridge, sometimes on the fallen top of a 
dead leafy tree, under a thicket of sumach or briers, or by the 
side of a log. "Whenever the female leaves the nest, she 
covers it with leaves, so as to screen it from observation. She 
is a very close sitter, and when she has chosen a spot will 
seldom leave it, on account of its being discovered by a human 
intruder. Should she find one of her eggs, however, sucked 
by a snake, or other enemy, she abandons the nest forever. 
When the eggs are near hatching, she will not forsake her 
nest while life remains. 

The females are particularly attentive to their young, 
which are very sensitive to the eflfects of damp ; and conse- 
quently wild turkeys are always scarce after a rainy season. 
The flesh of the wild turkey is much superior to that of the 
domestic bird ; yet the flesh of such of the latter as have been 
suffered to roam at large in the woods and in the plains is, in 
no respect, improved by this partially wild mode of life. 



THE DOMESTIC TURKEY. 

The origin of the popular name, turkey, appears to be the 

confusion at first unaccountably subsisting relative to the 

idet ty of the bird with the Guinea fowl, which was still 

scarce at the time of the introduction of the turkey. Some, 

however, say that the name arose from the proud and Turkish 

strut of the cock. There is a question whether the domestic 

391 



72 



rOULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 




turkej is actually a second and distinct species, or merely a 
variety of the wild bird, owing its diversity of aspect to 
circumstances dependent on locality, and consequent change 
of habit, combined with diflference of climate and other 

important causes, 
which are known 
in the case of other 
animals to pro- 
duce such remark- 
able effects. 

The varieties of 
the domesticated 
turkey are not 
very distinct ; and 
as to their relative 
value, it is, per- 
haps, difficult to give any decisive opinion. Some suppose 
that the white turkey is the most robust, and most easily 
fattened. Experience has, however, shown to the contrary. 
The pure white are very elegant creatures ; and though very 
tender to rear, are not so much so as the white pea fowl. 
Most birds, wild as well as tame, occasionally produce per- 
fectly white individuals, of more delicate constitution than 
their parents. The selection and pairing of such have probably 
been the means of establishing and keeping up this breed. 
With all care, they will now and then produce speckled birds, 
and so show a tendency to return to the normal plumage. 
It is remarkable that in specimens which are, in other respects, 
snow-white, the tuft on the breast remains coal-black, appear- 
ing, in the hens, like a tail of ermine, and so showing us a 
392 



THE DOMESTIC TURKEY. 



THE DOMESTIC TURKEY. 13 

great ornament. The head and caruncles on the neck of the 
male are, when excited, of the same blue and scarlet hues. 
The bird is truly beautiful, with its snowy and trembling 
flakes of plumage thus relieved with small portions of black, 
blue, and scarlet. They have one merit — they dress most 
temptingly white for market ; but they are unsuited for mirey, 
smokey, or clayey situations, and show and thrive best where 
they have a range of clean, short pasture, on a light or chalky 
subsoil. 

The bronze and copper-colored varieties are generally under- 
sized, and are among the most difficult of all to rear ; but their 
flesh is, certainly, very delicate, and, perhaps, more so than 
that of other kinds — a circumstance, however, that may 
partly result from their far greater delicacy of constitution, 
and the consequent extra trouble devoted to their manage- 
ment. 

The brown and ashy-gray are not particularly remarkable ; 
but the black are decidedly superior, in every respect, not 
only as regards greater hardiness, and a consequent greater 
facility of rearing, but as acquiring flesh more readily, and 
that, too, of the very best and primest quality. Those of this 
color appear also to be far less removed than the others from 
the original wild stock. Fortunately, the black seems to be 
the favorite color of Nature ; and black turkeys are produced 
far more abundantly than those of any other hue. 

The turkey is a most profitable bird, since it can almost 

wholly provide for itself about the roads ; snails, slugs, and 

worms are among the number of its dainties, and the nearest 

stream serves to slake its thirst. To the farmer, however, it 

is often a perfect nuisance, from its love of grain ; and should, 

393 



74 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

therefore, be kept in the yard until all corn is too strong in 
the root to present any temptation. 

Notwithstanding the separation which, with the exception 
of certain seasons, subsists between the cock and hen turkey 
in a wild state, they have been taught to feed and live 
amiably together in a state of domesticity. The former, how- 
ever, retains sufficient of his hereditary propensities to give 
an occasional sly blow to a froward chicken, but that very 
seldom of a serious or malicious character. 

One reason why the turkeys seen in poultry-yards do not 
vie in splendor of plumage with their untamed brethren is, 
that they are not allowed to live long enough. For the same 
cause, the thorough development of their temper and disposi- 
tion is seldom witnessed. It does not attain its full growth 
till its fifth or sixth year, yet it is killed at latest in the second, 
to the evident deterioration of the stock. If some of the best 
breeds were retained to their really adult state, and well fed 
meanwhile, they would quite recompense their keeper by their 
beauty in full plumage, their glancing hues of gilded green 
and purple, their lovely shades of bronze, brown, and black, 
and the pearly lustre that radiates from their polished feathers. 

THE DUCK. 

This bird is of the order of natatores, or swimmers ; family, 

anatidce, of the duck kind ; genus, anas, or duck. The most 

striking character of the swimming bird is derived from the 

structure of the feet, which are always palmate — that is, 

furnished with webs between the toes. There are always 

three toes directed forward, and these are usually united by a 

membrane to their extremities ; but, in some cases, the mem- 
394 




THE DUCK. T5 

brane is deeply cleft, and the toes are occasionally quite free, 
and furnished with a distinct web on each side. The fourth 
toe is generally but little developed, and often entirely wanting; 
when present, it is usually directed backward, and the mem- 
brane is sometimes 
continued to it along a ^^ 
the side of the feet. 
These webbed feet are 
the principal agents 
by which the birds 
propel themselves 
through the water, ^^ 
upon the surface of 

n 1 THE EIDER DUCK. 

which most of them 

pass a great portion of their time. The feet are generally 
placed very far back, a position which is exceedingly favor- 
able to their action in swimming, but which renders their pro- 
gression on the land somewhat awkward. 

The body is generally stout and heavy, and covered with a 
very thick, close, downy plumage, which the bird keeps con- 
stantly anointed with the greasy secretions of the caudal 
gland, so that it is completely water-proof. The wings exhibit 
a great variety in their development ; in some species being 
merely rudimentary, destitute of quills, and covered with a 
scaly skin — in others, being of vast size and power, and the 
birds passing a great part of their lives in the air. The form 
of the hill is also very remarkable ; in some, broad and flat ; in 
others, deep and compressed ; and in others, long and slender. 

Most of these birds live in societies, which are often ex- 

395 



76 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

ceedinglj numerous, inhabiting high northern and southern 
latitudes. 

Tlic distinguishing characteristic of the family of the 
anaiidce is the hill, which is usually of a flattened form, 
covered with a soft skin, and furnished at the edges with a 
series of lamellce, which serve to sift or strain the mud in 
which they generally seek their food. The feet are furnished 
with four toes, three of which are directed forward, and united 
by a web ; the fourth is directed backward, usually of small 
size, and quite free. They are admirable swimmers, and live 
and move on the water with the utmost security, ease, and 
grace. Such is their adaptation to this element that the 
young, immediately after being hatched, will run to it, and 
fearlessly launch themselves upon its bosom, rowing them- 
selves along with their webbed feet, without a single lesson, 
and yet as dexterously as the most experienced boatman. 
They are generally inhabitants of the fresh waters, and for the 
most part, prefer ponds and shallow lakes, in which they can 
investigate the bottom with their peculiar bills, without 
actually diving beneath the surface ; yet at some seasons they 
are found along the borders of the sea. Their food generally 
consists of worms, mollusca, and aquatic insects, which they 
separate from the mud by the agency of the lamellae at the 
margin of the bill ; but most of them also feed upon seeds, 
fruits, and other vegetable substances. 



THE WILD DUCK. 

This bird, known also by the name of mallard, is the 

original of all the domestic varieties. It is twenty-four inches 

long, and marked with green, chestnut and white. Wild 
396 



THE WILD DUCK. 11 

ducks are gregarious in tlieir habits, and generally migrate in 
large flocks. The males are larger than the females, and the 
letter are also usually of a more uniform and sober tint. 

It is an inhabitant of all the countries of Europe, especially 
toward the north, and is also abundant in North America, 




WILD DDCK. 

where it is migratory, passing to the North in Spring, end 
returning to the South in autumn. It frequents the lakes of 
the interior, as well as the sea-coasts. It is plentiful in Great 
Britain at all seasons, merely quitting the more exposed situa- 
tions at the approach of winter, and taking shelter in the 
valleys ; or, in case of a severe winter, visiting the estuaries. 

They moult twice in the year, in June and November ; in 
June, the males acquire the female plumage to a certain 
extent, but regain their proper dress at the second moult, and 
retain it during the breeding season. In a wild state, the 
mallard always pairs, and, during the period of incubation, the 
male, although taking no part in the process, always keeps in 
the neighborhood of the female ; and it is singular that half- 
bred birds between the wild and tame varieties always exhibit 

397 



78 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

the same habits, although the ordinary domestic drakes are 
polygamous, always endeavoring to get as many wives as they 
can. The nest is usually placed upon the ground among 
reeds and ledges near the water ; sometimes in holes or hollow 
trees, but rarely among the branches. The eggs vary from 
about eight to fourteen in number, and the young are active 
from the moment of their exclusion, and soon take to the 
water, where they are as much at home as the old birds. 

As the flesh of wild ducks is greatly valued, immense 
numbers are shot, or taken in other ways. In England, large 
numbers are captured by decoys, consisting of a piece of water 
situated in the midst of a quiet plantation, from which six 
semicircular canals are cut, which are roofed over with hoops, 
and covered in with netting. Into this vast trap the ducks 
are enticed by young ducks trained for the purpose. 



THE DOMESTIC DUCK. 

The duck should always find a place in the poultry-yard, 
provided that it can have access to water, even a small supply 
of which will suffice. They have been kept with success, and 
the ordinary duck fattened to the weight of eight pounds, 
with no further supply of water than that afforded by a large 
pool sunk in the ground. In a garden, ducks will do good 
service, voraciously consuming ^slops, frogs, and insects — 
nothing, indeed, coming amiss to them ; not being scratchers, 
they do not, like other poultry, commit such a degree of 
mischief, in return, as to partially counterbalance their useful- 
ness. A drake and two or three ducks cost little to maintain ; 
and the only trouble they will give is, that if there is much 

extent of water or shrubbery about their home, they will lay 
398 



THE DOMESTIC DUCK. 



79 



and sit abroad, unless they are brought up every night, which 
should be done. They will otherwise drop their eggs care- 
lessly here and there, or incubate in places where their eggs 
will be sucked by crows, and half their progeny destroyed 
by rats. 

The duck is very prolific, and its egg is very much relished 
by some, having a rich piquancy of flavor, which gives it a 
decided superi- 
ority over the 
egg of the do- 
mestic fowl ; 
and these qual- 
ities render it 
much in re- 
quest with the 
pastry-cook 
and confec- 
tioner — three 
duck's eggs 

being equal in culinary value to six hen's eggs. The duck 
does not lay during the day, but generally in the night; 
exceptions, regulated by circumstances, will, of course, occa- 
sionally occur. While laying, it requires, as has been 
intimated, more attention than does the hen, until it is ac- 
customed to resort to a regular nest for depositing its eggs; 
when, however, this is once effected, little care is needed 
beyond what has been indicated. 

The duck is a bad hatcher, being too fond of the water, and, 

consequently, too apt to allow her eggs to get cold ; she will 

also, no matter what kind of weather it may be, bring the 

399 




BOUEN DUCK. 



80 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

ducklings to the water the moment they break the shell — a 
practice always injurious, and frequently fatal ; hence the 
very common practice of setting duck's eggs under hens. 

There are several varieties of tame ducks ; but their merits 
are more diverse in an ornamental than in a profitable point 
of view. Of white ducks, the best is the Aylesbury, with its 
unspotted, snowy plumage, and yellow legs and feet. It is 
large and excellent for the table, but not larger or better than 
several others. They are assiduous mothers and nurses, 
especially after the experience of two or three seasons. A 
much smaller race of white ducks is imported from Holland, 
useful only to the proprietors of extensive or secluded waters, 
as enticers of passing wild birds to alight ^nd join, their 
society. This variety has a yellow-orange bill ; that of the 
Aylesbury should be flesh-colored. There is, also, the white 
hook-hilled duck, with a bill monstrously curved downward — a 
r^oman-nosed duck, in fact — with Jewish features, of a most 
grotesque and ludicrous appearance ; the bill has some resem- 
blance in its curvature to that of the Flamingo. White ducks, 
of course, make but a sorry figure in towns or dirty suburbs, 
or in any place where the means of washing themselves are 
scanty. 

There are one or two pretty varieties, not very common ; 

one of a slate-gray, or bluish dun, another of a sandy-yellow; 

there are also some with top-knots as compact and spherical 

as those of any Polish fowl, which rival the hook-billed in 

oddity. What are termed the white Poland and the black 

Poland are crested ; they breed early, and are excellent layers j 

the former are deemed the most desirable though the black are 

the larger. 
400 



THE DOMESTIC DTJCK. :81 

Of mottled and pied sorts, there exists a great variety ; 
black and white, bronze and white, lightly speckled, and many 
other mixtures. To this class belongs the Rouen — or Rhone, 
or Rohan, since each designation has been used — duck, which 
has been needlessly overpraised by interested dealers. This 
variety is highly esteemed by epicures ; it is a prolific bird, and 
lays large eggs ; its size is the criterion of its value. There is 
also a pied variety of the Poland ducks, a hybrid between the 
white and the black, the Beaver. 

Another variety, known as the Labrador, the Buenos Ayres, 
or the black East Indian duck, is somewhat rare and highly 
esteemed by dealers. They are very beautiful birds. The 
feet, legs, and entire plumage should be black ; a few white 
feathers will occasionally appear. The bill also is black, with 
a slight under-tinge of green. Not only the neck and back, 
but the larger feathers of the tail and wings are gilt with 
metallic green ; the female also exhibits slight traces of the 
same decoration. On a sunshiny spring day, the effect of these 
glittering black ducks sporting in the blue water is very 
pleasing. 

A peculiarity of this variety is, that they occasionally^-^that 

is, at the commencement of the season — lay black eggs ; the 

color of those subsequently laid gradually fades to that of the 

common kinds. This singular appearance is not caused by 

any internal strain penetrating the whole thickness of the 

shell, but by an oily pigment, whieh may be scraped off with 

the nail. They lay, perhaps, a little later than other ducks, 

but are not more difficult to rear. Their voice, likewise, is 

said to differ slightly from that of other varieties ; but they are 

far superior in having a high, wild-duck flavor and, if well 
26 401 



32 POULTRY AND THEIE DISEASES. 

kept, are in deserved repute as being excellent food when 
killed immediately from the pond, without any fattening. 

Still another breed, known as the Muscovy duck, is a dis- 
tinct species from the common duck ; and the hybrid race will 
not, therefore, breed again between themselves, although they 
are capable of doing so with either of the species from the 
commixture of which they spring. This duck does not 
derive its name from having been brought from the country 
indicated, but from the flavor of its flesh, and should more 
properly be termed the musk duck, of which this name is but 
a corruption. It is easily distinguished by a red membrane 
surrounding the eyes, and covering the cheeks. Not being in 
esteem, on account of their peculiar odor, and the unpleasant 
flavor of their flesh, they are not worth breeding, unless to 
cross with the common varieties ; in which case, the musk 
drake must be put to the common duck. This will produce a 
very large cross, while the opposite course will beget a very 
inferior one. 



THE GOOSE. 

The wild goose. The goose belongs to the same family 
as the duck, but is classed with the genus anser. The gray- 
leg goose — a common wild goose of England — is by some 
regarded as the original of the domestic bird. It is thirty- 
five inches long ; upper parts ash-brown and ash-gray ; under 
parts white. This variety is migratory, proceeding to the 
Xorthern parts of Europe and Asia in summer, and to the 
South in winter. 

The Canada, or Cravat goose, the wild goose of this 

country, is a fine species, forty inches long, often seen in spring 
402 



THE GOOSE, 



83 



and autumn in large, triangular flocks, high in air, and led by 
an old, experienced gander, who fi*equentlj utters a loud honk, 
equivalent, doubtless, to " All's well I" This sound often 
comes upon the ear at night, when the flock are invisible ; and 




WILD OR CA^'ADA GOOSE. 



it is frequently heard even in the daytime, seeming to come 
from the sky, the birds being beyond the reach of vision. 
Immense numbers of these noble birds are killed in Canada, 
as well as along our coasts, where they assemble in the 
autumn in large flocks, and remain till driven to more 
Southern climates by the season, 

403 



8'4' POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

The Canada goose is capable of domestication, and, in spite 
of its original migratory habits — which it appears, in almost 
every instance, to forget in England — shows much more dis- 
position for a truly domestic life than the swan ; and it may 
be maintained in perfect health with very limited opportunities 
for bathing. They eat worms and soft insects, as well as 
grass and aquatic plants ; with us, they do not breed until 
they are at least two years old, and so far approach the swan ; 
.like which bird, also, the male appears to be fit for reproduc- 
tion at an earlier period than the femaje. Many writers 
speak highly of the half-bred Canada. They are, certainly, 
very large, and may merit approbation on the table ; but with 
whatever other species the cross is made, they are hideously 
disgusting. 



THE DOMESTIC GOOSE. 
The goose is not mentioned in the Bible, but it was known 
to the ancient Egyptians, and is represented in numerous 
instances on their monuments, showing that it was anciently 
used for food, as in our own times. It was held sacred by the 
Romans, because it was said to have alarmed, by its cackling 
at night, the sentinels of the capitol, at the invasion of the 
Gauls, and thus to have saved the city. This was attributed 
by one of the Roman writers to its fine sense of smell, which 
enables them to perceive at a great distance the odor of the 
human race. The liver of this bird seems to have been a favor- 
ite morsel with epicures in all ages ; and invention appears 
to have been active in exercising the means of increasing the 
volume of that organ. It is generally esteemed a foolish bird; 

yet it displays courage in defending its young, and instances 
404 



THE DOMESTIC GOOSE. 85 

of attachment and gratitude have shown that it is not deficient 
in sentiment. The value and usefulness of geese are scarcely 
calculable. The only damage which they do lies in the 
quantity of food which they consume ; the only care they 
require is to be saved from starvation. All the fears and 
anxieties requisite to educate the turkey and prepare it for 
making a proper appearance at the table are with them un- 
necessary ; grass by day, a dry bed at night, and a tolerably 
attentive mother, are all that is required. Roast goose, fatted 
to the point of repletion, is almost the only luxury that is not 
deemed an extravagance in an economical farm-house ; for 
there are the feathers, to swell the stock of beds ; there is the 
dripping, to enrich the dumpling or pudding ; there are the 
giblets, for market or a pie ; and there is the wholesome, solid, 
savory flesh for all parties interested. 

They are accused by some of rendering the spots where 
they feed offensive to other stock ; but the explanation is 
simple. A horse bites closer than an ox ; a sheep goes nearer 
to the ground than a horse ; but, after the sharpest shearing 
by sheep, the goose will polish up the tuft, and grow fat upon 
the remnants of others. Consequently, where geese are kept 
in great numbers on a small area, little will be left to maintain 
any other grass-eating creature. If, however, the pastures 
are not short, it will not be found that other grazing animals 
object to feeding either together with, or immediately after, a 
flock of geese. 

The goose has the merit of being the earliest of poultry. In 

three months, or, about four, from leaving the egg, the birds 

ought to be fit for the feather-bed, the spit, and the fire. It is 

not only very early in its laying, but also very late. It often 

405 



86 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

anticipates the spring in November, and, afterward, when 
spring really comes in March, it cannot resist its general in- 
fluence- The autumnal eggs afford useful employment to 
turkeys and hens that choose to sit at unseasonable times ; and 
the period of incubation is less tedious than that required for 
the eggs of some other birds. 

The flight of the domestic goose is quite powerful enough, 
especially in young birds, to allow them to escape in that way, 
where they are so inclined. In the autumn, whole broods may 
be seen by early risers taking their morning flight, and circling 
in the air for matutinal exercise, just like pigeons, when first 
let out of their lockei*. The bird lives to a very great age, 
sometimes seventy years or more. 

As to the origin of our domestic species, opinions differ. 
By some, as already remarked, the gray-leg is regarded as the 
parent stock ; others consider it a mongrel, like the dunghill 
fowl, made up of several varieties, to each of which it occa- 
sionally shows more or less affinity ; and yet others contend 
that it is not to be referred to any existing species. The latter 
assert that there is really but one variety of the domestic 
goose, individuals of which are found from entirely white 
plumage, through different degrees of patchedness with gray, 
to entirely gray coloring, except on the abdomen. 

The domestic gander is polygamous, but he is not an indis- 
criminate libertine ; he will rarely couple with females of any 
other species. Hybrid common geese are almost always pro- 
duced by the union of a wild gander with a domestic goose, 
and not by the opposite. The ganders are generally, though 
not invariably, white, and are sometimes called Embden geese, 

from a town of Hanover. High feedings care, and moderate 
406 



THE BERNACLE GOOSE. 8Y 

xvarmth will induce a prolific habit, whicli becomes, in some 
measure, hereditary. The season of the year at which the 
young are hatched — and they may be reared at any season — 
influences their future size and development. After allowing 
for these causes of diversity, it is claimed that the domestic 
goose constitutes only one species or permanent variety. 



THE BERNACLE GOOSE. 

This bird is sometimes called the Barnacle goose ; its name 
originates from the fact that it was formerly supposed to be 
bred from the shells so termed, which cling to wood in the 
sea. It is about twenty-five inches long, and is found wild in 
Europe, abundantly in the Baltic; and, occasionally, as it is 
said, in Hudson's Bay, on this continent. 

This bird is one of those species in which the impulse of 
reproduction has at length overcome the sullenuess of captivity, 
and instances of their breeding when in confinement have in- 
creased in frequency to such an extent that hopes are enter- 
tained of the continuance of that increase. The young so 
reared should be pinioned at the wrist as a precaution. They 
would probably stay at home contentedly, if unpinioned, until 
the approach of inclement weather, when they would be 
tempted to leave their usual haunts in search of marshes, un- 
frozen springs, mud-banks left by the tide, and the open sea ; 
or they might be induced to join a flock of wild birds, instead 
of returning to their former quarters. 

Broods of five, six, and seven have been reared ; but they 

are generally valued as embellishments to ponds merely, their 

small size rendering them suitable even for a very limited 

pleasure-ground, and the variety being perhaps the prettiest 

407. 



88 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES, 

geese that are thus employed. The lively combination of 
black, white, gray, and lavender, gives them the appearance 
of being in agreeable half-mourning. The female differs little 
from tbe male, being distinguished by voice and deportment 
more than by plumage. Their short bill, the moderate-sized 
web« of their feet, and their rounded proportions, indicate an 
affinity with the curious Cereopsis goose, which is found in 
considerable numbers on the seashore of Sucky Bay and 
Goose Island, at the southeastern point of Australia. 

The number of eggs laid is six or seven, and the time of in- 
cubation is about a month ; it being difficult to name the exact 
period, from the uncertainty respecting the precise hour when 
the process commences. They are steady sitters. The young 
are lively and active little creatures, running hither and thither, 
and tugging at the blades of grass. Their ground color is of 
a dirty white ; their legs, feet, eyes, and short stump of a bill, 
are black ; they have a gray spot on the crown of the head, 
gray patches on the -back and wings, and a yellowish tinge 
about the forepart of the head. The old birds are very gentle 
in their disposition and habits, and are less noisy than most 
geese. 

The service they may render as weed-eaters is important, 

though their size alone precludes any comparison of them, in 

this respect, with the swan. Their favorite feeding-grounds 

are extensive flats, partially inundated by the higher tides ; 

and their breeding may perhaps best be. promoted by their 

being furnished with a little sea-weed during winter and early 

spring; a few shrimps, or small muscles, would probably not 

be unacceptable. A single pair is more likely to breed than 

it they are congregated in larger numbers. 
408 



THE BREMEN GOOSE. 



89 



THE BREMEN" GOOSE. 

The Bremen geese — so called from the place whence they 
were originally imported, though some term them Embden 




A BREMEN OOOSE. 



geese — have been bred in this country, pure, and to a feather, 

since 1821 ; no single instance having occurred in which the 

slightest deterioration of character could be observed,. The 

produce has invariably been of the purest white ; the bill, legs, 

and feet being of a beautiful yellow. 

The flesh of this goose does not partake of that dry character 

which belongs to other and more common kinds, but is as 

409 



90 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

tender and juicj as the flesli of a wild fowl ; it shrinks less in 
cooking than that of any other fowl. Some pronounce its 
flesh equal if not superior to that of the canvas-back duck. 
They likewise sit and hatch with more certainty than 
common barn-yard geese; will weigh nearly, and in some 
instances quite, twice the weight — the full-blood weighing 
twenty pounds and upward ; they have double the quantity of 
feathers ; and never fly. 

THE BKENT GOOSE. 

This is a small species, twenty-one inches long, common in 
a wild state, in both Europe and America. On our coast, it is 
a favorite game-bird, and known by the name of Brant. It is 
easily tamed, and is said to have produced young in captivity, 
though no details have been furnished. 

This and the Sandwich Island goose are the smallest of 
their tribe yet introduced to our aquatic aviaries. Their 
almost uniform color of leaden black, and their compactness 
of form, make them a striking feature in the scene, though 
they cannot be compared in beauty with many other water- 
fowl. There is so little difference in the sexes that it is not 
easy to distinguish them. Their chief merit rests in their 
fondness for water-weeds, in which respect they appear to be 
second only to the swan. They are quiet, gentle, and harm- 
less in captivity. Some praise their flesh, while others pro- 
nounce it fishy, strong, and oily ; they may, however, be 
converted into tolerable meat by being skinned and baked in 

a pie. 

410 



THE CHINA aOOSE. 



91 



THE CHIITA GOOSE. 

This bird figures under a variety of aliases : Knob goose, 
Hong Kong goose, Asiatic goose, Swan goose, Chinese Swan, 




CHINA OB HONO KONG GOOSE. 



Guinea goose, Polish goose, Muscovy goose, and, probably, 

others. 

There is something in the aspect of this creature — in the 

dark-brown stripe down its neck, its small, bright eye, its 

harsh voice, its ceremonious strut, and its affectation of seldom 

being in a hurry — which seems to say that it came from 

4U 



92 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

China. If so, it has no doubt been domesticated for many 
hundred years, perhaps as long as the pea fowl or the common 
fowl. They may be made to lay a large number of eggs by 
an increased supply of nourishing food. If liberally furnished 
with oats, boiled rice, etc., the China goose will, in the spring, 
lay from twenty to thirty eggs before she begins to sit, and 
again in the autumn, after her moult, from ten to fifteen more. 
Another peculiarity is their deficient power of flight, compared 
with other geese, owing to the larger proportionate size of 
their bodies. Indeed, of all geese, this is the worst flyer; 
there is no occasion to pinion tkem ; the common domestic 
goose flies much more strongly. 

The prevailing color of their plumage is brown, comparable 
to the color of wheat. The different shades are very harmo- 
niously blended, and are well relieved by the black tuberculated 
bill, and the pure white of the abdomen. Their movements 
on the water are graceful and swan-like. Slight variations 
occur in the color of the feet and legs, some having them of a 
dull orange, others black ; a delicate fringe of minute white 
feathers is occasionally seen at the base of the bill. These 
peculiarities are hereditarily transmitted. 

The male is almost as much disproportionately larger than 

the female as the Musk drake is in comparison with his mate. 

He is much inclined to libertine wanderings, without, however, 

neglecting proper attention at home. If there is any other 

gander on the premises, a disagreement is sure to result 

Both male and female are, perhaps, the noisiest of all geese ; 

at night, the least footfall or motion in their neighborhood is 

sufficient to call forth their clangor and resonant trumpetings. 

The eggs are somewhat less than those of the domestic kind, 
412 



THE CHINA GOOSE. 93 

of a short oval, with' a smooth, thick shell, white, but slightly 
tinged with yellow at the smaller end. The goslings, when 
first hatched, are usually very strong. They are of a dirty 
green, like the color produced by mixing India-ink and yellow 
ochre, with darker patches here and there. The legs and feet 
are lead-color, but afterward change to a dull red. With good 
pasturage, they require no farther attention than that bestowed 
by their parents. After a time, a little grain will strengthen 
and forward them. If well fed, they come to maturity very 
rapidly ; in between three and four months from the time of 
leaving the shell, they will be full-grown and ready for food. 
They do not bear being shut up to fatten so well as common 
geese, and, therefore, those. destined for the table are the better 
for profuse hand-feeding. Their flesh is well-flavored, short, 
and tender ; their eggs, excellent for cooking purposes 

They are said to be a short-lived species ; the ganders, at 
least, not lasting more than ten or a dozen years. Hybrids 
between them and the common goose are prolific with the 
latter ; the second and third cross is much prized by some 
farmers, particularly for their ganders ; and in many flocks the 
blood of the China goose may be traced oftentimes by the 
more erect gait of the .birds, accompanied by a faint stripe 
down the back of the neck. With the White-grented goose 
they also breed freely. 

The White- China. These are larger than the preceding, and 

apparently more terrestrial in their habits ; the knob on the 

head is not only of greater proportion, but of a diS"erent shape. 

It is of a spotless, pure white — though a very few gray feathers 

occasionally appear — more swan-like than the brown, with a 

bright orange-colored bill, and a large knot of the same color 

i 413 



94 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

at its base. It is particularly beautiful, either in or out of the 
water, its neck being long, slender, and gracefully arched 
■when swimming. It breeds three or four times in the season ; 
the egg: is quite small for the size of the bird, being not more 
Vian half the size of that of the common goose. 

In many instances, efforts to obtain young from their eggs 
have been unsuccessful ; but if the female is supplied with the 
eggs of the common goose, she invariably hatches and rears 
the goslings. They sit remarkably well, never showing them- 
selves out of the nest by day ; but, possibly, they may leave 
the nest too long in the cold of the night. Some think that a 
quiet lake is more to their taste than a rapid running stream, 
and more conducive to the fecundity of their eggs. It is also 
believed by many that, under favorable circumstances, they 
would be very prolific. 



THE EGYPTIAISr GOCSI]. 

This species is bred to a certain extent in this country. It 
is a most stately and ricli bird, reminding one of the solemn 
antiquity of the Nile, with its gorgeous mantle of golden hues 
and its long history. 

It is dark red round the eyes ; red ring round the neck ; 
white bill ; neck and breast light fawn-gray ; a maroon star on 
the breast ; belly red and gray ; half of the wing-feathers rich 
black, the other part of them pure white ; black bar running 
across the centre, back light-red, growing dark-red toward the 
tail ; the tail a deep black. 

They are very prolific, bringing off three broods a year, from 
eight to twelve each time ; their weight is about eight pounds 
each. 



THE JAVA GOOSE — THE TOULOUSE GOOSE. 95 

THE JAVA GOOSE, 

The gander of this species is white, with head and half the 
neck light-fawn ; red tubercle at the root of the bill ; larger 
than the common goose, and longer in the body ; walks erect, 
standing as high as the China goose, the female appearing to 
carry two pouches, or egg-bags, under the belly. 

It is very prolific ; and the meat is of fine flavor. 



THE TOULOUSE GOOSE. 

This bird is said to have been originally imported from the 
Mediterranean ; and is known also by the names Mediterra- 
nean goose, and Pyrenean goose. It is chiefly remarkable for 
its vast size, in which respect it surpasses all others. 

Its prevailing color is a slaty blue, marked with brown bars, 
and occasionally relieved with black ; the head, neck, as far as 
the beginning of the breast, and the back of the neck, as far as 
the shoulders, of a dark-brown ; the breast slaty-blue ; the 
belly is white, in common with the under surface of the tail ; 
the bill is orange-red, and the feet flesh-color. 

In habit, the Toulouse goose resembles his congeners, but 
seems to possess a milder and more tractable disposition, 
which greatly conduces to the chance of his early fattening, 
and that, too, at a little cost. The curl of the plumage on the 
neck comes closer to the head than that on common geese, and 
the abdominal pouch, which, in other varieties, is an accom- 
paniment of age, exists from the shell. The flesh is said to be 
tender and well-flavored. 

Some pronounce this bird the unmixed and immediate 

descendant of the Gray-leg ; while others assert that it is only 

415 



96 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

the common domestic, enlarged by early hatching, very liberal 
feeding during youth, fine climate, and, perhaps, by age, and 
style them grenadier individuals of the domestic goose — 
nothing more. 



THE WHITE-FHONTED GOOSE. 

In its wild state, the White-fronted or Laughing goose is 
twenty-seven inches long, and found in great numbers in 
Europe and in the North American Fur countries, but rare 
along our coasts. 

When domesticated, it belongs to the class of birds which 
are restrained from resuming their original wild habits more 
by the influence of local and personal attachment than from 
any love which they seem to have for the comforts of domesti- 
cation ; which may be trusted with their entire liberty, or 
nearly so, but require an eye to be kept on them from time to 
time, lest they stray away and assume an independent con- 
dition. The white-fronted goose well deserves the patronage 
of those who have even a small piece of grass. 

The first impression of every one, upon seeing this species 

in confinement, would be that it could not be trusted with 

liberty ; and the sight of it exercising its wings at its first 

escape would make its owner despair of recovering it. This 

is not, however, the case. By no great amount of care and 

attention, they will manifest such a degree of confidence and 

attachment as to remove all hesitation as to the future ; and 

they may be regarded as patterns of all that is valuable in 

anserine nature — gentle, affectionate, cheerful, hardy, useful, 

and self-dependent. The gander is an attentive parent, but 

not a faithful spouse. 

The eggs are smaller than those of the common goose, pure 
416 



THE EGO. 97 

white, and of a very long oval ; the shell is also thinner than 
in, most others ; the flesh is excellent. 



Having completed the enumeration and description of the 
varieties of poultry, it will, perhaps, be appropriate to give 
some account, before proceeding to the next general division 
of the subject, of the structure, or anatomy, so to speak, of 

THE EGG. 

In a laying hen may be found, upon opening the body, 
what is called the ovarium — a cluster of rudimental eggs, of 
different sizes, from very minute points up to shapes of easily- 
distinguished forms. These rudimental eggs have as yet no 
shell or white, these being exhibited in a different stage of 
development ; but consist wholly of yolk, on the surface of 
which the germ of the future chicken lies. The yolk and the 
germ are enveloped by a very thin membrane. 

"When the rudimental egg, still attached to the ovarium, 
becomes longer and larger, and arrives at a certain size, either 
its own weight, or some other eflBcient cause, detaches it from 
the cluster, and makes it fall into a sort of funnel, leading to a 
pipe, which is termed the oviduct 

Here the yolk of the rudimental egg, hitherto imperfectly 
formed, puts on its mature appearance of a thick yellow fluid ; 
while the rudimental chick or embryo, lying on the surface 
opposite to that by which it had been attached to the 'ovarium, 
is white, and somewhat like paste. 

The white, or albumen, of the egg now becomes diffused 

around the yolk, being secreted from the blood vessels of the 

egg-pipe, or oviduct, in the form of a thin, glassy fluid ; and it 

is prevented from mixing with the yolk and the embryo 

chicken by the thin membrane which surrounded them before 
27 417 



98 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

they were detached from the egg-cluster, while it is strength- 
ened by a second and stronger membrane, formed around the 
first, immediately after falling into the oviduct. This second 
membrane, enveloping the yolk of the germ of the chicken, 
is thickest at the two ends, having what may be termed 
bulgings, termed chalazes by anatomists ; these bulgings of 
the second membrane pass quite through the white at the ends, 
and being thus, as it were, embedded in the white, they keep 
the inclosed yolk and germ somewhat in a fixed position, pre- 
venting them from rolling about within the egg when it is moved. 

The white of the egg being thus formed, a third membrane, 
or, rather, a double membrane, much stronger than either of 
the first two, is formed around it, becoming attached to the 
chalazes of the second membrane, and tending still more to 
keep all the parts in their relative positions. 

During the progress of these several formations, the egg 
gradually advances about half way along the oviduct. It is 
still, however, destitute of the shell, which begins to be formed 
by a process similar to the formation of the shell of a snail, as 
soon as the outer layer of the third membrane has been com- 
pleted. When the shell is fully formed, the egg continues to 
advance along the oviduct, till the hen goes to her nest and 
lays it. 

From ill health, or accidents, eggs are sometimes excluded 
from the oviducts before the shell has begun to be formed, and 
in this state they are popularly called loind-eggs. 

Reckoning, then, from the shell inward, there are six 

different envelopes, of which one only could be detected before 

the descent of the egg into the oviduct : the shell ; the external 

layer of the membrane lining the shell ; the internal layer of 

same lining ; the white, composed of a thinner liquid on the 
418 



THE EGG. 99 

outside, and a thicker and more yellowish liquid on the inside ; 
the bulgings, or chalaziferus membrane ; and the proper mem- 
brane. 

One important part of the egg is the air-bag, placed at the 
larger end, between the shell and its lining membrane. This 
is about the size of the eye of a small bird in new-laid eggs, 
but is increased as much as ten times in the process of hatch- 
ing. The air bag is of such great importance to the develop- 
ment of the chicken — probably by supplying it with a limited 
atmosphere of oxygen — that, if the blunt end of an egg be 
pierced with the point of the smallest needle, the egg cannot 
be hatched. 

Instead of one rudimental egg falling from the ovarium, 
two may be detected, and will, of course, be inclosed in the 
same shell, when the egg will be double-yolked. The eggs of 
a goose have, in some instances, contained even three yolks. 
If the double-yolked eggs be hatched, they will rarely produce 
two separate chickens, but, more commonly, monstrosities — 
chickens with two heads, and the like. , 

The shell of an egg, chemically speaking, consists chiefly 
of carbonate of lime, similar to chalk, with a small quantity of 
phosphate of lime, and animal mucus. "When burnt, the 
animal matter and the carbonic acid gas of the carbonate of 
lime are separated ; the first being reduced to ashes, or animal 
charcoal, while the second is dissipated, leaving the decar- 
bonized lime mixed with a little phosphate of lime. 

The white of the egg is without taste or smell, of a viscid, 

glairy consistence, readily dissolving in water, coagiflable by 

acids, by spirits of wine, and by a temperature of one hundred 

and sixty-five degrees, Fahrenheit. If it has once been 

coagulated, it is no longer soluble in either cold or hot water, 

419 



100 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

and acquires a slight insipid taste. It is composed of eighty- 
parts of water, fifteen and a half parts of albumen, and four and 
a half parts of mucus ; besides giving traces of soda, benzoic 
acid, and sulphuretted hydrogen gas. The latter, on an egg 
being eaten on a silver spoon, stains the spoon of a blackish 
purple, by combining with the silver, and forming sulphuret 
of silver. 

The white of the egg is a verj feeble conductor of heat, 
retarding its escape ; and preventing its entrance to the yolk ; 
a providential contrivance, not merely to prevent speedy fer- 
mentation and corruption, but to arrest the fatal chills, which 
might occur in hatching, when the mother hen leaves her eggs, 
from time to time, in search of food. Eels and other fish 
which can live long out of water, secrete a similar viscid sub- 
stance on the surface of their bodies, furnished to them, doubt- 
less, for a similar purpose. 

The yolk has an insipid, bland, oily taste ; and, when agi- 
tated with water, forms a milky emulsion. If it is long boiled 
it becomes fi. granular, friable solid, jnelding upon expression, 
a yellow, insipid, fixed oil. It consists, chemically, of water, 
oil, albumen, and gelatine. In proportion to the quantity of 
albumen, the egg boils hard. 

The weight of the eggs of the domestic fowl varies materi- 
ally ; in some breeds, averaging thirty-three ounces per dozen, 
in others, but fourteen and a half ounces. A fair average 
weight for a dozen is twenty-two and a half ounces. Yellow, 
mahogany, and salmon-colored eggs are generally richer than 
white oiies, containing, as they do, a larger quantity of yolk. 
These are generally preferred for culinary purposes ; while 
the latter, containing an excess of albumen, are preferred for 

boiling, etc., for the table. 
420 




AAmiiBinapniFn; 



Breeding. Good fowls are very profitable in the keeping 
of intelligent breeders. It is stated, bj those most competent 
to express the opinion, that four acres of land, devoted to the 
rearing of the best varieties of poultry, will, at ordinary prices, 
be quite as productive as a farm of one hundred and fifty acres 
cultivated in the usual way. The eggs of the common and 
cheaper kinds which might be used for incubators and nurses, 
would pay — or could be made to pay, if properly preserved, 
and sold at the right time — all expenses of feed, etc. ; while 
good capons of the larger breeds will bring, in any of our larger 
(101) 



421 



102 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

markets, from three to five dollars per pair, and early spring 
chickens from twenty to twenty-five cents per pound. 

To make poultry profitable, then, it is only necessary that 
the better kinds be bred from, that suitable places be provided 
for them, that they be properly fed, and carefully and intelli- 
gently managed. These requirements are too rarely complied 
with, in every respect, to enable a correct opinion to be formed 
as to what may be made out of poultry under the most favora- 
ble circumstances. 

A few general principles, well-understood and faithfully 
applied, will prove of great value. By " in-and-in breeding" 
is meant commerce between individuals of the same brood, or 
brother and sister, so to speak ; by " close breeding," commerce 
between the parent and his offspring, in whatever degree. 

Crossing the breed. To insure successful and beneficial 
crossing of distinct breeds, in order to produce a new and 
valuable variety, the breeder must have an accurate knowledge 
of the laws of procreation, and the varied influences of parents 
upon their ofi"spring. All the breeds in this country are 
crosses, produced either by accident or design. Crossing does 
not necessarily produce a breed ; but it always produces a 
variety, and that variety becomes a breed only where there is 
a sufficiency of stamina to make a distinctive race, and con- 
tinue a progeny with the uniform or leading characteristics of 
its progenitors. 

High breeding. "When uniformity of plumage can be eflected 

in mixed breeds or varieties without a resort to in-and-in, or 

close breeding, and without sacrificing the health and vigor of 

the race, it is desirable ; and, in many instances, it can be 

accomplished in a satisfactory manner. What are called 
422 



BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 103 

liiglily-bred fowls are, however, too often the deteriorated 
offspring of progenitors far below the original stock. Genuine 
high breeding consists in the selection of parent stock of the 
same race, perfect in all the general characteristics, and of 
remote consanguinity. This should be resorted to periodically, 
in order to secure the best results. 

If a race is pure — that is, if the species or variety is abso- 
lutely distinct and unsophisticated — the progeny resembles the 
progenitors in almost every respect. The mixture of races, 
where the consanguinity is remote, is productive of decided 
benefits. 

To illustrate, in the case of fowls : when the blood is 
unmixed — as with the Guelderlands, and some others — the 
offspring, in all respects, resemble their parents ; in plumage, 
general habits, form, outline, etc. In this case, they look 
almost identically the same. But when the blood is mixed — 
as with the Cochin Chinas, and many others — the plumage 
will vary widely, or slightly, according to circumstances, 
though many or most of the general characteristics may 
remain the same. The close breeding, to which many resort 
for the purpose of procuring uniformity, generally results in 
an absolute deterioration of the race in important respects. 

In some cases, close breeding — and, occasionally, in-and-in 
— seems to be in accordance with the laws ot Nature ; as with 
the wild turkey, which, in its natural state, resorts to these 
modes of breeding ; and yet the race does not change in ap- 
pearance or degenerate. The reason is that the breed is 
pure. In comparing any number of these birds, not the least 

dissimilarity is discoverable ; they all look alike, as they 

423 



104 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

always have, and always will. They are changed, or deterior- 
ated, only by crossing or confinement. 

Most breeds of the hen kind degenerate rapidly from close, 
or in-and-in breeding, because they are not perfect of their 
kind ; that is, the breed is not pure, but of mixed blood ; and 
in such objectionable breeding, the race degenerates just in 
proportion as the breed is imperfect, or impure. The perfect 
Guelderland will admit of these modes of breeding, for a great 
length of time, without deterioration ; but the impure or 
mixed will rapidly degenerate. This is also true of all breeds, 
wherein the characteristic marks are uniform and confirmed, 
showing perfection in the race. 

As a general rule, however, close and in-and-in breeding 
should be carefully avoided where the race is not absolutely 
perfect, if it is desired to improve the breed ; and as all the 
breeds of this kind of fowls are of mixed blood, the danger of 
such breeding is greater or less, in exact proportion as the 
distinctive characteristics are variant or fixed ; and the danger 
still increases if the bi'eed is composed of strains of blood 
greatly dissimilar, or of races widely differing in the conforma- 
tion or general habits. 

Preserving the distinctive breeds. As to the time when the 
different breeds of hens should be separated in the spring, in 
order to preserve the breed pure, the most ample experience 
indicates that if the eggs be preserved and set after a separa- 
tion of two days, the breed will be perfect, the offspring having 
all the characteristics or distinctive marks. 

When a valuable breed is produced, either by accident or 

design, it should be preserved, and the subsequent breeding 

should continue from that stock ; otherwise, there is no 
424 



BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT, 105 

certainty of the purity of the blood of the new breed, for it 
does not follow that a different parentage, though of the same 
name or original breed precisely, will produce the same new 
breed, or any thing resembling it. The Dorking fowl, for 
instance, was originally produced by crossing the Great Malgy 
with the English Game, as an accident ; but it by no means 
follows that Dorkings are the uniform, or even the common 
result of such a cross, for hundreds of similar experiments 
have proved unsuccessful. The breeding, therefore, to be 
pure-blooded, must continue from the stock originally pro- 
duced by accident ; and as such breeding produces the leading 
characteristics of the race with great uniformity, the genuine- 
ness of the breed cannot be doubted. 

In order to produce a good cross, the parentage should be 
healthy, and from healthy races, not materially dissimilar in 
their general habits. The size of the leg should always be 
looked to, in order to judge accurately as to purity of blood. 
If the leg is large for the breed — that is, if larger than the 
generality of the same breed — the purity of the blood, the fine- 
ness of the flesh, and most of the other valuable qualities, can 
be relied on ; but, if the legs are smaller than most others of 
the same breed, the fowl is spurious, and of deteriorated 
blood. The fifth toe and feathered legs of some breeds were 
originally the result of accident ; but by long and careful 
breeding, they have become incorporated into the nature of 
certain races of general, though not universal or essential, 
requisites. When a fowl exhibits any special marks indica- 
tive of all the races or breeds from which the cross originated, 
it is a sure evidence of extraordinary purity of blood, and of 

the superior excellence of the race. The best fowls of the 

425 



106 ■ POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

race should always be selected for crossing or general breedr 
ing; otherwise the breeds will degenerate. 

The quality — that is, the fineness, juiciness, and richness of 
flavor — of the flesh of domestic fowls is of much more im- 
pprtance than their size. All coarse-meated fowls should, 
therefore, be rejected, no matter how large they may be. 
There is no difficulty in discriminating between coarse and 
fine fowls at any time. In the case of chickens, if the down 
is straight and stands out, and the body and limbs are loosely 
joined, the meat is coarse ; but if the down is glossy, and lies 
close to the body, and the body and limbs are compactly" 
formed, the meat is fine ; and when grown, if the fowl is light 
in w^eight, in proportion to its size, the flesh is coarse ; but if 
heavy, the flesh is fine. 

There is also ?t. fitness in the quality of the flesh ; for, if the 
meat is fine, the bones are fine, and the feathers are fine ; and 
the converse holds true. If the flesh is fine, it is juicy and 
richly flavored ; if coarse, it is dry, fibrous, and insipid. 

The color of the legs, too, is quite material in judging of the 
quality of fowls. All other things being equal, dark-legged 
fowls have the finest flesh, and are most hardy. Turkeys, 
which have the finest flesh of any fowl of their size, have black 
legs ; the game-cock, likewise, which is universally acknowl- 
edged to be the finest-fleshed of any of the domestic fowls, 
except the Wild Indian fowl of Calcutta, has dark legs. It 
does not, however, of necessity follow that all dark-legged 
fowls are fine, or that all yellow or white-legged ones are 
coarse, since much depends upon the breed ; but it is true that 
the darkest leg which pertains to the breed indicates the finest 

fowl, 

426 



BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT. • lOT 

The color of the feathers, also, has more or less to do with 
the quality of the fowl. Some breeds have a much more 
brilliant plumage than others ; but when brilliancy of plumage 
irf here spoken of, it is to be understood in comparison with 
others of the same breed. If, therefore, a fowl is selected of 
rich and glossy plumage, when compared with others of the 
same breed, the legs will be dark of the kind, and the quality 
of the bird will excel. 

The best breeding is to cross or mix the races ; this process 
improves the breeds, in all respects. When the object in view 
is to perpetuate distinct varieties of uncontaminated blood, the 
first requisite is to procure fowls known to be of pure blood, 
and possessing all the necessary characteristics of their kind. 
Labor is lost, unless the fowl selected is a perfect specimen of 
the variety ; for whatever imperfection exists is likely to be 
perpetuated in the progeny. Regard should be had to 
plumage, size, and form, in making a selection either of a 
cock or a pullet ; and those are preferable which are hatched 
earliest in the year. The age of the fowls is a matter of con- 
siderable importance ; and, though it is true that a pullet will 
lay the greatest number of eggs in her first year, yet it is 
believed that the chickens which are hatched from the second 
year's eggs are more vigorous and hardy. Old hens are, 
generally preferred to pullets as sitters, on account of their 
more sedate and matronly character. A young cock, though 
more active in his earliest days, and likely to bestow his 
attention on the bens with less reserve, is not, however, best 
for use in keeping up a breed. The eggs impregnated by him 
after his first season are likely to produce the strongest 

chickens. It is an error to suppose — as is often represented — 

427 



108 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

that his procreative power is decayed or vitiated after three 
or four years. On the contrary, a healthy, vigorous cock, if 
not allowed to walk with too many hens, may be valuable and 
useful in the poultry-yard for a longer time. 

An error is often committed by assigning too many hens to 
one cock ; and the result is a weakly and otherwise deteriorated 
progeny. Not more than five hens should be allowed to 
associate with a single cock, when the quality of the breed is a 
matter of interest. Three, indeed, would be the better number 
for restriction ; but five is the farthest limit which can be safely 
assigned. 

Most persons, in obtaining a single vigorous cock and hen 
of a desirable variety, find their anticipations more than 
realized in the production of a fine progeny. The plumage is 
brilliant, and the chickens are of increased size, and remarka- 
bly strong and healthy. This desirable state of things con- 
tinues so long as the cock is restricted to a small number of 
hens ; but as soon as his harem is enlarged, different effects 
are manifested, and a deterioration in the stock is clearly 
observable — attributable, not to close-breeding, but to the 
increased disproportion of the females to the male, and the 
consequent overtasking of his powers. 

In breeding- time, great cleanliness should be preserved in, 
the lodgings of the fowls, and the quantity and quality of food 
should be attended to. They should not be suffered to feed to 
repletion, and such kinds of food as are most nutritious should 
be carefully provided. Variety of food is essential ; and a 
proper proportion of animal and green food should be given 
with their usual fare. Suitable arrangements should, of course, 

be made to prevent any intermixture of breeds. A constant 

428 



SELECTION OF STOCK, 



109 



vigilance in this respect is the price of success ; and when all 
proper precautions are taken, the breeder may be perfectly 
secure that his anticipations will be realized. 



SELECTION OF STOCK. 
The habits of the domestic fowl, in a wild state, are too 
little known to ascertain whether the cocks always associate 
with the hens, or only occasionally. Though hens will lay 
some eggs without pairing, as this is not natural, the number 
will, for the most part, be less, and the laying uncertain ; it is, 
therefore, indispensable to attend to the laws of Nature in this 
respect. 

The number of hens to be allowed to one cock should vary 
with the object in view. The limit for valuable breeding 
purposes has already been indicated. If profit is sought for, 
in the production of eggs alone, one cock — if a stout, young, 

and lively bird — 
may have as many 
as twenty-four 
hens. 

The choice of 
a cock is a very 
important thing. 
He is considered 
to have every re- 
quisite quality 
FisHTiNG COCKS. whcu hc is of a 

good middling size ; carries his head high ; has a quick, ani- 
mated look ; a strong and shrill voice ; a fine red comb, shining 

as if varnished ; wattles of a large size, and of the same color as the 

429 




110 POULTRY AND THEIU DISEASES. 

comb ; the breast broad ; the wings strong ; the plumage black 
or of an obscure red ; the thighs very muscular ; the legs 
lliick, and furnished with strong spurs; and the claws rather 
bunt and sharply pointed. He ought, also, to be free in his 
ijotions, to crow frequently, and to scratch the ground often 
in search of worms, not so much for himself as to treat his 
hens. He ought, withal, to be brisk, spirited, ardent, and 
ready in caressing the hens ; quick in defending them, attentive 
in soliciting them to eat, in keeping them together, and in 
assembling them at night. 

In breeding game cocks, the qualities required are every 
mark of perfect health, such as a ruddy complexion ; the 
feathers close, short, and not feeling cold or dry; the flesh firm 
and compact ; and a full breast, betokening good lungs ; a 
tapering and thinness behind. He should be full in the girth, 
well coupled, lofty and aspiring, with a good thigh, the beam 
of his leg very strong, the eye large and vivid, and the beak 
strong, crooked, and thick at the base. 

A cock is in his prime at two years old ; though cocks are 
sometimes so precocious as to show every mark of full vigor 
at four months, while others of the same brood do not appear 
in that state for several months afterward. When marks of 
declining vigor are perceived, the cock must be displaced, to 
make way for a successor, which should be chosen from among 
the finest and bravest of the supernumerary young cocks, that 
ought to be reared for this special purpose. * 

The change of cocks is of much importance, and is frequently 

very troublesome to manage ; for peace does not long subsist 

between them when they hold a divided dominion in the 

poultry-yard, since they are all actuated by a restless, jealous, 
430 



SELECTION OF STOCK. Ill 

hasty, fiery, ardent disposition ; and hence their quarrels 
become no less frequent than sanguinary. A battle soon 
succeeds to provocation or affront. The two opponents face 
each other, their feathers bristling up, their necks stretched 
out, their heads low, and their beaks ready for the onslaught. 
They observe each other in silence, with fixed and sparkling 
eyes. On the least motion of either, they stand stiffly up, and 
rush furiously forward, dashing at each other with beak and 
spur in repeated sallies, till the more powerful or the more 
adroit has grievously torn the comb and wattles of his adver- 
sary, has thrown him down by the heavy stroke of his wings, 
or has stabbed him with his spurs. 

In the choice of a hen for sitting, a large bird should be 
selected, with large, wide-spreading wings. Though large, she 
must not, however, be heavy nor leggy. No one of judgment 
would sit a Malay ; as, in such case, not only would many 
eggs remain uncovered, but many, also, would be trampled 
upon end broken. Elderly hens will be more willing to sit 
than young and giddy pullets. 

After the common hen, which, on account of her fecundity, 
is deservedly esteemed, the tufted hens may be justly ranked ; 
particularly from being more delicate eating, because she 
fattens more readily, on account of laying less. The large 
breed, though less prolific, is preferable in rearing chickens for 
the market, or for making capons. "With regard to these 
three kinds, the general opinion of breeders is, that the first is 
more prolific in the number of eggs, while the others produce 
larger chickens, which bring good prices. 

The Spanish fowl are not generally good sitters, but are 

excellent layers ; the Dorkings reverse the order, being better 

431 



112 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

sitters than layers. These qualities will be found to extend 
pretty generally to hens partaking of the prevailing colors of 
these two varieties ; the black being usually the best layers, 
and but careless or indifferent sitters, while gray or checkered 
hens are the best that can be produced. 



FEEDiisra-. 
Experiments have demonstrated that what may be called 
the gastric juice in fowls has not sufficient power to dissolve 
their food, without the aid of the grinding action of the gizzard. 
Before the food is prepared for digestion, therefore, the grains 
must be subjected to a triturating process ; and such as are 
not sufficiently bruised in this manner, before passing into the 
gizzard, are there reduced to the proper state, by its natural 
action. The action of the gizzard is, in this respect, mechani- 
cal ; this organ serving as a mill to grind the food to pieces, 
and then, by means of its powerful muscles, pressing it 
gradually into the intestines, in the form of pulp. The power 
of this organ is said to be sufficient to pulverize hollow 
globules of glass in a very short time, and solid masses of the 
same substance in a few weeks. The rapidity of this process 
seems to be proportionate, generally, to the size of the bird. 
A chicken, for example, breaks up such substances as are 
received into its stomach less readily than the capon ; while a 
goose performs the same operation sooner than either. 
Needles, and even lancets, given to turkeys, have been broken 
in pieces and voided, without any apparent injury to the 
stomach. The reason, undoubtedly, is, that the larger species 
of birds have thicker and more powerful organs of digestion. 

It ha*s long been the general opinion that, from some defi- 
432 



FEEDING. 113 

ciency in the digestive apparatus, fowls are obliged to resort 
to the use of stones and gravel, in order to enable them to 
dispose of the food which thej consume. Some have supposed 
that the use of these stones is to sheath the gizzard, in order 
to fit it to break into smaller fragments the hard, angular sub- 
stances which might be swallowed ; they have also been con- 
sidered to have a medicinal effect ; others have imagined that 
they acted as absorbents for undue quantities of acids in the* 
stomach, or as stimulants to digestion ; while it has even been 
gravely asserted that they contribute directly to nutrition. 

Repeated experiments, however, have established that 
pebbles are not at all necessary to the trituration of the hardest 
kinds of substances which can be introduced into their 
stomachs ; and, of course, the usual food of fowls can be 
bruised without their aid. They do, however, serve a useful 
auxiliary purpose. When put in motion by the muscles, they 
are capable of producing some effects upon the contents of 
the stomach; thus assisting to grind down the grain, and 
separating its parts, the digestive fluid, or gastric juice, comes 
more readily in contact with it. 

Varieties op food. Fowls about a poultry-yard can 
usually pick up a portion of their subsistence, and, under 
favorable circumstances, the largest portion. "When so situ- 
ated, the keeping of poultry pays decidedly the best. The 
support even of poultry not designed for fattening should not, 
however, be made to depend entirely upon such precarious 
resources. Fowls should be fed with punctuality, faithfulness, 
and discretion. 

They are fond of all sorts of grain — such as Indian corn, 

wheat, oats, rye, buckwheat, barley, millet, etc. ; liut their 
28 " ' 433 



114 »POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES, 

particular preferences are not so likely to guide in the selection 
of their food, as the consideration of what is most economical, 
and easiest to be procured on the part of their owner. They 
will readily eat most kinds of vegetables in their green state, 
both cooked and raw. They likewise manifest an inclination 
for animal food— such as blood, fish, and flesh— whether raw 
or otherwise ; and seem by no means averse to feeding on 
"their own species. Insects, worms, and snails they will take 
with avidity. 

It is usual to give to domestic fowls a quantity of grain 
once, at least, daily ; but, commonly, in less quantity than they 
would consume, if unrestricted. They feed with great 
voracity ; but their apparent greediness is not the criterion by 
which the possibility of satisfying them is to be judged. 
Moderate quantities of food will suffice ; and the amount con- 
sumed will usually be proportioned to the size of the indi- 
viduals. "Whatever is cheapest, at any given time, may be 
given, without regard to any other considerations. Different 
circumstances and different seasons may occasion a variation 
in their appetite ; but a gill of grain is, generally speaking, 
about the usual daily portion. Some very voracious fowls, of 
the largest size, will need the allowance of a third of a pint 
each day. 

Wheat is the most nutritive of cereal grains — with, perhaps, 

the exception of rice — as an article of human food. It is, 

therefore, natural to suppose that it is the best for fowls ; and 

the avidity with which they eat it would induce the conclusion 

that they would eat more of this than of any other grain. 

Yet it appears that when fowls have as much wheat as they 

can consume, they will eat about a fourth part less than of 
434 



FEEDING. 115 

oats, barley, or buckwheat ; the largest quantity of wheat 
eaten by a fowl in one day being, according to several experi- 
ments, about three-sixteenths of a pint. The difference in 
bulk is, however, compensated by the difference in weight, 
these three-sixteenths of wheat weighing more than one-fourth 
of a pint of oats. The difference in weight is not, in every 
instance, the reason why a fowl is satisfied with a larger or 
smaller measure of one sort than another. Rye weighs less 
than wheat ; but still a fowl will be satisfied with half the 
quantity of this grain. Indian corn ranks intermediately 
between wheat and rye ; five-fourths of a pint of Indian corn 
with fowls being found, by experiment, equal to six-fourths of 
wheat, and three-fourths of rye. 

In estimating the quantity of grain daily consumed by the 
common fowl, it is wise to use data a little above than below 
the average. It may, therefore, safely be said that a fowl of 
the common size, having free access to as much as can be 
eaten through the day, will consume, day by day, of oats, 
buckwheat, or barley, one-fourth of a pint; of wheat, three- 
sixteenths ; of Indian com, five thirty-seconds ; and of rye, 
three thirty-seconds. 

It has been conclusively settled, by experiments instituted 
to that end, that there is the best economy in feeding poultry 
with boiled grain rather than with dry, in every case where 
Indian corn, barley, and wheat can be procured. The expense 
of fuel, and the additional trouble incident to the process of 
'cooking, are inconsiderable in comparison with the advan- 
tages derived. Where oats, buckwheat, or rye are used, 
boiling is useless, when profit is concerned. 

Bean. It is an erroneous notion that money can be saved 

435 



116 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES, 

by feeding bran to fowls ; since, then, so little of the farina of 
the grain remains in it, that the nourishment derived from its 
use is hardly worth mentioning. When boiled, as it always 
must be, its bulk is but slightly increased. Two measures of 
dry bran, mixed with water, are equal to but three-fifths of a 
measure of dry barley. 

Millet. This is recommended as excellent food for young 
chickens. Fowls always prefer it raw ; though, as its bulk is 
increased one-half by boiling, it is doubtless more economical 
to feed it cooked. 

Rice. Fowls are especially fond of this food, although they 
soon lose their relish for it when allowed to have it at their 
discretion. It should always be boiled ; but its expense puts 
it out of the question as a daily diet. When used continuously, 
it should always be mixed with some substance containing 
less nutritive matter, in order that the appetite may not be 
cloyed by it. 

Potatoes. These are very nutritious, and are usually 

acceptable to fowls, when properly prepared. When raw, or 

in a cold state, they appear to dislike them ; they should, 

therefore, be boiled and given when moderately hot ; when 

very hot, it is said that fowls will injure themselves by eating 

them, and burning their mouths. They should also be broken 

into pieces of convenient size ; otherwise, they will be avoided. 

Occasionally raw pieces of potato will be devoured ; but fowls 

cannot be said to be fond of the root in this state. The same 

remark applies to most other roots, especially to carrots and 

parsnips; these should always be prepared, in order to be 

wholesome and palatable. Fowls should never be confined to 
436 



FEEDINa. lit 

a root diet, in any case ; but such food should be mingled or 
alternated with a sufficient quantity of grain. 

Green food. Indulgence in this kind of diet is absolutely 
necessary to the health of fowls, and is also advantageous in 
an economical point of view. The more delicate kinds of green 
vegetables are eaten with the utmost avidity ; all succulent 
weeds, grass, and the leaves of trees and shrubs will also be 
consumed. If hens have green plots to graze in during the 
day, the expense of their keeping will be reduced one-half. 
All the refuse of the kitchen, of a vegetable nature, should be 
freely thrown into the poultry-yard. 

Green food, however, will not answer for an exclusive diet. 
Experiment has shown that fowls fed with this food alone for 
a few days together exhibit severe symptoms of relaxation of 
the bowels ; and, after the lapse of eight or nine days, their 
combs become pale and livid, which is the same indication of 
disease in them that paleness of the lips is in the human 
species. 

Earth-worms. These are regarded as delicacies by the 

inhabitants of the poultry -yard : and the individual who is 

fortunate enough to capture one is often forced to undergo a 

severe ordeal in order to retain his captive. Earth-worms are 

more plentiful in moist land, such as pastures, etc., than in 

that which is cultivated ; in gardens, also, they exist in vast 

numbers. "When it is desirable to take worms in quantities, 

it is only necessary to thrust a stake or three-pronged fork 

into the ground, to the depth of about a foot, and to move it 

suddenly backward and forward, in order to shake the soil all 

around ; the worms are instinctively terrified by any motion in 

the ground, and, when disturbed, hasten to the surface. 

437 



118 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

It is advisable to store worms, on account of the trouble 
and difBculty of making frequent collections. They may be 
placed in casks, filled one-third full with earth, in quantities at 
least equal in bulk to the earth. The earth should be sprinkled 
occasionally, to prevent it from becoming too dr3^ Care 
should, however, be exercised that the earth does not become 
too moist ; since, in such an event, the wox'ms will perish. 
In rainy weather, the casks should be protected with a 
covering. 

Animal food. Fowls readily eat both fish and flesh meat, 
and have no reluctance to feeding even on their own kind, 
picking much more faithfully than quadrupeds. Blood of any 
kind is esteemed by them a delicacy ; and fish, even when 
salted, is devoured with a relish. They seem to be indifferent 
whether animal food is given to them in a cooked or raw 
state ; though, if any preference can be detected, it is for the 
latter. They are sometimes so greedy that they will attack 
each other in order to taste the blood which flows from the 
wounds so inflicted ; and it is quite common for them, in the 
moulting season, to gratify themselves by picking at the 
sprouting feathers on their own bodies and those of their 
companions. They appear to be partial to suet and fat ; but 
they should not be allowed to devour these substances in 
large quantities, on account of their tendency to render them 
inconveniently fat. 

It is highly advantageous to fowls to allow them a reason- 
able quantity of animal food for their diet, which should be 
fed to them in small pieces, both for safety and convenience. 
Bones and meat may be boiled ; and the liquor, when mixed 

with bran or meal, is healthy, and not expensive. 
438 



LAYING. 119 

Insects. Fowls ha've a decided liking to flies, beetles, 
grasshoppers, and crickets; and grubs, caterpillars, and 
maggots are held by them in equal esteem. It is difficult, 
however, to supply the poultry-yard with this species of food 
in sufficient quantity ; but enough may be provided, probably, 
to serve as luxuries. Some recommend that pailfuls of blood 
should be thrown on dunghills, where fowls are allowed to 
run, for the purpose of enticing flies to deposit their eggs; 
which, when hatched, produce swarms of maggots for the fowls. 
With the same view, any sort of garbage or ofl'al may be 
thrown out, if the dunghill is so situated — as it always should 
be — that its exhalations will not prove an annoyance. 



LAYING. 

The ordinary productiveness of a single individual of the 
family of domestic fowls is astonishing. •While few hens 
are capable of hatching more than fifteen eggs, and are in- 
capable usually ofsitting more than twice in the year, frequent 
instances have occurred of hens laying three hundred eggs 
annually, while two hundred is the average number. Some 
hens are accustomed to lay at longer intervals than others. 
The habit of one variety is to lay once in three days only ; 
others will lay every other day ; and some produce an egg 
daily. The productiveness of bens depends, undoubtedly, 
upon circumstances, to a great degree. Climate has a great 
influence in this respect; and their lodging and food, as well 
as the care bestowed upon them, have more or less effect in 
promoting or obstructing their fecundity. 

There seems to be, naturally, two periods of the year in which 

fowls lay — early in the spring, and in the summer ; and this 

439 



120 



POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 




ON THE WATCH. 



fact would seem to indicate that, if they were left to them- 
selves, like wild birds, they would bring forth two broods in a 
year. The laying continues, with few interruptions, till the 
close of summer, when the natural process of moulting causes 

them to cease. This 
annual process com- 
mences about Au- 
gust, and continues 
through the three 
following months. 
The constitutional 
effect attending the 
beginning, continu- 
ance, and c o n s e- 
quences of this period 
— a very critical one in the case of all feathered animals — 
prevents them from laying, until its very close, when the entire 
coat of new feathers replaces the old, the washing of the 
nutritive juices, yielded by the blood for the express purpose 
of promoting this growth, is a great drain upon the system; 
and the constitutional forces, which would otherwise assist in 
forming the egg, are rendered inoperative. The approach of 
cold weather, also, at the close of the moulting period, con- 
tributes to the same result. As the season of moulting is 
every year later, the older the hen is, the later in the spring 
she will begin to ky. As pullets, on the contrary, do not 
moult the first year, they commence laying sooner than the 
elder hens ; and it is possible, by judicious and careful manage- 
ment, so to arrange, in a collection of poultry tolerably 

numerous, as to have eggs throughout the year. It is a 
440 



LAYING. 



121 



singular fact that pullets hatched very late in autumn, and 
therefore of stunted growth, will lay nearly as early as those 
hatched in spring. The checking of their growth seems to 
have a tendency to produce eggs ; of course, very tiny ones at 
first. 

When a hen is near to -the time of laying, her comb and 
wattles change from their previous dull hue to a bright red, 
while the eye becomes more bright, the gait more spirited, and 
she occasionally cackles for three or four days. These signs 
rarely prove false ; and when the time comes that she desires 
to lay, she appears very restless, going backward and forward, 
visiting eveiy nook and corner, cackling meanwhile, as if dis- 
pleased because she cannot suit herself with a convenient nest. 
Kot having looked out for one previously, she rarely succeeds 
in pleasing herself till the moment comes when she can no 
longer tarry, when she is compelled to choose one of the boxes 
or baskets provided for this purpose in the poultry-house, 
where she settles herself in silence and lays. 

In some instances, a hen will make choice of a particular 

nest in which to lay, and when she finds, upon desiring to lay, 

that this is pre-occupied by another hen, she will wait till it is 

vacated ; but, in other cases, hens will go into any nest which 

they find, preferring, for the most part, those having the 

greatest number of eggs. The process of laying is, most 

probably, rather painful, though the hen does not indicate this 

by her cries ; but the instant she has done she leaves the nest, 

and utters her joy by peculiarly loud notes, which are re-echoed 

by the cock, as well as by some of the other hens. Some hens, 

however, leave the nest in silence, after laying. 

It seems ever to have been an object of great importance, in 

441 



122 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

an economical point of view, to secure the laying of hens 
during those parts of the year when, if left to themselves, they 
are indisposed to deposit their eggs. For this purpose many 
methods have been devised, the most of which embrace an 
increase of rich and stimulating food. Some recommend 
shutting hens up in a warm place during winter, and giving 
them boiled potatoes, turnips, carrots, and parsnips. Others 
assign as the reason for their not laying in winter, in some 
climates, that the earth is covered with snow, so that they can 
find no ground, or other calcareous matter, to form the shells ; 
and advise, therefore, that bones of meat or poultry should be 
pounded and given to them, either mixed with their food, or 
by itself, which they will greedily eat. Upon the whole, it 
would seem that the most feasible means of obtaining fresh 
eggs during the winter is to have young hens — pullets hatched 
only the previous spring being the best — to use extreme 
liberality in feeding, and to cautiously abstain from over-stock- 
ing the poultry-yard. 

As serviceable food to increase laying, scraps of animal 
food, given two or three times a week, answer admirably ; the 
best mode of doing so is throwing down a bullock's liver, 
leaving it with them, and permitting them to pick at it will ; 
this is better raw than boiled. Lights, or guts, or any other 
animal refuse, will be found to answer the same purpose ; but 
these substances require, or, at all events, are better for, boil- 
ing. Cayenne pepper — in fact all descriptions of pepper, but 
especially cayenne pepper in pods — is a favorite food with 
fowls ; and, being a powerful stimulant, it promotes laying. 

An abundant supply of lime, in some form, should not be 

omitted ; either chopped bones, old mortar, or a lump of 
442 



PRESERVATION OF EGGS. 123 

chalky marl. The shell of every egg used in the house should 
be roughly crushed and thrown down to the hens, which will 
greedily eat them. A green, living turf will be of service, both 
for its grass and the insects it may contain. A dusting-place, 
wherein to get rid of vermin, is indispensable. A daily hot 
meal of potatoes, boiled as carefully as for the family table, 
then chopped, and sprinkled or mixed with bran, will be 
comfortable and stimulating. After every meal of the house- 
hold, the bones and other scraps should be collected and 
thrown out. 

As to the number of eggs, the varieties which possess the 
greatest fecundity are the Shanghaes, Guelderlands, Dorkings, 
Polish, and Spanish. The Poland and Spanish lay the largest 
eggs ; the Dorkings, eggs of good size ; while the Game and 
the smaller kinds produce only small eggs. Those eggs which 
have the brightest yOlks are the finest flavored ; and this is 
usually the case with the smaller kinds. The large eggs of 
the larger varieties often have yolks of a pale color, and are 
inferior in flavor. 



PEESERVATION OF EGGS. 

Eggs, after being laid, lose daily, by transpiration, a portion 

of the matter which they contain, notwithstanding the compact 

texture of their shell, and of the close tissue of the flexible 

membranes lining the shell, and enveloping the white. "When 

an egg is fresh, it is full, without any vacancy ; and this is a 

matter of common observation, whether it be broken raw, or 

when it is either soft or hard-boiled. In all stale eggs, on the 

contrary, there is uniformly more or less vacancy, proportioned 

to the loss they have sustained by transpiration ; hence, in 

443 



124 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

order to judge of the freshness of an egg, it is usual to hold it 
up to the light, when the transparency of the shell makes it 
appear whether or not there is any vacancy in the upper 
portion, as well as whether the yolk and white are mingled 
and muddy, by the rotting and bursting of their enveloping 
membranes. 

The transpiration of eggs, besides, is proportional to the 
temperature in which they are placed, cold retarding and heat 
promoting the process ; hence, by keeping fresh-lain eggs in a 
cool cellar, or, better still, in an ice-house, they v/ill transpire 
less, and be preserved for a longer period sound, than if they 
are kept in a warm place, or exposed to the sun's light, which 
has also a good effect in promoting the exhalation of moisture. 
As, therefore, fermentation and putridity can only take place 
by communication with the air at a moderate temperature, 
such connection must be excluded by closing the pores of the 
shell. 

It is an indispensable condition of the material used for this 
purpose, that it shall be incapable of being dissolved by the 
moisture transpired from the interior. Spirits of wine varnish, 
made with lac, answers the requirement ; this is not very 
expensive, but is rather an uncommon article in country places, 
where eggs are most abundantly produced. 

A better material is a mixture of mutton and beef suet, 
which should be melted together over a slow fire, and strained 
through a linen cloth into an earthen pan. The chief advan- 
tage in the use of this is, that the eggs rubbed over with it 
will boil as quickly as if nothing had been done to them, the 
fat melting off as soon as they touch the water. The transpi- 
ration is as effectually stopped by the thinnest layer of fat as 
444 



PRESERVATION OF EGGS. 125 

by a thick coating, provided that no sensible vestige be left on 
the surface of the shell. All sorts of fat, grease, or oil are well 
adapted to this purpose ; by means of butter, hog's lard, olive 
oil, and similar substances, eggs may be preserved for nine 
months as fresh as the day upon which they were laid. 

Another method is, to dip each egg into melted pork-lard, 
rubbing it into the shell with the finger, and pack them in old 
fig-drums, or butter firkins, setting every egg upright, with 
the small end downward. Or, the eggs may be packed in the 
same way in an upright earthen pan ; then cut some rough 
sheep's tallow, procured the same day that the animal is killed, 
into small pieces, and melt it down ; strain it from the scraps, 
and pour it while wai'm, not hot, over the eggs in the jar till 
they are completely covered. When all is cold and firm, set 
the vessel in a cool, dry place till the contents are wanted. 

Eggs will also keep well when preserved in salt, by arrang- 
ing them in a barrel, first a layer of salt, then a layer of eggs, 
alternately. This can, however, also act mechanically, like 
bran or saw-dust, so long as the salt continues dry ; for, in 
that case, the chlorine, which is the antiseptic principle of 
the salt, is not evolved. When the salt, however, becomes 
damp, its preservative principle will be brought into action, 
and may penetrate through the pores of the shell. 

Immersing eggs in vitriol, or sulphuric acid, is likewise a 

very effectual means of preserving them ; the sulphuric acid 

acts chemically upon the carbonate of lime in the shell, by 

setting free the carbonic acid gas, while it unites with the 

lime, and forms sulphate of lime, or plaster of Paris. Another 

method is, to n;ix together a bushel of quick-lime, two pounds 

of salt, and eight ounces of cream of tartar, adding a sufficient 

445 



126 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

quantity of water, so that eggs may be plunged into the paint. 
When a paste is made of this consistence, the eggs are put 
into it, and may be kept fresh, it is said, for two years. 

Another method of preserving eggs a long while fresh, 
depends upon a very different principle. Eggs that have not 
Leen rendered reproductive by the cock have been found to 
continue very uncorrupted. In order, therefore, to have eggs 
keep fresh from spring to the middle or even to the end of 
winter, it is only necessary to deprive the hens of all commu- 
nication with the cocks, for at least a month before the eggs 
are put away. 

It ought not to be overlooked, in this connection, that eggs 
not only spoil by the transpiration of their moisture and the 
putrid fermentation of their contents,' in consequence of air 
penetrating through the pores of the shell, but also by being 
moved about and jostled, when carried to a distance by sea or 
land. Any kind of rough motion, indeed, ruptures the mem- 
branes which keep the white, the yolk, and the germ of the 
chicken in their appropriate places ; and, upon these being 
mixed, putrefaction is promoted. 



CHOICE OF EGGS FOB SETTIIxTG. 

Eggs for hatching should be as fresh as possible ; if laid the 

very same day, so much the better. This is not always 

possible when a particular stock is required ; but, if a numerous 

and healthy brood is all that is wanted, the most recent eggs 

should be selected. Eggs may be kept for this purpose in 

either of the ways first mentioned ; or they may be placed on 

their points in a box, in a cool, dry place ; the temperature 

about sixty or sixty-five, Fahrenheit; the bottom of the box 
446 



CHOICE OF EGGS FOR SETTING. 12t 

'should be covered with a layer of wheat bran, then a layer of 
eggs put in, and covered with bran ; and so on, alternating. 
In this mode, evaporation is prevented, and the eggs are 
almost as certain to hatch out, at the end of six weeks, or even 
two months, as when they were laid. 

It is diflScult to fix the exact term during which the vitality 
of an egg remains unextinguished ; as it, unquestionably, 
varies from the very first, according to the vigor of the parents 
of the inclosed germ, and fades away gradually till the final 
moment of non-existence. The chickens in stale eggs have 
not sufficient strength to extricate themselves from the shell ; 
if assisted, the yolk is found to be partially absorbed into the 
abdomen, or not at all; they are too faint to stand; the 
muscles of the neck are unable to lift their heads, much less 
to peck ; and although they may sometimes be saved by 
extreme care, their usual fate is to be trampled to death by the 
mother, if they do not expire almost as soon as they begin to 
draw their breath. Thick-shelled eggs, like those of geese, 
Guinea fowls, etc., will retain life longer than thin-shelled 
ones, as those of hens and ducks. When choice eggs are 
expected to be laid, it is more prudent to have the hen which 
is to sit upon them wait for them, than to keep other eggs 
waiting for her. A good sitter may be amused for two or 
three weeks with a few addle-eggs, and so be ready to take 
charge of those of value immediately upon their arrival. 

As to the choice of eggs for hatching, such should be taken, 
of course, as are believed to have been rendered productive. 
Those of medium size — the average size that the hen lays — 
are most apt to fiulfil this requirement. A very fair judg- 
ment may be formed of eggs from their specific gravity ; such 

447 



123 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

as do not sink to the bottom in a bowl of tepid water should 
be rejected. 

The old-time notion, that small, round eggs produce females, 
and long, pointed ones males — originally applied, by the 
ancients, to eating rather than hatching purposes — may be 
considered exploded. The hen that lays one round egg, 
continues to lay all her eggs round ; and the hen that lays one 
oblong, lays all oblong. According to this theory, then, one 
hen would be the perpetual mother of cocks, and another the 
perpetual producer of pullets ; which is absurd, as daily 
experience proves. 

The same fate has been meted out to that other venerable 
test of sex, the position of the air-bag at the blunt end of the 
shell. '• If the vacancy is a little on one side, it will produce 
a hen; if it is exactly in the centre, a cock." Upon this 
assumption, the cock should be a very rare bird ; since there 
are very few eggs indeed in which the air bottle is exactly 
concentric with the axis of the egg. In many breeds, on the 
contrary, the cockerels bear a proportion of at least one-third, 
and sometimes two-thirds, especially in those hatched during 
winter, or in unfavorable seasons ; the immediate cause, 
doubtless, being that the eggs producing a more robust sex 
possess a stronger vitality. 

Nor are these two alleged tests — the shape of the egg, and 

the position of the air-tube — consistent with each other; for, 

if the round egg produces a pullet, and an egg with the air-bag 

a little on one side does the same, then all round eggs should 

have the air bag in that position, or one test contradicts the 

other ; and the same argument applies to the long or oval egg. 

The examination of a few eggs by the light of a candle will 
448 



INCUBATION. 129 

satisfy any one that the position of the air-bag differs as much 
in a long egg as it does in a round. 

There are, indeed, no known means of determining before- 
hand the sex of fowl ; except, perhaps, that cocks may be 
more likely to issue from large eggs, and hens from small ones. 
As, however, the egg of each hen may be recognized, the 
means are accessible of propagating from those parents whose 
race it is judged most desirable to continue. 



INCUBATION. 

The hen manifests the desire of incubation in a manner 
different from that of any other known bird. Nature having 
been sufficiently tasked in one direction, she becomes feverish, 
and loses flesh ; her comb is livid ; her eyes are dull ; she 
bristles her feathers to intimidate an imaginary enemy ; and, 
as if her chickens were already around her, utters the maternal 
"cluck." 

When the determination to sit becomes fixed — it is not 
necessary to immediately gratify the first faint inclinations — 
the nest which she has selected should be well cleaned, and 
filled with fresh straw. The number of eggs to be allowed 
will depend upon the season, and upon the size of egg and 
hen. The wisest plan is not to be too greedy ; the number 
of chickens hatched is often in inverse proportion to the num- 
ber of eggs set — five have only been obtained from sixteen. 
An odd number is, however, to be preferred, as being better 
adapted to covering in the nest. Hens will, in general, well 
cover from eleven to thirteen eggs laid by themselves. A 
bantam may be trusted with about half a dozen eggs of a 

large breed, such as the Spanish. A hen of the largest size 
29 449 



130 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

as a Dorking, will successfully hatch, at the most, five goose- 
eggs. 

When hens are determined to sit at seasons of the year at 
which there is little chance of bringing up chickens, the eggs 
of ducks or geese may be furnished her ; the young may be 
reared, with a little painstaking, at any time of the year. 
The autumnal laying of the China and of the common goose 
is yery valuable for this purpose. Turkey-hens frequently 
have this fit of unseasonable incubation. 

Where, however, it is inconvenient to gratify the desire, one 
or two doses of jalap will often entirely remove it ; and. fowls 
often lay in three weeks afterward. Some place the would-be 
, sitter in an aviary, for four or five days at most, and feed her 
but sparingly ; from the commencement of her confinement, 
she will gradually leave off clucking, and when this has 
ceased, she may be again set free, without manifesting the 
least desire to take to the nest again, and in a short time the 
hen will commence laying with renewed vigor. The barbarous 
measures sometimes resorted to should be frowned upon by 
every person with humane feelings. 

Three weeks is the period of incubation ; though chickens 
are sometimes excluded on the eighteenth day. When the 
hen does not sit close for the first day or two, or in early 
spring, it will occasionally be some hours longer; when the 
hen is assiduous, and the weather hot, the time will be a trifle 
shorter. Chickens have been known to come out as late as 
the twenty-seventh day. 

It may not be uninteresting to note the changes which the 

^%^ passes through in hatching. In tivelve hours, traces of 

the head and body of the chicken may be discerned ; at the 
450 



INCUBATION. l(fl 

end of the second day, it assumes the form of a horse-shoe, 
but no red blood as yet is seen ; at the fiftieth hour, two 
vesicles of blood, the rudiments of the heart, may be dis- 
tinguished, one resembling a noose folded down on itself, 
and pulsating distinctly ; at the end of seventy hours, the 
wings may be seen, and, in the head, the brain and the bill, in 
the form of bubbles ; toward the end of the fourth day, the 
heart is more completely formed ; and on the fifth day, the 
liver is discernible ; at the end of one hundred and thirty 
hours, the first voluntary motions may be observed ; in seven 
hours more, the lungs and stomach appear ; and, in four hours 
after this, the intestines, the loins, and the upper jaw. At 
the end of the one hundred and forty fourth hour, two drops 
of blood are observable in the heart, which is also further 
developed', and, on the seventh day, the brain exhibits some 
consistence. At the one hundred and ninetieth hour, the bill 
opens, and the muscular flesh appears on the breast ; in four 
hours more, the breast bone is seen ; and, in six hours afterward, 
the ribs may be observed forming from the back. At the ex- 
piration of two hundred and thirty-six hours, the bill assumes 
a green color, and, if the chicken be taken out of the egg, it 
will visibly move. At tivo hwidred and sixty-four hours, the 
eyes appear ; at two hundred and eighty eight hours, the ribs 
are perfect; and at three hundred and thirty-one hours, the 
spleen approaches near to the stomach, and the lungs to the 
chest ; at the end of three hundred and fifty-five hours, the 
bill frequently opens and shuts. At the end of the eighteenth 
day, the first cry of the chicken is heard ; and it gradually 
acquires more strength, till it is enabled to release itself from 

conflnenient. 

451 



132 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

After the ben has set a week, the fertility of the eggs may 
be satisfactorily ascertained by taking a thin board with a 
small orifice in it, placing a candle at the back, and holding 
up each egg to the points of light. The barren eggs may 
then be removed, and used, hard-boiled, for young chickens. 
Some reserve this for the eleventh or twelfth day. 

About the twenty-first day, the chicken is excluded from the 
egg ; for the purpose of breaking the shell of which it is fur- 
nished with a horny-pointed scale, greatly harder than the 
bill itself, at the upper tip of the bill — a scale which falls off, 
or becomes absorbed, after the chicken is two or three days 
old. The chicken is rolled up in the egg in the form of a ball, 
with its forepart toward the highest end, and its beak upper- 
most, the hard scale nearly touching the shell. 

The first few strokes of the chicken's beak produce a small 
crack, rather nearer the larger than the smaller end of the egg, 
and the egg is said to be chipped. From the first crack, the 
chicken turns gradually round, from left to right, chipping the 
shell as it turns, in a circular manner, never obliquely. All 
do not succeed in producing the result in the same time ; some 
being able to complete the work within an hour, and others 
taking two or three hours, while half a day is most usually 
employed, and some require twenty-four hours, or more, but 
rarely two days. Some have greater obstacles to overcome 
than others, all shells not being alike in thickness and 
hardness. 

When chickens do not effect their escape easily, some little 
assistance is needed ; but the difficulty is to know when to 
give it, as a rash attempt to help them, by breaking the shell, 

particulafly in a downward direction toward the smaller end, 

452 



INCUBATION. 133 

is often followed by a loss of blood, which can ill be spared. 
It is better not to interfere, until it is apparent that 
a part of the brood have been hatched for some time, say- 
twelve hours, and that the rest cannot succeed in making their 
appearance. It will then generally be found that the whole 
fluid contents of the egg, yolk and all, are taken up into the 
body of the chicken, and that weakness alone has prevented 
its forcing itself out. The causes of such weakness are 
various ; sometimes, insufficient warmth, from the hen having 
set on too many eggs ; sometimes the original feebleness of the 
vital spark ; but, most frequently, the staleness of the eggs 
employed for incubation. 

The chances of rearing such chickens are small ; but, if they 
survive the first twenty-four hours, they may be considered as 
safe. The only thing to be done is to take them from the 
hen till she is settled at night, keeping them in the meanwhile 
as snug and warm as possible. If a gentle hand can pei'suade 
a crust of bread down their throats, it will do no harm ; but 
all rough and clumsy manipulation will utterly defeat the end 
in view. Animal heat will be their greatest restorative. At 
night, they should be quietly slipped under their mother ; the 
next morning will disclose the sequel. 

The period of incubation in the Guinea fowl is twenty-eight 
days, or one month ; in the pea fowl, from twenty-seven to 
twenty-nine days ; in turkeys, a month ; in ducks, thirty or 
thirty-one days ; and in geese, from twenty-seven to thirty 
days. 

Incubation op turkeys. When the turkey hen has once 
selected a spot for her nest, she will continue to lay there till 
the time for incubation ; so that the egg may be brought homo 



134 POULTRY AND THEIE DISEASES. 

from day to day, there being no need of a nest-egg, as with 
the domestic fowl. She will lay from fifteen to twenty eggs, 
more or less. If there are any dead leaves or dry grass at 
hand, she will cover her eggs with these ; but if not, she will 
take no trouble to collect them from a distance. 

Her determination to sit will be known by her constantly 
remaining on the nest, though it is empty ; and, as it is seldom 
in a position sufficiently secure against the weather or» pilferers, 
a nest should be prepared for her, by placing some straw, 
with her eggs, on the floor of a convenient out-building. She 
should then be brought home, and gently and kindly placed 
upon it. With the smallest varieties, thirteen eggs will suffice ; 
a large hen might cover more. At the end of a week, it is 
usual to add some fowls' eggs ; the activity of the chickens 
excites some emulation in the larger brethren, and the eggs 
take up but little room in the nest. 

Some believe it necessary to turn the eggs once a day ; but 
the hen herself does that many times daily. If the eggs are 
marked, and their position noticed when she leaves the nest, 
they will never be found in the same order. In about four 
weeks, the young will be hatched. 

Incubation op geese. Geese breed in general only once a 
year ; but, if well kept, they sometimes hatch twice a season. 
During the sitting, in sections where the most attention is 
paid to breeding them, each bird has a space allotted to it, in 
rows of wicker-pens, placed one above another, and the person 
in charge of them drives the whole flock to water three times 
a day, and, bringing them back to their habitations, places 
each bird in its own nest. 

The most successful breeders of Bremen geese adopt the 

454 



BEARING OF THE YOUNG. 135 

following method : The birds are, in the first place, carefully 
and properly fed ; the eggs are removed every day in the 
gentlest manner from the nest, and placed in a basket of cotton 
kept in a moderate temperature, and free from damp. When 
all the geese begin to sit steadily, each is furnished with a 
nest composed of chopped straw ; and care is taken that it is 
sufficiently capacious. 

Not more than one of the geese is allowed to leave the eggs 
at a time. As soon as one leaves, she makes a cackling noise, 
which is the signal for the attendant to shut up the boxes in 
which the others are sitting. These are made somewhat like 
a dog-kennel, with a roof pitched both ways ; and are thfrty 
inches long, by twenty-four wide, and twenty-four high ; the 
door is in the end, and is covered by a sliding panel, which 
moves upward, when egress or ingress is sought, and may be 
shut down at pleasure. The goose, upon returning, finds only 
her own box'open. When she re-enters her box, the whole of 
the doors are again opened, and the same rule observed 
throughout the period of hatching. In this way, each goose 
is kept to its own nest. 



REARIN-G OF THE TOUNG. 

For about twenty-four hours after birth, the chickens can 

not only do well enough without any extraneous nourishment, 

but will be far more likely to thrive subsequently, if let alone, 

than if crammed or incited to eat prematurely. More chickens 

are destroyed by over-feeding than are lost by the want of it. 

It is, however, well to turn them in among other chickens 

that already feed themselves ; they will, in such cases, generally 

455 



136 



rOULTllY AND THEIR DISEASES. 




MARQUEE, OR TENT-SHADED COOPS. 



follow the example of the rest, and pick away at whatever is 

around. 

A roomy, boarded coop, in a dry, sunny spot, is the best 

position for them during the first month ; after which it may 

be left open during the day, for the hen to retire to when she 

pleases. In quiet, 
grassy places, it is 
scarcely necessary 
to coop the hen 



at all. As to food, 

they may have 

evffry thing which is not absolutely poisonous ; though if wet 

food is given, the chicken is thus obliged to take water, 

whether it requires it or not, in order to get a sufficient supply 

of solid food, and diseased bowels will be likely to follow ; 

whereas, if the food is dry, they can supply themselves with 

food and water according to their pleasure. If Indian meal is 

w^ell boiled, and fed not too "moist, it will answer a very good 

purpose, particularly after they are eight or ten days old. 

Pure water must be placed near them in such a manner as to 

enable them to drink without getting into the water, which, by 

wetting their feathers, benumbs and injures them. Meat and 

insect diet are almost necessary ; but, whatever the food, the 

meals must be given at short intervals ; as much as they can 

swallow, and as often as they can eat. With all their industry, 

they are only half-clad till flesh and bone stop growing for a 

while, and allow down and feathers to overtake them. 

Chickens should not be let out of their coops too early in 

the morning, or whilst the dew is on the ground ; still less 

should they be suffered to range over the wet grass, which is 
456 



REARING OP THE YOUNG. 13T 

a common cause of disease and death. They should also be 
guarded against sudden unfavorable changes of the weather, 
more particularly if attended with rain. Nearly all the dis- 
eases of gallinaceous fowls arise from cold moisture. 

The period at which they are left to shift for themselves 
depends upon the disposition of the hen. Some will continue 
their attentions to their chickens till they are nearly full- 
grown, while others will cast them off much earlier. In the 
latter case, an eye should be kept upon them for a few days ; 
for chickens in this half-grown state are much more liable to 
disease than when they were apparently tender little weaklings, 
crowded under their mother's wings. They should be kept in 
a dry, warm, place ; dryness is especially necessary. 

If the chickens feather rapidly when very young — as is the 
case with the Golden Pheasant, Black Poland, Guelderland, 
and some others — they are always weakly, however healthy 
in other respects, from the fact that their food goes to sustain 
their feathers rather than their bodies ; and they frequently 
languish and die, from this circumstance alone. If, on the 
other hand, they feather slowly, as do the Cochin Chinas, 
Shanghaes, and others, the food in early life goes to nourish 
and sustain their bodies until they become more vigorous, and 
old enough to sustain the shock of feathering without detri- 
ment. Pure tan-colored Dorkings are more easily raised than 
others of the race, because they feather more slowly. 

Chickens which feather rapidly must be kept perfectly dry 

and warm, or they will die ; while naked chickens, as they 

are termed, or those which feather at a more advanced age, 

and very slowly, seldom suffer from the cold, from the fact 

that their down is very warm, and their blood is hotter, and 

457 



138 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

Circulates more rapidly; since their food principally goes to 
blood, and flesb, and bones, and not to feathers. 

Rearing of Guinea fowls. For the young of these, ants' 
e<?<rs, so called, hard-boiled eggs chopped fine, small worms, 
maggots, bread-crumbs, chopped meat, or suet — whatever, in 
short, is most nutritious, is the most appropriate food. This 
need not be offered to them in large quantities, as it would 
only be devoured by the mother Bantam as soon as she saw 
that they had for the time satisfied their appetites, or it would 
be stolen by other birds ; but it should frequently be ad- 
ministered to them in small supplies. Feeding them three, 
four, or five times a day, is not often enough ; every half hour 
during daylight they should be tempted to fill their craws, 
which are soon emptied again by an extraordinary power and 
quickness of digestion. 

The newly-hatched Guinea fowl is a tiny creature, and its 
growth is, consequently, very rapid, requiring incessant sup- 
plies. A check once received can- never be recovered. They 
do not, in such cases, mope and pine for a day or two, like 
young turkeys under similar circumstances, and then die ; but, 
in half an hour after being in apparent health, they fall on 
their backs, give a convulsive kick or two, and fall victims, in 
fact, to starvation. The demands of Nature for the growth of 
bone, muscle, and particularly of feathers, ai'e so great, that no 
subsequent abundant supply of food can compensate for a fast 
of a couple of hours. The feathers still go on growing in 
geometrical progression, and drawing the sources of vitality 
still faster than they can be supplied, till the bird faints and 
expires from inanition. 

A dry, sunny corner in the garden will be the best place to 

458 



REARING OF THE YOUNG. 139 

coop them with their bantam hen. As they increase in 
strength, they will do no harm, but much good, by devouring 
worms, grubs, caterpillars, maggots, and all sorts of insects. 
Dy the time their bodies are little longer than those of spar- 
rows, they will be able to fly with some degree of strength; 
other additions to their complete stature are successively ami 
less immediately developed, the spurs, comb, and ornamental 
plumage not appearing till a subsequent period. 

When they are about the size of thrushes, or a little larger, 
unless the summer be very fine, the bantam may be allowed 
to range loose in the orchard and shrubbery, and no longer 
permitted to enter the garden. The young must, however, 
still receive a bountiful and frequent supply of food ; they are 
not to be considered safe till the horn on their head is fairly 
grown. Oatmeal is a great treat ; cooked potatoes, boiled 
rice, or any thing, in short, that is eatable, may be thrown to 
them ; they will pick the bones left after dinner with evident 
satisfaction. The tamer they can be made, the less trouble- 
some will they be when grown ; the more kindly they are 
treated, the fatter will they be for food, and the better price 
will they bring in market. 

For rearing the young of the pea fowl, the same directions 
will be found useful, and should be carried out in practice. 

Rearing of turkeys. Much quackery has been recom- 
mended in the treatment of young turkeys. I'fothing, how- 
ever, should be given to them, nothing done for them ; they 
should remain in the nest, under the shelter of their mother's 
wings, for at least eight or ten hours ; if hatched in the after- 
noon, till the following morning. The hen should then be 

placed on the grass, in the sun, under a roomy coop. If the 

459 



140 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

weather is fine, she may be stationed at any point desired, by 
a long piece of flannel-list tied round one leg, and fastened to 
a stump or stone. 

At first, a few crumbs of bread should be offered ; for some 
hours, the little ones will be in no hurry to eat ; but, when 
they do commence, they should be supplied constantly and 
abundantly with chopped egg, shreds of meat and fat, curd, 
boiled rice mixed with cress, lettuce, and the green of onions ; 
melted mutton-suet poured over barley-meal, and cut up when 
cold, as also bullock's liver boiled and minced, are excellent 
things. Young turkeys do not like to have their food minced 
much smaller than they can swallow it, preferring to make a 
meal at three or four mouthfuls, rather than to trouble them- 
selves with the incessant pecking and scratching in which 
chickens so much delight. Pepper will be found particularly 
useful in feeding them ; as, indeed, all stimulating vegetables, 
such as horse-radish, and the like. 

Young turkeys are sometimes attacked by fasciolce, or 
worms in the trachea ; but not so often as chickens. Cramp 
is the most fatal to them, particularly in bad weather, A few 
pieces of board laid under and about the coop are useful ; 
sometimes rubbing the leg with spirit will bring back the 
circulation. 

The time when the hen may be allowed full liberty with her 

brood depends most upon the season, the situation, etc. 

Some think that if the young are thriving, the sooner the old 

ones are out with them the better, after the first ten days or so. 

A safer rule may be fixed at the season, called " shooting the 

red," when young turkeys approach the size of a partridge, 

or before the granular, fleshy excrescences on the head and 
460 



REAniNG OF THE YOUNG 141 

neck begin to appear ; soon after, the whole plumage, particu- 
larly the tail-feathers, shoot into rapid growth, and liberal 
nourishment is imperatively required If let loose at this 
time, they will obtain much foraging, and still be thankful for 
all that is given to them. Caraway-seeds, as a tonic, are 
beneficial, if added to plenty of barley, boiled potatoes, 
chopped vegetables, and refuse meat. At this time the 
turkeys, naturally enough, begin to be troublesome and 
voracious ; they have to grow from the size of a lark to 
twelve or fourteen pounds, in eight or nine months. One great 
merit in old birds is, that in situations where nuts, acorns, and 
mast are to be had, they will lead off their brood to these, and all 
of them will abstain, comparatively, from ravaging other crops. 
Rearing op ducklings. The best mode of rearing the 
young of ducks depends very much upon the situation in 




PrCK-POND AND HOUSES. 



which they are hatched. It is customary to dip their feet in 
water as soon as they are hatched, and then to clip the down 
on their tails close with a pair of scissors, to prevent their 
becoming drabbled and water-logged ; and before their intro- 
duction to the pond, which should not be until a day or two 
after hatching, it is thought advisable by many to let them have 

461 



142 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

a private swim or two in a small pan of water, that they may 
try their strength and practice their webbed feet before ventur- 
ing upon a larger space. 

For the first month, the confinement of the mother under a 
coop is better than too much liberty. Their first food may be 
boiled eggs, nettles, and a little barley ; all kinds of sapped 
food, cornmeal and water mixed thin, worms, etc., suit them ; 
they will also greedily eat cabbages or other greens, mixed 
with boiled bran ; and this mess, 'with the addition of pepper, 
forms a valuable dietetic. In a few days, they require no 
care, being perfectly able to shift for themselves ; but at any 
age they are the most helpless of the inhabitants of the poultry- 
yard, having no weapons with which to defend themselves 
from vermin, or animals of prey, and their awkward, waddling 
gait precluding their seeking safety in flight. The old duck 
is not so brave in defence of her brood as the hen ; but she 
will, nevertheless, display at times much spirit. The young 
seldom die of any disease, and with proper precaution there 
will be no trouble in raising almost as many ducklings as are 
hatched. They come early to maturity, being nearly full- 
grown and in fine eating order at three months old ; far excel- 
ling, in this respect, all other poultry, except geese. 

None are more successful in rearing ducklings than those 

who keep them, for the first period of their existence, in pens 

two or three yards square, and cram them night and morning 

with long, dried pellets of flour and water, or egg and flour, 

until they are judged old enough, to be turned out with their 

mother to forage for themselves. They are cheerful, harmless, 

good-natured, cleanly creatures, carefully washing themselves, 

and arrnnging their dress, before commencing their meals ; and 
4 2 



REARING OP THE YOUNG, 143 

the healthy heartiness of their appetite is amusing, rather than 
disgusting. 

Rearing of goslings. For the first three or four days, 
goslings must be kept warm and dry, and fed on barley-meal, 
or oatmeal, mixed with milk, if easily procurable ; if not, with 
water. They will begin to grow in about a week. For a 
week or two, they should not be turned out until late in the 
morning, and should always be taken in early in the evening. 
Their great enemy is the cramp, which can be kept off by 
making them sleep on dry straw. A little boiled rice, daily, 
assists their growth ; with corn, of course, as soon as they can 
eat it. "When goslings are fn'st allowed to go at large with 
their mother, every plant of hemlock which grows within their 
range should be pulled up, as they are very apt to eat it, and 
it generally proves fatal. Nightshade is equally pernicious to 
them ; and they have been known to be poisoned by eating 
sprigs of yew-tree. 

The young of Bremen geeite, when first hatched, are of a 

very delicate and tender constitution. It is best to let them 

remain in the breeding-box in which they are hatched for 

twenty-four hours after they leave the shell. This should, 

however, be regulated by the weather : since, if it is fair and 

warm, they may be let out an hour or two in the middle of the 

day, when they will wet their little bills and nibble at the 

grass. They ought not to be out in the rain at any time 

during the first month ; and both geese and goslings should be 

shut up in the boxes at night, during the same period, as a 

protection against rats and vermin. A very shallow pool, dug 

in the yard, with a bucket or two of water thrown into it, to 

suit the temporary purpose of bathing, is sufficient during that 

463 



144 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES, 

period. If well fed on grain from the time they are hatched, 
twenty-five pounds weight can be secured, at seven or eight 
months old. By feeding them till four days old, and then 
literally turning them out to grass, an average weight of from 
seventeen to eighteen pounds each has been attained, at that 
age after the feathers are cleanly picked off. 



CAPONIZIK-G. 

Capons have ever been esteemed among the greatest delica- 
cies of the table ; and are made by the extirpation of the repro- 
ductive organs in male fowls. If a cock, when young, is 
emasculated, a remarkable change takes place in him. His 
natural fierceness is calmed ; he becomes placid and peaceful ; 
his pugnacity has deserted him; he no longer seeks the 
company of the hens ; he loses his previous strong, shrill voice ; 
he grows to a far larger size than be would otherwise have 
done, having nothing to interfere with the main business of his 
life — to eat, drink, sleep, and get fat as speedily as possible ; 
bis flesh is peculiarly white, firm and succulent ; and even the 
fat is perfectly destitute of rankness. The capon may, also, 
by a little management be converted into an admirable nurse. 
Some assert that caponized cocks are never afterward subject 
to the natural process of moulting ; but this is denied by 
others. 

The art has been practised from the earliest antiquity, in 
Greece, India, and China, for the purpose of improving the 
flesh of birds for the table, in tenderness, juiciness, and flavor. 
It is extensively performed in the great poultry-breeding dis- 
tricts of England ; but in this country it is by no means so 

generally practised as would naturally be expected. 
464 



CAPONIZING. 14b 

The instruments most approved by skilful operators consist 
of two five or seven-pound weights for confining the fowl ; a 
scalpel, for cutting open the thin skin enveloping the testicles ; 
a silver retractor, for stretching open the wound sufficiently 
wide for operating within ; a pair of spring forceps — with a 
sharp, cutting edge, resembling that of a chisel, having a level 
half an inch in its greatest width — for making the incision, 
and securing the thin membrane ; a spoon-shaped instrument, 
with a sharp hook at one end, for pushing and removing the 
testicles, adjusting the loop, and assisting in tearing open the 
tender covering ; and a double silver canula, for containing 
the two ends of horse-hair, or fibre, constituting the loop. 
The expense of these instruments is in the neighborhood of six 
dollars. A cheap penknife may be used instead of the scalpel ; 
and the other instruments may be obtained of a cheaper con- 
struction — the whole not costing more than half the above- 
named amount. 

The cockerel intended for capons should be of the largest 
breeds, as the Dorking, Cochin China, or the Great Malay. 
They may be operated upon at any time after they are a month 
old ; the age of from two to three months is considered pre- 
ferable. If possible, it should be done before July ; as capons 
made later never prove so fine. 

The fowl should be confined to a table or board, by laying 

him with the left side downward, the wings drawn behind the 

rump, the legs extended backward, with the upper one farthest 

drawn out, and the head and neck left perfectly free. The 

feathers are next to be plucked from the right side, near the 

hip-joint, on a line with, and between the joint of the shoulder. 

The space uncovered may be from an inch to an inch and a 
30 466 



146 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

half in diameter, according to the size of the bird. After drawing 
off the skin from the part, backward — so that, when left to itself 
after the operation is completed, it will cover the wound in 
the flesh — make an incision with the bevel-edged knife, at the 
end of the forceps, between the last two ribs, commencing about 
an inch from the back-bone, and extending it obliquely down- 
ward, from an inch to an inch and a half, cutting just deep enough 
to separate the ribs, taking due care not to wound the intestines. 

Next, adjust and apply the retractor by means of the small 
thumb-screw, and stretch the wound sufficiently wide apart to 
afford room for an examination of the organs to be removed. 
Then, with the scalpel, or a sharp penknife, carefully cut open 
the skin, or membrane, covering the intestines, which, if not 
sufficiently drawn up, in consequence of the previous confine- 
ment, may be pushed forward toward the breast-bone, by 
means of the bowl of the spoon-shaped instrument, or — what 
would answer equally well — with the handle of a tea-spoon. , 

As the testicles are exposed to view, they will be found 

connected with the back and sides by a thin membrane, or 

skin, passing over them. This covering must then be seized 

with the forceps, and torn open with the sharp-pointed hook 

at the small end of the spoon-shaped instrument ; after which 

the bowl of the spoon must be introduced, with the left hand, 

under the lower or left testicle, which is, generally, a little 

nearer to the rump than the right one. Then take the double 

canula, adjust the hair-loop, and, with the right hand, pass the 

loop over the small hooked end of the spoon, running it down 

under the bowl of the spoon containing the testicle, so as to bring 

the loop to act upon the parts which connect the testicle to the 

back. By drawing the ends of the hair-loop backward and 
46& 



CAPONizma. 14Y 

forward, and at the same time pushing the lower end of the 
tube, or canula, toward the rump of the fowl, the cord or 
fastening of the testicle is severed. 

A similar process is then to be repeated with the upper- 
most or right testicle ; after which, any remains of the testicles, 
together with the blood at or around the bottom of the wound, 
must be scooped out with the bowl of the spoon. The left 
testicle is first cut out, in order to prevent the blood which 
may issue from covering the one remaining, and so rendering 
it more difficult to be seen. The operation, if skilfully done, 
occupies but a few moments ; when the skin of the fowl should 
be drawn over the wound with the retractor, and the wound 
covered with the feathers that were plucked off at the com- 
mencement. 

In some fowls, the fore part of the thigh covers the two 
hindmost ribs ; in which case, care must be taken to draw the 
fleshy part of the thigh well back, to prevent it from being 
cut ; since, otherwise, the operation might lame the fowl, or 
even cause its death. 

For loops, nothing answers better than the fibre of a cocoa- 
nut husk, which is rough, and readily separates the testicles 
by sawing. The next best substance is the liair of a horse's 
mane or tail. 

After the operation, the bird may be placed in a warm 

house, where there are no perches ; since if such appliances 

are present, the newly-made capon will very probably injure 

himself in his attempts to perch. For about a week, the food 

should be soft, meal porridge, and that in small quantities, 

alternated with bread steeped in milk ; he may be given as 

much pure water as he will drink, it being best to use it in a 

467 



148 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

tepid state, or at least with the chill taken off. At the end of 
a week, or ten days, at most, the fowl, if previously of a sound, 
vigorous constitution, will be all right, and may be turned out 
with the others. 

The usual method, in France, of making poulardes, or hen- 
capons, as they are sometimes improperly designated, is to 
extirpate the egg-cluster, or ovarium, in the same manner as 
the testicles are extracted from the cockerel ; but it is quite 
sufficient merely to cut across the oviduct, or egg-tube, with 
a sharp knife. Otherwise, they may be treated in the same 
manner as the capons. Capons are fattened in precisely the 
same manner as other fowls. 



FATTENING AND SLATJGHTEKING. 
Fat is not a necessary part of any animal body, being the 
form which superabundant nourishment assumes, which would, 




A BAD STYLE OF SLAUGHTERING. 

if needed, be converted into muscles and other solids. It is 
contained in certain membranous receptacles provided for it, 

distributed over the body, and it is turned to use whenever 

4()S 



FATTENING AND SLAUGHTERING. 149 

the supply of nourishment iS defective, which should be prO' 
vided by the stomach, and other great organs. In such 
emergencies it is taken up, in the animal economy, by the 
absorbents ; if the latter, from any cause, act feebly, the health 
suffers. When, however, nourishment is taken into the 
system in greater quantities than is necessary for ordinary 
purposes, the absorbent vessels take it up ; and the fat thus 
made is generally healthy, provided there is a good digestion. 

A common method of fattening fowl is to give them the run 
of a farm-yard, where they thrive upon the offal of the stable 
and other refuse, with perhaps some small regular daily feeds ; 
but at threshing-time, they become fat, and are styled barn- 
door fowls, probably the most delicate and high-flavored of 
all, both from their full allowance of the finest grain, and the 
constant health in which they are kept, by living in the natural 
state, and having the full enjoyment of air and exercise ; or, 
they are confined in coops during a certain number of weeks, 
those fowls which are soonest ready being taken as wanted. 

Fowls may also be fattened to the highest pitch, and yet 
preserved in a healthy state — their flesh being equal in quality 
to that of the barn-door fowl — when confined in feeding- 
houses. These should be at once warm and airy, with earth 
floors, well-raised, and sufficiently capacious to accommodate 
well the number desired. The floor may be slightly littered 
down, the litter being often changed ; and the greatest cleanli- 
ness should be observed. Sandy gravel should be placed in 
several different layers, and often changed. A sufficient 
number of troughs, for both water and food, should be placed 
around, that the fowls may feed with as little interruption as 

possible from each other ; and perches in the same proportion 

469 



150 rOULTRY AND TIIEIU DISEASES. 

should be furnished for those which are inclined to avail tliem- 
selves of them; though the number will be few, after they 
have begun to fatten. This arrangement, however, assists in 
keeping them quiet and contented until that period. Insects 
and animal food forming a part of the natural diet of poultry, 
they are medicinal to them in a weakly state, and the want of 
such food may sometimes impede their thriving. 

The least nutritious articles of food, so far as it can be done 
conveniently, should be fed out first ; afterward, those that 
are more nutritive. Fattening fowls should be kept quiet, and 
suffered to take no more exercise than is necessary for their 
health ; since more exercise than this calls for an expenditure 
of food Avliich does not avail any thing in the process of 
fattening. They should be fed regularly with suitable food, 
and that properly prepared ; and as much should be given 
them as they are able to convert into flesh and fat, without 
waste. The larger the quantity of food which a fattening 
animal can be made to consume daily, with a good appetite, 
or which it can digest thoroughly, the greater will be the 
amount of flesh and fat gained, in proportion to the whole 
quantity of food consumed. 

Substances in which the nutriment is much concentrated 

should be fed witli care. There is danger, especially when 

the bird is first put to feed, that more may be eaten at once 

than the digestive organs can manage. Meal of Indian corn 

is highly nutritive ; and, when properly fed, causes fowls 

to fatten faster than almost any other food. They will not, 

however, bear to be kept exclusively on this article for a great 

length of time. Meal made from the heaviest varieties of corn, 

especially that made from the hard, flinty kinds grown in the 
470 



FATTENING AND SLAUGHTERING. 151 

Northern and Eastern States, is quite too strong for fowls to 
be full-fed upon. Attention should also be paid to the bulk 
of the food given ; since sufficient bulk is necessary to effect a 
proper distending of the stomach, as a necessary condition of 
healthy digestion. 

One siujple mode of fattening, which is adopted by many, is 
the following : Shut the fowls up where they can get no 
gravel; keep corn by them all the time, and also give them 
dough enough once a day ; for drink, give them .skimmed milk ; 
with this feed, they will fatten in ten days ; if kept longer, 
they should have some gravel, or they will fall away. 

Qats ground into meal, and mixed with a little molasses and 
water, barley-meal with sweet milk, and boiled oats, mixed 
with meat, are all excellent for fattening poultry — reference 
being had to time, expense, and quality of flesh. 

In fattening ducks, it must be remembered that their fiesh 
will be found to partake, to a great extent, of the flavor of the 
food on which they have been fattened ; and as they are naturally 
quite indiscriminate feeders, care should be taken, for at least 
a week or so before killing, to confine them to select food. 
Boiled potatoes are very good feeding, and are still better if a 
little grain is mixed with them ; Indian meal is both economical 
and nutritive, but should be used sparingly at first. Some 
recommend butcher's offal ; but, although ducks may be 
fattened on such food to an unusual weight, and thus be 
profitable for the market, their flesh will be rendered rank and 
gross, and not at all fit for the table. 

^o fatten geese, '\i is necessary to give them a little corn 

daily, with the addition of some raw Swedish turnips, carrots, 

maugel-wurtzel leaves, lucerne, tares, cabbage leaves, and 

471 



152 rOULTKY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

lettuces. Barley-meal and water is recommended by some ; 
but full-grown geese that have never been habituated to the 
mixture when young, will occasionally refuse to eat it. 
Cooked potatoes, in small quantities, do no harm ; and, apart 
from the consideration of expense, steeped wheat would pro- 
duce a firstrate delicacy. 

Those who can only afford to bring up one or two, should 
confine them in a crib or some such place, about the beginning 
of July, and feed them as directed, giving them a daily supply 
of clean water for drink. If from a dozen to twenty are kept, 
a large pen of from fifteen to twenty feet square should be 
made, well covered with straw on the bottom, and a covered 
house in a corner for protection against the sun and rain, when 
required ; since exposure to either of these is not good. It 
will be observed that, about noon, if geese are at liberty, they 
will seek some shady spot, to avoid the influence of the sun ; 
and when confined in small places, they have not sufficient 
space for flapping their wings, and drying themselves after 
being wet, nor have they room for moving about so as to keep 
themselves warm. There should be three troughs in the crib: 
one for dry oats ; another for vegetables, which ought always 
to be cut down ; and a third for clean water, of which they 
must always have a plentiful supply. The riper the cabbages 
and lettuces are with which they are supplied the better. 

Slaughtering and Dressing. Both ducks and geese should 

be led out to the pond a few hours before being slaughtered, 

where they will neatly purify and arrange their feathers. The 

common mode of slaughtering the latter — bleeding them from 

the internal parts of the throat — is needlessly slow and 

cruel. 

472 



FATTENING AND SLAUGHTJIRING. 15o 

Fowls for cooking, that are to be sent to a distance, or to 
be kept any time before being served, should be plucked, 
drawn, and dressed immediately after being killed. The 
feathers strip off much more easily and cleanly while the bird 
is yet warm. "When large numbers are to be slaughtered and 
prepared in a short time, the process is expedited by scalding 
the bird in boiling water, when the feathers drop off almost at 
once. Fowls thus treated ai*e, however, generally thought 
inferior in flavor, and are more likely to acquire a taint in 
close, warm weather, than such as are plucked and dressed 
dry.. 

In dressing, all bruises or rupturing of the skin should bo 
avoided, A coarse, half-worn cloth, that is pervious to the 
air, like a wire sieve, and perfectly dry and clean, forms the 
best wrapper. The color of yellow-skinned turkeys — equally 
well-flavored, by the way — is improved for appearance at 
market by wrapping them for twelve or twenty-four hours in 
cloths soaked in cold salt and water, frequently changed. For 
the same purpose, the loose fat is first laid in warm salt and 
water, and afterward in milk and water for two or three hours. 
Some dust with flour, inside and out, any fowls that are to be 
carried far, oi to hang many days before being cooked. 

The oldest and toughest fowls, which are often pronounced 

unfit for eating, thrown away, and wasted, may be made into 

a savory and nutritious dish by jointing, after the bird is 

plucked and drawn, as for a pie ; it should not be skinned. 

Stew it five hours in a close saucepan, with salt, mace, onions, 

or any other flavoring ingredients desired. "When tender, 

turn it cut into a deep dish, so that the meat may be entirely 

covered with the liquor. Let it stand thus in its own jelly for 

473 



154 rOULTHY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

a clay or two ; it may then be served in the shape of a curry, 
a hash, or a pie, and will be found to furrJsh an agreeable re- 
past. 

Old geese, killed in the av.tjran, after they have recovered 
from moulting, and before they have begun to think about the 
breeding time, make excellent meat, if cut into small portions, 
stewed slowly five or six hours with savory condiments, and 
made into pie the next day. By roasting and broiling, the 
large quantity of nutriment contained in the bones and cartil- 
ages is lost, and what might easily be made tender has to be 
swallowed tough. Young geese, as well as the old, are, also, 
often salted and boiled. 



POULTRY-HOUSES. 

The three grand requisites in a poultry hous-e are clecnli- 
ness, dryyiess, and warmth. A simple arrangement for this 
purpose is a shed built against the gable of the house, opposite 
to the part warmed by the kitchen fire, in which are placed 
cross-bars for roosting, with boxes for laying in, or quantities 
of fresh straw. This should always have an opening, to allow 
the poultry-house to be cleansed out, at least once a wse!:. 
Fowls will never thrive long amidst uncleanliness ; and even 
with the utmost care a place where they have been long kept 
becomes tainted, as it is called ; the surface of the ground 
becomes saturated with their exurice, and is therefore no 
longer conducive to health. 

To avoid this effect, some persons in the country frequently 

change the sites of their poultry-houses, to obtain fresh 

ground; while others, who cannot thus change, purify the 

bouses by fumigations of blazing pitch, b}' washing with hot 
474 



POULTRY-HOUSES. 



155 



lime water, and by strewing large quantities of pure sand both 
within and without. Washing the floor every week is a 
necessity ; for which purpose it is advantageous to have the 
house paved either with stones, bricks, or tiles. A good 
flooring, however, and cheaper than either of these, may be 
formed by using a composition of lime and smithy ashes, to- 
gether with the 
riddlings of com- 
mon kitchen ashes; 
these, having been 
all finely broken, 
must be mixed to- 
gether with water, 
put on the floor 
with a mason's 
trowel, and nicely 
smoothed on the eustic poultry-house. 

surface. If this is put on a floor which is in a tolerably dry 
situation, and allowed to harden before being used, it will 
become nearly as solid and compact as stone, and is almost as 
durable. 

The inside of the laying-boxes should be frequently washed 
with hot lime water, to free them from vermin, which greatly 
torment the sitting hens. For the same purpose, poultry 
should always have a heap of dry sand, or fine ashes, laid 
under some covered place or thick tree near their yard, in 
which they may dust themselves ; this being their means of 
ridding themselves of the vermin with which they are an- 
noyed. 

In every establishment for poultry-rearing, tliere ought to 

475 




1'56 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

be some separate crib or cribs, into which to remove fowl 
when laboring under disease ; for, not only are many of the 
diseases to which poultry are liable highly contagious, but 
the sick birds are also regarded with dislike by such as are mi 
health; and the latter will, generally, attack and maltreat 
them, aggravating, at least, their sufferings, if not actually 
depriving them of life. The moment, therefore, that a bird is 
perceived to droop, or appears pining, it should be removed to 
one of these infirmaries. 

Separate pens are also necessary, to avoid quarrelling among 
some of the highly-blooded birds, more particularly the game 
fowl. They are also necessary when different varieties are 
kept, in order to avoid improper or un- 
desirable commixture from accidental cross- 
ing. These lodgings may be most readily 
constructed in rows, parallel to each other ; 
the partitions may be formed of lattice-work, 
A PANCY COOP IN CHINESE bclng thus rathcr ornamental, and the cost 
OR GOTHIC STYLE. ^^ grcctiou but tHfling. Each of these lodg- 
ings should be divided into two compartments, one somewhat 
larger than the other ; one to be close and warm, for the sleep- 
ing-room ; and the other, a large one, airy and open, that the 
birds may enjoy themselves in the daytime. Both must be 
kept particularly dry and clean, and be well protected from 
the weather. 

j^ hen-ladder is an indispensable piece of furniture, though 
frequently absent. This is a sort of ascending scale of perches, 
one a little higher than the other ; not exactly above its pre- 
decessor, but somewhat in advance. By neglecting the use 

of this very simple contrivance, many valuable fowls may be 
47tJ 




POULTRY-HOUSES. 157 

lost or severely injured, by attempting to fly down from their 
roost — an attempt from succeeding in which the birds are 
incapacitated, in consequence of the bulk of their body pre- 
ponderating over the power of their wings. 

Some people allow their fowl to roost abroad all night, in 
all weathers, in trees, or upon fences near the poultry-house. 
This is a slovenly mode of keeping even the humblest live 
stock ; it offers a temptation to thieves, and the health of the 
fowls cannot be improved by their being soaked all night long 
in drenching rain, or having their feet frozen to the branches 
or rails. There is no difficulty in accustoming any sort of 
poultry, except the pea fowl, to regular housing at night. 

It is better that turkeys should not roost in the same house 
with the domestic fowl, as they are apt to be cross to sitting 
and laying hens. 

No poultry-house is what it ought to be, it may be sug- 
gested, in conclusion, unless it is in such a state as to afford 
a lady, without offending her sense of decent propriety, a 
respectable shelter on a showery day. 

477 




In our climate, the disorders to which poultry are liable are, 
comparatively, few in number, and they usually yield to 
judicious treatment. The little attention that has too 
generally been bestowed upon this subject may be accounted 
for from the circumstance that, in an economical point of view, 
the value of an individual fowl is relatively insignificant ; and 
while the ailments of other domesticated animals generally 
claim a prompt and efficient care, the unhappy inhabitants of 
the poultry-yard are too often relieved of their sufferings m 
the mo!?t summary manner. There are reasons, however, 
473 (158) 



ASTHMA. 159 

which will justify a more careful regard in this matter, besides 
the humanity of adding to the comfort of these useful creatures • 
and the attempt to cure, in cases of disease, will often be 
rewarded by their flesh being rendered more palatable, and 
their eggs more wholesome. 

Most of the diseases to which fowls are subject are the 
result of errors in diet or management, and should hive been 
prevented, or may be removed by a change, and the adoption 
of a suitable regimen. When an individual is attaijked, it 
should be forthwith removed, to prevent the contamination 
of the rest of the flock. Nature, who proves a guaiifJian to 
fowls in health, will nurse them in their weakness, and act as 
a most efficient physician to the sick ; and the aim of all 
medical treatment should be to follow the indications |which 
Nature holds out, and assist in the effort which she consitantly 
makes for the restoration of health. 

The more common diseases which afflict poultry w^ill be 
so described that they need not be misapprehended, and\sucb 
remedies suggested as experience has proved to be saluiary ; 
and, taken alphabetically, the first on the list is 



ASTHMA. j 

This common disease seems to differ sufficiently in its 
characteristics to warrant a distinction into two species, i In 
one it appears to be caused by an obstruction of the air-c'ells, 
by an accumulation of phlegm, which interferes with ithe 
exercise of their functions. The. fowl labors for breath, in 
consequence of not being able to take in the usual quant ity 
of air at an inspiration. The capacity of the lungs is there by 
diminished, the lining membrane of the windpipe beconies 



479 






160 I POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

tliickene'iJ, and its minute branches are more or less affected. 
These efjfects may, perhaps, be attributed to the fact that, as 
our pouiltry are originally natives of tropical climates, they 
require f{i more equal temperature than is afforded, except by 
artificial. means, however well they may appear acclimated. 

Another variety of asthma is induced by fright, or undue 
excitemient. It is sometimes produced by chasing fowls to 
catch t'hem, by seizing them suddenly, or by their fighting 
with each other. In these cases, a blood-vessel is often 
rupturejd, and sometimes one or more of the air-cells. The 
symptoMs are, short breathing ; opening of the beak often, and 
for quite a time ; heaving and panting of the chest ; and, in 
case ot a ruptijre of a blood-vessel, a drop of blood appearing 
on thej beak. 

Trejatment. Confirmed asthma is difficult to cure. For 
the diisease in its incipient state, the fowl should be kept 
warm,j and treated with repeated doses of hippo-powder and 
sulph iir, mixed with butter, with the addition of a small quan- 
tity of Cayenne pepper. 



I COSTIVENESS. 

The existence of this disorder will become apparent by 

observing the unsuccessful attempts of the fowl to relieve 

itself. It frequently results from continued feeding on dry 

diet, without access to green vegetables. Indeed, without the 

use of these, or some substitute — such as mashed potatoes — 

coslfiveness is certain to ensue. The want of a sufficient 

supply of good water will also occasion the disease, on ac- 

cou nt of that peculiar structure of the fowl, which renders 
480 



DIARRHCEA. 161 

them unable to void their urine, except in connection with the 
faeces of solid food, and through the same channel. 

Treatment. Soaked bread, with warm skimmed-milk, is a 
mild remedial agent, and will usually suffice. Boiled carrots 
or cabbage are more efficient. A meal of earth-worms is 
sometimes advisable ; and hot potatoes, mixed with bacon-fat, 
are said to be excellent. Castor-oil and burned butter will 
remove the most obstinate cases ; though a clyster of oil, in 
addition, may sometimes be required, in order to effect a cure. 



DIABRHCEA. 

There are times when fowls dung more loosely than at 
others, especially when they have been fed on green or soft 
food ; but this may occur without the presence of disease. 
Should this state, however, deteriorate into a confirmed and 
continued laxity, immediate attention is required to guard 
against fatal effects. The causes of diarrhoea are dampness, 
undue acidity in the bowels, or the pi-esence of irritating matter 
there. 

The symptoms are lassitude and emaciation ; and, in very 
severe cases, the voiding of calcareous matter, white, streaked 
with yellow. This resembles the yolk of a stale e^^, and 
clings to the feathers near the vent. It becomes acrid, from 
the presence of ammonia, and causes inflammation, which 
speedily extends throughout the intestines. 

Treatment. This, of course, depends upon the cause. If 

the disease is brought on by a diet of green or soft food, the 

food must be changed, and water sparingly given ; if it arises 

from undue acidity, chalk mixed with meal is advantageous, 

but rice-flour boluses are most reliable. Alum-water, of 
31 481 



162 POULTRY AND TIIEIH DISEASES. 

moderate strengib, is also beneficial. In cases of bloody Jiux, 
boiled rice and milk, given warm, with a little magnesia, or 
chalk, may be successfully used. 



FEVER. 

The most decided species of fever to which fowls are subject 
occurs at the period of hatching, when the animal heat is often 
so increased as to be perceptible to the touch. A state of 
fever may also be observed when they are abo'ut to lay. This 
is, generally, of small consequence, when the birds are other- 
wise healthy ; but it is of moment, if any other disorder is 
present, since, in such case, the original malady will bo ag- 
gravated. Fighting also frequently occasions fever, Avhich 
sometimes proves fatal. 

The symptoms are an increased circulation of the blood ; ex- 
cessive heat ; and restlessness. 

Treatment. Light food and change of air ; and, if neces- 
sary, aperient medicine, such as castor oil, with a little burned 
butter. 



IISTDIGESTION. 

Cases of indigestion among fowls are common, and deserve 
attention according to the causes from which they proceed. 
A change of food will often produce crojy-sickness, as it is 
called, when the fowl takes but little food, and suddenly loses 
flesh. Suck disease is of little consequence, and shortly 
disappears. When it requires attention at all, all the symp- 
toms will be removed by giving their diet in a warm state. 

Sometimes, however, a fit of indigestion threatens severe 

consequences, especially if long continued. Every effort 

482 



LICE. 



163 



should be made to ascertain the cause, and the remedy must 
be governed by the circumstances of the case. 

The symptoms are heaviness, moping, keeping away from 
the nest, and want of appetite. 

Treatment. Lessen the quantity of food, and oblige the 
fowl to exercise in an open walk. Give some powdered 
cayenne and gentian, 
mixed with the usual 
food. Iron-rust, 
mixed with soft fbod, 
or diffused in water, 
is an excellent tonic, 
and is indicated 
when there is atro- 
phy, or diminution 
of the flesh. It may 
be combined ' with 
oats or grain. Milk- 
warm ale has also a good effect, when added to the diet of 
diseased fowls. 




PBAIRIE HENS. 



LICE. 

The whole feathered tribe seem to be peculiarly liable to be 
infested with lice ; and there have been instances when fowls 
have been so covered in this loathsome manner that the 
natural color of the feathers has been undistinguishable. The 
presence of vermin is not only annoying to poultry, but mate- 
rially interferes with their growth, and prevents their fatten- 
ing. They are, indeed, the greatest drawback to the success 

and pleasure of the poultry fanciers ; and nothing but unre- 

483 



164 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

mitting vigilance will exterminate them, and keep them exter- 
minated. 

Treatment. To attain this, whitewash frequently all the 
parts adjacent to the roosting-pole, take the poles down and run 
them slowly through a fire made of wood shavings, dry weeds, 
or other light waste combustibles. Flour of sulphur, placed 
in a vessel, and set on fire in a close poultry-house, will pene- 
trate every crevice, and effectually exterminate the vermin. 
When a hen comes off with her brood, the old nest should be 
cleaned out, and a new one placed ; and dry tobacco-leaves, 
rubbed to a powder between the hands, and mixed with the 
hay of the nest, will add much to the health of the poultry. 

Flour of sulphur may also be mixed with Indian-meal 
and water, and fed in the proportion of one pound of sulphur 
to two dozen fowls, in two parcels, two days apart. Almost 
any kind of grease, or unctuous matter, is also certain death 
to the vermin of domestic poultry. In the case of very young 
chickens, it should only be used in a warm, sunny day, when 
they should be put into a coop with their mother, the coop 
darkened for an hour or two, and every thing made quiet, 
that they may secure a good rest and nap after the fatigue 
occasioned by greasing them. They should be handled with 
great care, and greased thoroughly ; the hen, also. After 
resting, they may be permitted to come out and bask in the 
sun ; and in a few days they will look sprightly enough. 

To guard against vermin, however, it should not be forgotten 
that cleanliness is of vital importance ; and there must always 
be plenty of slacked lime, dry ashes, and sand, easy of access 

to the fowls, in which they can roll and dust themselves. 

484 



LOSS OF FEATHERS — PIP. 165 

LOSS OF FEATHERS. 

This disease, common to confined fowls, should not be con- 
founded with the natural process of moulting. In this dis- 
eased state, no new feathers come to replace the old, but the 
fowl is left bald and naked ; a sort of roughness also appears 
on the skin ; there is a falling off in appetite, as well as 
moping and inactivity. 

Treatment. As this affection is, in all probability, constitu- 
tional rather than local, external remedies may not always 
prove sufficient. Stimulants, however, applied externally, 
will serve to assist the operation of whatever medicine may be 
given. Sulphur may be thus applied, mixed with lard. 
Sulphur and cayenne, in the proportion of one quarter each, 
mixed with fresh butter, is good to be given internally, and 
will act as a powerful alterative. The diet should be changed ; 
and cleanliness and fresh air are indispensable. 

In diseased moulting, where the feathers stare and fall off, 
till the naked skin appears, sugar should be added to the 
water which the fowls drink, and corn and hemp-seed be 
given. They should be kept warm, and occasionally be 
treated to doses of cayenne pepper. 



prp. 

This disorder, known also as the gapes, is the most common 
ailment of poultry and all domestic birds. It is especially 
the disease of young fowls, and is most prevalent in the 
hottest months, being not only troublesome but frequently 
fatal. 

As to its cause and nature, there has been some diversity 

485 



166 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 

of opinion. Some consider it a cotarrbal inflammation, whicli 
produces a thickening of the membrane lining the nostrils and 
mouth, and particularly the tongue ; others assert that it is 
caused by want of water, or by bad water ; while others 
describe it as commencing in the form of a vesicle on the tip 
of the tongue, which occasions a thickened state of the skin, 
by the absorption of its contents. The better opinion, how- 
ever, is, that the disease is occasioned by the presence of 
worms, or fasciolce, in the windpipe. On the dissection of 
chickens dying with this disorder, the windpipe will be found 
to contain numerous small, red worms, about the size of a 
cambric needle, which, at the first glance, might be mistaken 
for blood-vessels. It is supposed by some that these worms 
continue to grow, until, by their enlai'gement, the windpipe is 
so filled up that the chicken is suffocated. • 

The common symptoms of this malady are the thickened 
state of the membrane of the tongue, particularly toward the 
tip ; the breathing is impeded, and the beak is frequently held 
open, as if the creature were gasping for breath ; the beak 
becomes yellow at its base ; and the feathers on the head 
appear ruffled and disordered ; the tongue is very dry ; the 
appetite is not always impaired ; but yet the fowl cannot eat, 
probably on account of the difficulty which the act lAvolves, 
and sits in a corner, pining in solitude. 

Treatment. Most recommend the immediate removal of 
the thickened membrane, which can be effected by anointing 
the part with butter or fresh cream. If necessary, the scab 
may be pricked with a needle. It wnll also be found beneficial 
to use a pill, composed of equal parts of scraped garlic and 

horse-radish, with as much cayenne pepper as will outweigh 

486 



PIP. 167 

a grain of wheat ; to be mixerl with fresh butter, and given 
e,verj morning ; the fowl to be kept warm. 

If the disease is in an advanced state, shown bj the 
chicken's holding up its head and gaping for want of breath, 
the fowl should be thrown on its back, and while the neck is 
held straight, the bill should be opened, and a quill inserted 
into the windpipe, with a little turpentine. This being 
round, will loosen and destroy a number of small, red worms, 
some of which will be drawn up by the feather, and others 
will be coughed up by the chicken. The operation should be 
repeated the following day, if the gaping continues. If it 
ceases, the cure is effected. 

It is stated, also, that the disease has been entirely prevented 
by mixing a -small quantity of spirits of turpentine with the 
food of fowls ; fi'om five to ten drops, to a pint of meal, to be 
made into a dough. Another specific recommended is to keep 
iron standing in vinegar, and put a little of the liquid in the 
food every few days. 

Some assert that it is promoted by simply scanting fowls in 

their food ; and this upon the ground that chickens which are 

not confined with the hen, but both suffered to run at large 

and collect their own food, are not troubled with this disease. 

There can be little doubt that it is caused by inattention to 

cleanliness in the habits and lodgings of fowls ; and some, 

therefore, think that if the chicken-houses and coops are kept 

clean, and frequently washed with thin whitewash, having 

plenty of salt and brine mixed with it, that it would be 

eradicated. 

487 



168 



POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. 




BOUP. . 

This disease is caused mainly by cold and moisture ; but it 
is often ascribed to improper feeding and want of cleanliness 
and exercise. It affects fowls of all ages, and is either acute 
or chronic ; sometimes commencing suddenly, on exposure ; 
at others gradually, as the consequence of neglected colds, or 

damp weather 

Chronic roup 
has been 
known to ex- 
tend through 
two years. 
The most 
•SWANS. prominent 

symptoms are difficult and noisy breathing and gaping, 
terminating in a rattling in the throat ; the head swells, and is 
feverish ; the eyes are swollen, and the eye-lids appear livid ; 
the sight decays, and sometimes total blindness ensues ; there 
are discharges from the nostrils and mouth, at first thin and 
limpid, afterward thick, purulent, and fetid. In this stage, 
which resembles the glanders in horses, the disease becomes 
infectious. 

As secondary symptoms, it may be noticed that the appetite 
fails, except for drink ; the crop feels hard ; the feathers are 
staring, ruffled, and without the gloss that appears in health ; 
the fowl mopes by itself and seems to suffer much pain. 

Treatment. The fowls should be kept warm, and have 

plenty of water and scalded bran, or other light food. When 

488 



ROUP. 169 

chronic, change of food and air is advisable. The ordinary 
remedies — such as salt dissolved in water — are inefficacious. 
A solution of sulphate of zinc, as an eye-water, is a valuable 
cleansing application. Rue-pills, and a decoction of rue, as a 
tonic, have been administered with apparent benefit. 

The following is recommended : of powdered gentian and 
Jamaica ginger, each one part ; Epsom salts, one and a half 
parts ; and flour of sulphur, one part ; to be made up with 
butter, and given every morning 

The following method of treatment is practised by some of 
the most successful poulterers in the country • As soon as dis- 
covered, if in warm weather, remove the infected fowls to 
some well-venj;ilated apartment, or yard ; if in winter, to some 
warm place ; then give a dessert-spoonful of castor-oil ; wash 
their heads with warm Castile-soap suds, and let them remain 
till next morning fasting. Scald for them Indian-meal, adding 
two and a half ounces of Epsom salts for ten hens, or in pro- 
portion for a less or larger number ; give it warm, and repeat 
the dose in a day or two, if they do not recover. 

Perhaps, however, the best mode of dealing with roup and 
all putrid affections is as follows : Take of finely pulverized, 
fresh-burnt charcoal, and of new yeast, each three parts ; of 
pulverized sulphur, two parts ; of flour, one part ; of water, a 
sufficient quantity ; mix well, and make into two doses, of the 
size of a hazel-nut, and give one three times a day. Cleanli- 
ness is no less necessary than warmth; and it will sometimes 
be desirable to bathe the eyes and nostrils with warm milk 

and water, or suds, as convenient. 

489 



/ 



170 POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASEa 

4 

"WOUNDS AND SORES. 

Fowls are exposed to wounds from many sources. In their 
frequent encounters with each other, they often result ; the 
poultry-house is besieged by enemies at night, and, in spite 
of all precaution, rats, weasels, and other animals will assault 
the occupants of the roost, or nest, to their damage. These 
wounds, if neglected, often degenerate into painful and danger- 
ous ulcers. 

When such injuries occur, cleanliness is the first step toward 
a cure. The wound should be cleared from all foreign matter, 
washed with tepid milk and water, and excluded as far as 
possible from the air. The fowl should be removed from its 
companions, which, in such cases,- seldom or never show any 
sympathy, but, on the contrary, are always ready to assault 
the invalid, and aggravate the injury. Should the wound not 
readily heal, but ulcerate, it may be bathed with alum-water. 
The ointment of creosote is said to be effectual, even when the 
ulcer exhibits a fungous character, or proud Jlesh is present. 
Ulcers may also be kept clean, if dressed with a little lard, or 
washed with a weak solution of sugar of lead ; if they are 
indolent, they may be touched with blue-stone. 

When severe /rac^ures occur to the limbs of fowls, the best 

course, undoubtedly, to pursue — unless they are very valuable 

— is to kill them at once, as an act of humanity. When, 

however, it is deemed worth while to preserve them, splints 

may be used, when practicable. Great cleanliness must be 

observed ; the diet should be reduced ; and every precaution 

taken against the inflammation,' which is sure to supervene. 

When it is established, cooling lotions — such as warm milk 

and water — may be applied. 
490 



II C II 



